Forestry Pathology

FF( )*+ FOREST PATHO$O,- .
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DISEASES OF TEAK, NEEM AND JATROPHA TEAK (Tectona grandis) : Uncinula tectonae
Powdery mildew:
Symptoms: The powdery mildew disease develops as a minute white patch on the upper surface or lower surface, which later extends to cover the entire leaf lamina. As the disease progresses the powdery growth turns to light brown patches leading to defoliation. The infection may also occur on the flower stalk and flowers resulting in the shedding of flowers and young fruits. The white powdery growth of the pathogen represents the mass of conidiophore and conidia. In the advanced stage of the disease the fungi produce the sexual fruiting body called Cleitothecia. Pat o!e": The fungus produces septate mycelium and mostly external and produce haustoria to the host epidermis. The conidiophres are short and club shaped non septate and produce barrel shaped conidia in chains. R#st : Olivea tectonae (Uredo tectonae)
Symptoms The upper surface of the leaf show dull green flecks corresponding to the orange yellow uredinia on lower surface. The flecks on the upper surface become necrotic and appear as brown spots. Severe infection caused premature defoliation in nurseries and young plantations. Pat o!e" Olivea tectonae is a microcyclic rust having telial and uredinial stage on teak. !redinospores are single celled, spherical and deep yellowish orange in colour. The telia characteristically develop on thick cellular base and produce two celled brown coloured teliospores. $ea% spot&'li! t : Phomopsis tectonae
Symptoms: Spots appear as minute dark brown dots, "#$mm in diameter. Spots enlarge to % to & mm in diameter and turn to light pale brown with dark brown outline. The margin grow out wards forming one to three dark brown concentric rings around the light coloured centre spot. Pat o!e": The pathogen produces light brown coloured mycelium and round globose pycnidia on the leaf surface containing single celled dull brown conidia. $ea% 'li! t : Alternaria alternata
Symptoms: A brown water soaked lesion develop on the leaf and spreads fast to occupy ma'or portion of the leaf leading to complete drying of the lamina. The disease can easily (
identified by presence of concentric rings in the blighted area showing the sporulation of the fungus. The fungus produces brown coloured conidia with both vertical and hori)ontal septa with a beak at the top. Pat o!e": The mycelium of the fungus is dull brown and septate and produce large number of pale grey#yellow conidiophores which are straight or curved. The conidia are light olive coloured with transverse and longitudinal septa with a beak at the top. There are $#% septate and are borne over short conidiophore. (#tt rot& Root rot : Polyporus zonalis
Symptoms: The fungus attacks heart wood, sometimes soft wood. Initially the fungus causes white mottled rot with orange yellow lines, later pockets develop in the bleached area. Pat o!e": The fungus produces sessile, hard and rigid basidiocarp at the base of the tree. The upper surface is concentrically )onate with reddish brown colour. The lower surface is shiny white in colour. ,a"oderma Root disease : Ganoderma lucidum
Symptoms: The disease can be visuali)ed as yellowing and dropping of leaves in one or two branches of the tress, subse*uently followed by drying of the branches. As the disease progresses, the defoliation and drying symptoms are seen on the other branches. The fungus grows extensively from the bark and causes white rot of the sap wood which become spongy. The dried trees show characteristic fruiting bodies of the fungus which arise from the base of the trees at the soil level. Pat o!e": It produces a thick and woody basidiocarp named as +racket ,Sexual fruiting body-. The fungus survive in the soil and release hundreds of basidiospores ,Sexual spores- which initiate fresh infection during the moist rainy weather.
JATROPHA .Jatropha curcus1 Dampi"! o%% : Fusarium solani
Symptoms: The disease starts as a water soaked black lesion at the collar region of the young seedling, which later rot and topple over the soil. .ight pink coloured mycelial masses can be seen on the soil surface.
