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The relationship between competitive strategies and product quality

Daniel I. Prajogo
Department of Management, Monash University, Australia
Abstract
Purpose The purpose of this paper is to examine the underlying strategic intent of quality performance. Specically, the study aimed to examine the individual impact of differentiation and cost leadership as well as their interaction effect on quality performance. Design/methodology/approach This study employed a data set drawn from 102 managers of Australian manufacturing rms. Multiple regression analysis with moderating effect was used for analysing the relationship between the competitive strategies and quality performance. Findings The ndings indicated that product quality was predicted by differentiation strategy, but not cost leadership strategy. However, the effect of differentiation on quality was moderated by cost leadership whereby the higher the cost leadership, the stronger the effect. Research limitations/implications The small sample size which was dominated by small-to-medium sized rms (SMEs) was the major limitation of the study. The sample size and distribution also inhibited the comparison of the results between industry sectors. Practical implications The results contribute to a better understanding on how quality can be effectively employed as a base for realising competitive strategy. In particular, the positive interaction between differentiation and cost leadership in predicting quality performance suggests the synergy between the two as well as supporting the cumulative view of competitive strategies. Originality/value By testing the interaction effect of differentiation and cost leadership in predicting quality performance, this study advances the previous works on the area which looked at the relationship between quality performance and each of the two competitive strategies separately. Keywords Competitive strategy, Product quality, Manufacturing industries, Australia Paper type Research paper

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Introduction Much has been written about quality as a source of competitive advantage in the last decade; however, little attention has been given to examine how quality performance can be effectively employed as a base for realising rms competitive strategy (Gale and Klavans, 1985). More importantly, literature has shown conicting arguments concerning the strategic orientation that drives quality performance, particularly between differentiation and cost leadership. One group of scholars suggest that quality ts differentiation strategy, whilst the others hold that quality is positively related to cost reduction which would t the objective of cost leadership strategy (Morgan and Piercy, 1996). Further to this, linking quality with both differentiation and cost leadership strategies leads to the issue of compatibility between both strategic orientations (Hill, 1988). In light of the above, it is important to examine the link between quality performance and the two competitive strategies cost leadership and differentiation to provide a better understanding of the extent to which quality can serve the

Industrial Management & Data Systems Vol. 107 No. 1, 2007 pp. 69-83 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 0263-5577 DOI 10.1108/02635570710719061

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underlying intent of each of the two competitive strategies. In order to resolve this inconsistency, this paper presents an empirical study that was designed to serve two purposes. First, it sought to examine the effect of the adoption of different strategic competitive strategies differentiation and cost leadership in predicting quality performance. Second, it considered the co-alignment between differentiation and cost leadership which has been a contentious issue in predicting quality performance. Literature review Cost leadership and differentiation When outlining the idea of generic competitive strategies, Porter (1980) holds that cost leadership and differentiation signify two fundamentally different approaches to achieve competitive advantage. Cost leadership strategy seeks to achieve above-average returns over competitors through low prices by driving all components of activities towards reducing costs. To attain such a relative cost advantage, rms will put considerable effort in controlling and production costs, increasing their capacity utilization, controlling materials supply or product distribution, and minimising other costs, including R&D and advertising. In contrast, differentiation strategy aims to build up competitive advantage by offering unique products which are characterized by valuable features, such as quality, innovation, and customer service. Differentiation can be based on the product itself, the delivery system, and a broad range of other factors. With these differentiation features, rms provide additional values to customers which will reward them with a premium price. The relationship between these two generic strategies has been debated since their origin. Porter (1985) originally suggested that they are fundamentally inconsistent to each other, and therefore, rms must make a choice between them. That said, he did note that cost leaders can only achieve superior performance if the rm provides an acceptable level of value to buyers; that is meeting the buyers expectations. Similarly, differentiators can achieve a competitive advantage if the premium price charged to customers is not offset by the cost of funding the differentiation features. However, he strongly stressed the incompatibility between the two, for example, by suggesting that differentiation is usually costly. He also used the phrase stuck in the middle to emphasise that the combination of cost leadership and differentiation will unlikely to produce a sustainable competitive advantage. This argument has been opposed by a number of scholars who asserted that it is not only possible for rms to combine both strategies but also that such combination will produce competitive advantage (Hill, 1988; Miller, 1992). Almost a decade later, Porter (1991) revised his earlier argument. His amended view was that:
. . . competitive advantages can be divided into two basic types: lower cost than rivals, or the ability to differentiate and command a premium price that exceeds the extra cost of doing so. Any superior performing rm has achieved one type of advantage, the other, or both (p. 101).

