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K Rating of Transformers
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supplying Harmonic Rich Loads
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Losses in Transformers
No-load loss (iron loss)
energy consumed in eddy current and hysteresis loss
present 100% of the time
Load losses
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Load losses
Resistive loss (copper loss)
dependent on square of load current
important only during peak load periods
Eddy current loss
Distribution transformer efficiency standards
HD 428 (538)
Load Losses for Distribution Transformers No-Load Losses for Distribution Transformers
RATED
POWER
OIL-FILLED (HD428) UP TO 24kV
2)
DRY TYPE
(HD538)
OIL-FILLED (HD428) UP TO 24kV
2)
DRY TYPE
(HD538)
LIST A LIST B LIST C 12kV
PRIMARY
3)
LIST A LIST B LIST C 12kV
PRIMARY
3)
kVA W W W W W W W W
50 1,100 1,350 875 N/A 190 145 125 N/A
100 1,750 2,150 1,475 2,000 320 260 210 440
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Source: CENELEC
100 1,750 2,150 1,475 2,000 320 260 210 440
160 2,350 3,100 2,000 2,700 460 375 300 610
250 3,250 4,200 2,750 3,500 650 530 425 820
400 4,600 6,000 3,850 4,900 930 750 610 1,150
630 /4%
1)
6,500 8,400 5,400 7,300 1,300 1,030 860 1,500
630 /6% 6,750 8,700 5,600 7,600 1,200 940 800 1,370
1000 10,500 13,000 9,500 10,000 1,700 1,400 1,100 2,000
1600 17,000 20,000 14,000 14,000 2,600 2,200 1,700 2,800
2500 26,500 32,000 22,000 21,000 3,800 3,200 2,500 4,300
Full load losses in a 100kVA C-C transformer
12%
Winding
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88%
Magnetic
Total loss = 1685 W
Full load losses in a 100kVA C-C transformer
9%
12% Resistance
Magnetic
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79%
Magnetic
Eddy Current
Total loss = 1685 W
Transformers supplying harmonic loads must be
appropriately de-rated.
Harmonic currents, being of higher frequency,
cause increased magnetic losses in the core and
increased eddy current and skin effect losses in
Effect of harmonics on transformers
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increased eddy current and skin effect losses in
the windings.
Triple-n harmonic currents circulate in delta
windings, increasing resistive losses, operating
temperature and reducing effective load capacity.
Current waveform for a typical Personal Computer
Desktop System
0.0000
0.5000
1.0000
1.5000
2.0000
0 90 180 270 360
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)
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-2.0000
-1.5000
-1.0000
-0.5000
0 90 180 270 360
Degrees
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)
Desktop System
0.3000
0.4000
0.5000
0.6000
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)
Harmonic profile of a typical Personal Computer
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0.0000
0.1000
0.2000
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Harmonic
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)
Typical harmonic profile - six-pulse controller
Six pulse bridge - harmonic current
15
20
25
%
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0
5
10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Harmonic number
%
Increased Eddy current losses in transformers
2
h h
1 h
2
h ef eh
h I P P
max

=
=
=
Increase in eddy current loss can be calculated by:
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where:
P
eh
is the total eddy current loss
P
ef
is the eddy current loss at fundamental
frequency
h is the harmonic order
I
h
is the RMS current at harmonic h as a
percentage of rated fundamental current
K-Rating of Transformers
Two rating or de-rating systems for transformers:-
American system, established by UL and
manufacturers, specifies harmonic capability of
transformer - known as K factor.
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transformer - known as K factor.
European system, developed by IEC, defines
de-rating factor for standard transformers -
known as factor K.
K-Rating of Transformers - US System
2
h h
1 h
2
h
h I K
max

=
=
=
First, calculate the K factor of the load according to:
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1 h=
where:
h is the harmonic order
I
h
is the RMS current at h in per unit of rated load current
Desktop System
0.3000
0.4000
0.5000
0.6000
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)
K-Rating of Transformers - US System
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For this typical PC load, the K factor is 11.6
(See IEE 1100-1992 for a worked example)
0.0000
0.1000
0.2000
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Harmonic
Full load losses in a 100kVA C-C transformer
41%
53%
Resistance
Magnetic
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6%
Magnetic
Eddy Current
Total loss = 3245 W
K-Rating of Transformers - US System
Next, select a transformer with a higher K rating:
standard ratings are 4, 9, 13, 20, 30, 40 and 50.
NB - for non K-rated transformers:
The K factor describes the increase in eddy current
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The K factor describes the increase in eddy current
losses, not total losses.
Eddy current losses at the fundamental are normally
around 10 % of the resistive losses, so that a load K
factor of 11.6 would require de-rating to 70 % load.
K-Rating of Transformers - European System
In Europe, the transformer de-rating factor is calculated
according to the formulae in BS 7821 Part 4. The factor
K is given by:
5 . 0
2
2
2
1
1
1
(
(

|
|

\
|
|
|

\
|
|

\
|
+
+ =

=
+
N n
n
n
q
I
I
n
I
I
e
e
K
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2
1
1
(