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Quality as competitive advantage By adopting a generic competitive strategy, rms will translate the underlying intent of the strategy into various operational performance measures. These include quality, innovation, service, brand, exibility, and price. This study focused on quality as

a strategic performance as a reection of a competitive strategy of the rms. Over the past two decades, quality has been heralded as the source of competitive advantage (Forker et al., 1996; Hans and Will, 1993; Raghunathan et al., 1997). Quality has gone through an evolution process, from an operational level to a strategic level, and some scholars have given strong support for the view that quality must be adopted as a strategic goal in organizations (Adam, 1992; Garvin, 1988; Schonberger, 1992). Despite the arguments concerning the importance of quality and its role in determining rms competitive position, only few papers have provided conceptual understanding and empirical evidence of a link between quality and competitive strategy (Chang et al., 2003; Morgan and Piercy, 1996). This issue will be discussed in more detail shortly. The link between quality and competitive strategy As noted earlier, literature has presented inconsistent arguments concerning the link between differentiation strategy, cost leadership strategy, and product quality (Belohlav, 1993). The core of these arguments lies in the t between quality and either differentiation or cost leadership. Each of these is outlined below. Porter (1980) categorised quality as a primary basis for differentiation strategy as rms adopting this strategy will uniquely position their products based on several attributes leading to a premium price. He specically suggested that quality creates a differentiation point which separates, even insulates, a rm from competitive rivalry by creating customer loyalty as well as lowering price sensitivity. In this way, the rm will be protected from competitive forces that reduce protability. Similarly, Philips et al. (1983) noted that among the many sources of differentiation, quality was the approach that most often characterizes a differentiation strategy. They also noted the conventional wisdom which suggests an incompatibility between high quality products and low cost for the reason that quality usually requires more expensive materials and processes, which is not supported under a cost leadership regime. This school of thought, however, does not totally negate the link between high quality and low cost. Rather, it suggests that high quality products will eventually result in lower costs after the rm attaining benets on economies of scale via higher market share (Kroll et al., 1999; Philips et al., 1983). A second line of argument supports the link between quality and low cost. The strongest support for this notion comes from total quality management (TQM) proponents. Deming (1982), with his quality improvement chain concept, argued that organizations can enhance their competitiveness by improving quality. This will result in cost reduction through eliminating scrap and rework. The concept of quality costs developed by Crosby (1979) and Juran and Gyrna (1993) provide explanations on the link between quality performance and cost reduction. The idea of quality cost suggests that any defective products (i.e. poor quality) will incur costs, commonly labelled as failure costs, which include the costs of rework and scrap. In the light of the link between quality performance and quality costs, rms need to devote their efforts on controlling processes to minimise defects in their outputs, which will also reduce the failure costs. In turn, this reduction will result in lower production costs and overall operation costs (Ardalan et al., 1992; Millar, 1999). This is because the improvement of quality performance will not only impact on one particular functional area (i.e. production) but also inter-functional areas within organisations (Mandal, 2000).

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The inclusion of activity based costing as part of TQM techniques (Beheshti, 2004; Hunt, 1993; Montes et al., 2003; Ross, 1995) further indicates the link between cost control (which characterises cost leadership strategy) and quality. Several empirical studies have exemplied the link between quality performance and cost reduction. For example, Maani et al. (1994) showed that quality performance (in terms of scrap, rework, and customer complaints) not only has a favorable impact on the operational variables (i.e. production cost, on-time delivery, WIP levels, worker idle time, lead time, productivity), but that its impact will also be apparent at the business performance level (i.e. ROS, ROA, sales volume, market share). The arguments for quality costs have been extended to the point where rms can achieve better nancial performance by reducing failure costs rather than by improving sales (Harrington, 1987). This was evidenced in the 1980s when the lower price and higher quality of the Japanese products ooded global markets which had previously been dominated by Western companies (Raisinghani et al., 2005) This causal link between quality and cost, therefore, is different from that held in a classical economics theory, as was noted earlier. Here, quality is considered as directly inverse to cost. This seems to be compatible with a cost leadership strategy that seeks the lowest possible unit cost in production. The chain of reactions starts with quality improvement which results in cost reduction, which results in rms having the opportunity to offer high quality with low prices. In this way, rms will be rewarded with higher market share and a better competitive position in the market (Deming, 1982). In essence, this school of thought holds that there is no conict between quality and cost as opposed the traditional view which suggests that higher quality means higher costs (Fawcett et al., 2000; Luchs, 1986). Aside from the opposing arguments outlined above, several scholars have suggested the unication of differentiation and cost leadership brought by quality. Belohlav (1993), for example, argued that attaining high quality performance allow rms to pursue not only a differentiation strategy, but also a cost leadership strategy. He further suggested that quality bridges the two different perspectives of strategy into one dimension called the value dimension. From a theoretical point of view, this argument allows the compatibility between cost leadership and differentiation strategies which has been extensively debated in strategic management literature (Hill, 1988). Moreover, it is consistent with the demand for pursuing cumulative dimensions of performance (Corbett and van Wassenhove, 1993; Flynn and Flynn, 2004; Flynn et al., 1999; Noble, 1995). Specically, Reed et al. (1996) show how quality simultaneously encompasses both differentiation and cost leadership. They argue that by focusing on customer needs, quality is concerned with providing better products that satisfy customers needs. This is associated with differentiation strategy. At the same time, by focusing on internal processes, quality also leads organizations to reduce cost as a result of the elimination of defects and waste. This makes it compatible to cost leadership strategy. The implication of this notion is that competing on quality will provide rms with double advantages by providing customers with both differentiated products and lower costs (Gale and Klavans, 1985; Ho et al., 2005; Reitsperger et al., 1993). Given these three key arguments, it is hypothesised in the current study that quality performance is predicted by differentiation strategy, cost leadership strategy and a combination of both strategies. As such, the following three hypotheses are postulated:

H1. There is a positive relationship between differentiation strategy and quality performance. H2. There is a positive relationship between cost leadership strategy and quality performance. H3. There is a positive interaction between cost leadership and differentiation strategy in predicting quality performance. Research method Sample and procedures Empirical data was obtained via a survey of 1,000 managers. The majority of these managers held senior position within their companies and had knowledge of past and present organizational practices relating to quality and innovation. Participants were selected randomly from Australian companies in both manufacturing and non-manufacturing sectors. Only one site (or plant) per organization was included in the sample. Of the 1,000 questionnaires originally sent out, 150 were returned to sender unmarked, which reduced the population size to 850. Of this 850, 194 surveys were returned with answers. This constituted an overall response rate of 22 per cent. As the focus of this study was on manufacturing sectors, all surveys returned from non-manufacturing organizations were discounted. This reduced the sample size by a further 48 per cent, leaving a total sample size of 102. Of the 102 companies included in the nal sample, 93 per cent were small-to-medium sized enterprises, employing 500 employees or less. Approximately, 60 per cent of the sample were companies with less than 100 employees. In terms of the positions of the respondents who represented these organizations, more than 65 per cent were either quality managers or production/operations managers and 25 per cent were senior managers (either general managers or managing directors). The remaining respondents held positions in either nance, marketing, human resources, and administration. The research instrument comprises three measures that were derived from previous studies on business strategy and TQM. Perceptual measures were used to gauge the level of strategy adopted in the rm and the rms performance using ve-point Likert scale as outlined below. Competitive strategy measures The competitive strategy measure comprised of selected items from the scale developed by Miller (1988). The reason for this choice was that the scale included both attitudinal and behavioural aspects of differentiation and cost leadership strategies. The original competitive strategy scale by Miller was altered slightly for the purpose of this study, by excluding any items that were not measured via a Likert-scale. Additionally, items that were purely quantitative (e.g. R&D expenditure and sales) were excluded post-hoc due to difculties in obtaining responses. The three-item differentiation strategy measure assessed the use of major and frequent product innovations, product novelty, speed of innovation, and the innovative orientation of the rm. Items relating to more radical innovations, such as undo competitors and high-risk R&D projects, were excluded as they were not relevant to

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the quality focus of this study. Whilst quality is related to innovation, it is more related towards incremental than radical innovation (Prajogo and Sohal, 2001). The cost leadership scale comprises of two items measuring the extent of price-cutting, expenditure minimization and cost control within the rm. This is similar to the content of the scale used by Fuentes et al. (2006). Most importantly, it is consistent with Porters (1980, p. 35) description of this strategy, as the:
. . . aggressive construction of efcient scale facilities, vigorous pursuit of cost reduction from experience, tight cost and overhead control, avoidance of marginal customers accounts and cost minimisation in areas like R&D, service, sales force, advertising and so on.