\
|

\
\
+

+ n
I I e
e is ratio of eddy current loss (50 Hz) to resistive loss
n is the harmonic order
q is dependent on winding type and frequency,
typically 1.5 to 1.7
K-Rating of Transformers - European System
Desktop System
0.3000
0.4000
0.5000
0.6000
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)
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For the same PC load, the de-rating factor is 78%
0.0000
0.1000
0.2000
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Harmonic
K Factor
10
12
14
16
Harmonic Diversity - K Factor
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0
2
4
6
8
1 2 5 10 20 41
No of Units (pairs)
K

F
a
c
t
o
r
K-Rating - Calculation software
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Full load losses in a 100kVA C-C transformer
41%
53%
Resistance
Magnetic
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6%
Magnetic
Eddy Current
Total loss = 3245 W
C
P
P
t temp Working
f
k
= == = = == = = == = 173 93 . 1 90
| || |

| || |

\ \\ \
| || |


= == =
10
2
t
T time Life
Effect of additional losses on life-time
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( (( ( ) )) )
years T time Life
f
f k
P
P P
t
13 . 0 2 40 2
3 . 8
10
= == = = == = = == =

| || |
| || |
| || |
| || |
| || |

| || |





\ \\ \
| || |



where T is working temperature at rated fundamental power, P
f
,, P
k
is the total
power and T is the rated life-time in years
80% load losses in a 100kVA C-C transformer
39%
51%
Resistance
Magnetic
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10%
Magnetic
Eddy Current
Total loss = 2156 W
C
P
P
t temp Working
f
k
= == = = == = = == = 115 28 . 1 90
| || |

| || |

\ \\ \
| || |


= == =
10
2
t
T time Life
Effect of additional losses on life-time
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( (( ( ) )) )
years T time Life
f
f k
P
P P
t
7 2 40 2
5 . 2
10
= == = = == = = == =

| || |
| || |
| || |
| || |
| || |

| || |





\ \\ \
| || |



where T is working temperature at rated fundamental power, P
f
,, P
k
is the total
power and T is the rated life-time in years
K-Rating - Calculation software
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K-Rating - Calculation software
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Full load losses in a 100kVA C-C transformer
51%
41%
Resistance
Magnetic
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8%
Magnetic
Eddy Current
Total loss = 2605 W
C
P
P
t temp Working
f
k
= == = = == = = == = 139 55 . 1 90
| || |

| || |

\ \\ \
| || |


= == =
10
2
t
T time Life
Effect of additional losses on life-time
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( (( ( ) )) )
years T time Life
f
f k
P
P P
t
34 . 1 2 40 2
9 . 4
10
= == = = == = = == =

| || |
| || |
| || |
| || |
| || |

| || |





\ \\ \
| || |



where T is working temperature at rated fundamental power, P
f
,, P
k
is the total
power and T is the rated life-time in years
K-Rating - Calculation software
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K-Rating or De-rating?
K-rated transformers are designed to supply harmonic
loads by :
using stranded conductors to reduce eddy current
losses
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losses
bringing secondary winding star point connections
out separately to provide a 300% neutral rating
De-rating a standard transformer has some
disadvantages:-
primary over-current protection may be too high
to protect the secondary and too low to survive the
in-rush current
future increases in loading must take the de-rating
K-Rating or De-rating?
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future increases in loading must take the de-rating
fully into account
it is less efficient
the neutral star point is likely to be rated at only
100% of the phase current
Transformers supplying harmonic loads must be
appropriately de-rated.
Harmonic currents, being of higher frequency,
cause increased magnetic losses in the core and
increased eddy current and skin effect losses in
Effect of harmonics on transformers
Copper Development Association Copper Development Association Copper Development Association Copper Development Association
increased eddy current and skin effect losses in
the windings.
Triple-n harmonic currents circulate in delta
windings, increasing resistive losses, operating
temperature and reducing effective load capacity.
Effect of triple-n harmonics in transformers
Triple-n harmonic currents circulate in delta windings -
they do not propagate back onto the supply network.
- but the transformer must be specified and rated to
cope with the additional losses.
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