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The other items in Millers scale of cost leadership were not considered as truly reective of cost leadership. For example, timid and incremental behaviours in decision-making do not necessarily constitute cost leadership strategy. Quality performance measure In this study, quality performance is also considered to be a multidimensional measure. The scale used by Ahire et al. (1996) was adopted for its content validity, construct validity, and reliability. The scale comprised of four items reecting dimensions of quality performance: reliability, performance, durability, and conformance to specication. These items were derived from Garvins (1984) quality dimensions. As Garvin has been acknowledged as one of the authorities in the area of quality management, this establishes the content validity of these items. Ahire et al. (1996) reports strong validity for the scale, with several goodness of t indices and a Cronbachs a of 0.92. Compared to other constructs mentioned above, this scale has superiority in terms of validity and reliability compared to other studies (Dow et al., 1999; Grandzol and Gershon, 1998). In terms of the data collection approach, the construct used perceptual data where the respondents were asked to assess their organizational performance relative to competitors in their industry (Ahire et al., 1996). Whilst this approach may appear somewhat inferior because of the potential self-perceptual bias, it can overcome the problem of inter-industry differences as respondents are asked to assess these quality indicators in comparison to the major competitors in the industry (Dow et al., 1999). Data analysis Scale validity and reliability To check the validity and reliability of the three measures, the method employed by Flynn et al. (1994), Samson and Terziovski (1999), and Meyer and Collier (2001) was followed. Unidimensionality of the three measures was assessed via principal component analysis with varimax rotation. All items loaded strongly (. 0.5) on their appropriate factors which supported their unidimensionality (Hair et al., 1998). The strong factor loadings also indicate convergent validity for the three scales (Anderson and Gerbing, 1988). The discriminant validity of the three scales was tested by pairing each of the scales and subjecting them to conrmatory factor analysis (CFA). Two models of CFA were run with the rst model allowing the correlation between the two scales to be estimated (unconstrained), and the second model setting the correlation between the two constructs to 1 (constrained). The difference of the x2 value of the two models in each pair was compared to 6.64 to test if the two scales

were statistically different at p , 0.01. With three scales, the number of possible combinations between them was also three. Thus, three pairs of discriminant validity tests were run, and the results (not reported here) showed signicant differences between all pairs at p , 0.01. The reliability analysis was conducted by calculating the Cronbachs a, with each of the three measures exceeding the 0.6 threshold required of exploratory studies (Nunnally, 1978). No item was deleted during the validation process. The nal results of construct validity and reliability tests of the 11 constructs are reported in Table I. Once the factor analysis was completed, factor scores were calculated to provide estimates for each of the three measures. Bivariate correlation Pearson correlations were performed as a preliminary analysis on the relationship between differentiation, cost leadership, and quality. The results are presented in Table II. Differentiation had no statistically signicant relationship with cost leadership with Pearson r close to 0. This suggests that whilst the two strategic intents are different, they are not antagonistic to each other. This supports what Porter suggested that as cost leaders could not ignore the bases of differentiation, so, too differentiators could not ignore their cost position so as to not lead them into inferior cost position in the market. The weak correlation between the two strategies also minimised the potential problem of multicolinearity when they were subjected to regression analysis in the next stage of analysis (Tabachnick and Fidell, 2001). Differentiation strategy was also shown to be signicantly related to quality performance ( p , 0.01, Pearson r 0.44), whilst cost leadership, however, did not show a statistically signicant relationship with quality performance ( p . 0.05 and Pearson r 0.00).

Competitive strategies and product quality 75

Factor Differentiation Cost leadership Product quality

Items Major and frequent product innovations Product novelty or speed of innovation Growth-, innovation-, and development-oriented Price cutting and minimization of expenditures Cost centres and xing standard costs are used Product performance Conformance to specications Reliability Durability

Factor loading 0.88 0.87 0.86 0.86 0.86 0.84 0.80 0.90 0.84

Cronbachs a 0.84 0.63 0.86 Table I. Scale validity and reliability

V1 Differentiation (V1) Cost Leadership (V2) Product quality (V3) Notes: N 102; * *p , 0.01 1.00 2 0.04 0.44 * *

V2 1.00 0.00

V3

1.00

Table II. Correlation analysis

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Multiple regression analysis Hierarchical multiple regression analysis (MRA) was performed to further test the relationships revealed in the correlation analysis as well as examining the interaction effect between two competitive strategies in predicting quality performance. Both differentiation and cost leadership were treated as independent variables and quality as a dependent variable. Organisational size (in terms of number of employees) was included in the equation as a control variable as previous studies have shown it to affect quality performance (Ahire and Golhar, 1996; Brah et al., 2002). The interaction effect was represented by the product term between differentiation and cost leadership. In order to generate a standardized regression model when an interaction term is present, all variables were converted into z-scores prior to analysis (Tabachnick and Fidell, 2001). Three regression models were run in a hierarchical order. The rst step only included control variable (i.e. size) as an independent variable, the second step was to add control variable and main effects (i.e. differentiation and cost leadership), and the third step was to further add the interaction (i.e. product term) between differentiation and cost leadership. The results are presented in Table III. As shown in model 1, size did not show a signicant effect on quality performance. In model 2, differentiation showed a signicant effect on quality (b 0.43, p , 0.01) whilst cost leadership did not (b 0.05, p . 0.05). This conrms the results of the correlation analysis (Table II). Therefore, H1 is supported, whilst H2 is not supported. The explained variance (R 2) of model 2 was 20 per cent, thus showing a 19 per cent increase from model 1 at a signicance level of 0.01. This was unique effect over and above the variance contributed by size. In model 3, the interaction between differentiation and cost leadership showed a signicant effect on quality ( p , 0.05, b 0.20). The increment explained variance (R 2) was 24 per cent, hence increasing 4 per cent from model 2 at a signicance level of 0.05. This indicates an interaction effect between differentiation and cost leadership in determining quality performance; hence, supporting H3. The positive sign of the interaction effect indicates that when cost leadership is high, the positive relationship between differentiation and quality performance is stronger. The interaction effect is shown in Figure 1. The effect of differentiation on product quality was illustrated with the slope of the line. In the case of low score of cost leadership, the line was nearly at, indicating a very low effect. On the other hand, when cost leadership is high, the slope was steep, indicating strong effect.

Predictors Size Differentiation Cost leadership Differentiation cost leadership R 2 (explained variance) DR 2

Model 1 p-value 0.23

Model 2 p-value 0.24 0.00 * * 0.57

Model 3 p-value 0.24 0.00 * * 0.55 0.02 *

2 0.12

2 0.11 0.43 0.05 0.20 0.19 * *

0.01

Table III. Hierarchical MRA

2 0.11 0.38 0.06 0.20 0.24 0.04 *

Notes: N 102 rms; *p , 0.05, * * p , 0.01; b: standardised regression coefcient

2 high cost

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low cost

1 Product quality

2 3 3 2 1 0 Differentiation 1 2 3

Figure 1. Interaction effect between differentiation and cost leadership in predicting quality performance

Discussion and implication of the ndings Two major inferences can be drawn from the results in terms of how quality is linked to a competitive strategy. First, the nding did not support the link between quality and cost leadership strategy despite arguments supporting the relationship between quality and cost reduction noted earlier. However, a closer look at the nature of the link between quality and cost suggests that this nding is not surprising. For example, while holding the inverse link between quality and cost, Deming (1982) sternly warned that solely focusing on low cost will undermine rms commitment to produce high quality products. In particular, he was strongly against the policy of creating competition among suppliers and changing suppliers frequently in order to press the price of supplied material down. This policy, he argued, had been responsible for rms producing poor quality products (Deming, 1986). Therefore, what Deming tried to argue was that cost reduction is a by-product of quality, not the opposite. Another explanation for this nding can be derived from the concept of quality cost. As summarized by Hackman and Wageman (1995, p. 310):
. . . the fundamental premise of TQM is that the costs of poor quality (such as inspection, rework, lost customers, and so on) are far greater than the costs of developing processes that produce high-quality products and services.

This notion entails that reduction in (failure) costs requires rms to invest in prevention and appraisal costs which will result in the improvement of quality performance. Thus, rms cannot simply reduce costs at all costs. Further to this, it is important to differentiate low cost and low price although the two often relate to each other. However, in the context of quality, whilst quality is associated with low cost, it is not economy product (Gale and Klavans, 1985). High quality products can be sold at a premium price. With low cost of production, prot margins are increased. This allows rms to perform above average.

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The second inference relates to the nding that, cost leadership moderates the relationship between differentiation and quality performance. In other words, quality is a realisation of cost-conscious differentiation strategy. This is because, by pursuing quality, rms not only offer products which are better (i.e. different) from competitors in their performance, but they also produce products at a relatively lower cost. On the external side, quality in terms of performance, reliability, and durability serves differentiation strategy. These aspects of quality are important in determining customers perceptions on the product. On the internal side, quality in terms of conformance to specication or low failure costs attends cost leadership strategy. Several studies support this notion as they distinguished these two aspects of quality (i.e. quality by design and quality by conformance) and showed the double-impact of quality on organisational performance. Quality by design is positively related to customer satisfaction, whilst quality by conformance positively affects low cost (Forza and Filippini, 1998; Fynes and Voss, 2001). The synergy between external differentiation and internal cost leadership provides rms with exibility to select the scheme of competition they want to pursue by charging premium price with higher quality or offering lower price with relatively equal quality level to competitors. This issue is particularly important when considering the industry life cycle. Meirovich (2006) argued that as an industry grows into maturity, customer needs and products attributes are better tied and customers become more familiar with industry products. As a result, the role of design quality diminishes. At the same time, as more customers enter the market, the volume of products usage increases. At this point, rms have to deal with large production volume and the focus then shifts into maintaining a high degree of conformance. Specically, he stressed that in the maturity and decline stages it is not possible to dene cut-and-dried priority between the two quality components (p. 211). By and large, the ndings support the argument that quality allows the pursuit of differentiation and cost leadership strategies simultaneously. In particular, the ndings support the notion that quality unies these two different strategies. This is in line with the assertion that quality allows rms to accumulate multifaceted competitive advantage which is increasingly demanded by the severe competition of today (Belohlav, 1993). Conclusion, limitations, and future research This study has shown that quality was primarily predicted by differentiation strategy. This relationship, however, is moderated by cost leadership strategy. This result reconciles various arguments concerning the link between the three variables. The author acknowledges the limitations of using perceptual measures of company performance. That said, this method has been found to moderately correlate with more objective measures of performance (Curkovic et al., 2000). Still, as Ketokivi and Schroeder (2004) suggested, a careful interpretation and generalization of the results needs to be taken when using perceptual data to measure rms performance. This study could be furthered in several ways. First, future studies can segregate different dimensions of quality (Chang et al., 2003; Forker et al., 1996) and examine the relationship between these dimensions to different strategies (Sousa and Voss, 2002). Second, future studies can examine the contingency factors which drive the choice of the strategic intent and performance, particularly in different business environments.

Specically, analysis can be done to examine the impact of the t between environment, competitive strategies, and quality performance in determining business performance. Addressing this issue can be done by comparing the relationships between strategy and quality in various industry or product sectors (Jabnoun et al., 2003; Sousa and Voss, 2001; Vokurka and Davis, 2004). The issue of maturity can also be applied at rms level by examining the effect of rms age on its strategy and quality performance (Madu and Kuei, 1995; Sureshchandar et al., 2003). Finally, future studies can improve the balance of the proportion of organisational size which in this study was dominated by SMEs. This is because not only size can affect performance, but it also inuences the strategic choice of the rm (Davis and Vokurka, 2005), and, perhaps, moderates the relationship between strategy and performance.
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. .

Price cutting and minimization of expenditures is our very important strategy. Cost centres and xing standard costs by analysing variances for cost control is used frequently throughout the rm instead of only rarely or for a small part of operations.

Competitive strategies and product quality 83

Product quality Relative to the major competitors in our industry (1 worst in industry, 3 average, 5 best in industry): . The performance of our product is . . . . The reliability of our products is . . . . The durability of our products is . . . . The conformance to specication of our products is . . .

Corresponding author Daniel I. Prajogo can be contacted at: daniel.prajogo@buseco.monash.edu.au

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