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Pat o!e": The fungus survives in the soil as Chlamydospores and cause primary infection. In addition, the fungus produces large number of macroconidia and macroconidia. The macroconidia are sickle shaped , hyaline, multicelled having %# / septa. The micro conidia are also hyaline and single celled, oval in shape. The conidia help in the secondary spread of the disease. Root rot : Macrophomina phaseolina
Symptoms: The disease starts as a water soaked black lesion at the collar region of the plant near soil level and progresses both upward and downward. The lower leaves turn yellow and wither away. This is followed by sudden dead of the whole plant. The dried plant show extensive rooting of the root system with disintegrated barks. The close observation of the shredded bark tissues show large number of black colored resting structures of the fungus. The stem portion above soil level become ashy brown indicating the presence of thousands of minute black dot like fungal fructification. Pat o!e": The fungus survives in the soil as Sclerotia ,asexual resting structures- and cause primary infection. In addition, the fungus produces large number of asexual fruiting bodies ,0ycnidiaon the stem portion. The conidia released from these fruiting bodies help in the secondary spread Powdery Mildew : Oidium sp2
Symptoms: The powdery mildew disease develops as a minute white patch on the upper surface or lower surface, which later extends to cover the entire leaf lamina. As the disease progresses the powdery growth turns to light brown patches leading to defoliation. The infection may also occur on the flower stalk and flowers resulting in the shedding of flowers and young fruits. The white powdery growth of the pathogen represents the mass of conidiophore and conidia. In the advanced stage of the disease the fungi produce the sexual fruiting body called Cleitothecia. Pat o!e": The fungus produces septate mycelium and mostly external and produce haustoria to the host epidermis. The conidiophres are short and club shaped non septate and produce barrel shaped conidia in chains. $ea% 'li! t : Alternaria alternata
Symptoms: A brown water soaked lesion develop on the leaf and spreads fast to occupy ma'or portion of the leaf leading to complete drying of the lamina. The disease can easily identified by presence of concentric rings in the blighted area showing the sporulation of the fungus. Pat o!e": The mycelium of the fungus is dull brown and septate and produce large number of conidia with transverse and longitudinal septa. The conidia are $#& septate. $
$ea% 'li! t
: Phoma sp2
Symptoms: The symptoms appear as minute dark brown dots, "#$mm in diameter. Spots enlarge to % to & mm in diameter and turn to light pale brown with dark brown outline. The margin grow out wards forming one to three dark brown concentric rings around the light coloured centre spot with a lot of black pycnidia. Pat o!e": The pathogen produces pycnidia on the leaf surface containing hundreds of single celled dull brown conidia. $ea% spot : Cercopsora jatropha curcus
Symptoms: Small circular spot with dark brown margin appear on the leaf surface and shot hole symptoms develop when the centre of the spot become papery and drops off. Pat o!e": The pathogen produces hyaline, thin, long multiseptate conidia in cluster. The conidia are needle shaped with a slight curling at the centre and are 1#(2 septate. A"t ra3"ose : Colletotrichum !loeosporioides
Symptoms: The disease initiates as a minute black spot on the leaf surface and enlarges to form a spot with a black margin showing a large number of Acervuli in the centre. The black lesions also appear on the young shoots showing die back symptoms. The infection on the flower stalk lead to flower shedding. +lack coloured spots also appear on the surface of the fruit showing fruit rot symptoms. Pat o!e": The pathogen produces a large number of minute, black coloured Acervuli in large number in the infected portions. The conidia are sick shaped, single celled and hyaline and show large number of oil globules in the centre of the conidia. Mosai3 : 4ir#s
Symptoms: The disease appears as light discoloration along the veins of the youngest leaves. Soon the leaves develop a characteristic light and dark green pattern, the dark green areas are usually associated with the veins. The dark green areas later develop into irregular crumpled swellings or blisters due to more rapid growth. The plants that become infected early in the season are usually very much stunted with small, chlorotic, mottled and curled leaves. In severe infections, the leaves are narrowed, puckered, thin and malformed beyond recognition, .ater, dark brown necrotic spots develop under hot weather and this symptom is called 34osaic burn5 or 34osaic scorching5. Pat o!e": The nature of the virus and mode of spread is yet to be studied.
NEEM .Azadirachta indica1 N#rsery Root rot& 5e' 'li! t : "hizoctonia solani
Symptoms: The pathogen is soil# borne and infect leaves of young seedlings. 7reyish brown lesions develop on the leaf blade, advances and cover the entire leaf area. The fungal mycelia fully over the rotten tissues giving a spider web appearance and hence, the name web blight. The completely rotten tissues contain a large number of irregularly shaped sclerotia, the asexual resting structure which act as a source for the next crop. Pat o!e" The fungus produces dark brown, septate mycelium with the constrictions at hyphal branches. The sclerotia are minute, dark coloured. 8ungus also produces dark brown, globose pycnidia on the host tissues. The pycnidiospores ,conidia- are thin walled, hyaline, single celled, elliptical in shape.
$ea% spot
: Cercospora meliae
Symptoms: The infection starts as watersoaked lesions, which later turns to minute grey spot with dark margins. As the disease progresses, the spots become thin and papery and drops off leaving shot hole symptoms. Pat o!e": The mycelium of the fungus is localised in the spot. The mycelium is dull brown coloured and produces multiseptate ,1#9 celled- conidia on the conidiophres which are produced in cluster. $ea% 'li! t : Alternaria alternata
Symptoms: A brown water soaked lesion develop on the leaf and spreads fast to occupy ma'or portion of the leaf leading to complete drying of the lamina. The disease can easily identified by presence of concentric rings in the blighted area showing the sporulation of the fungus. Pat o!e": The mycelium of the fungus is dull brown and septate and produce large number of pale grey#yellow conidiophores which are straight or curved. The conidia are light olive coloured with transverse and longitudinal septa with a beak at the top. There are $#% septate and are borne over short conidiophore. Root rot : Ganoderma lucidum
Symptoms: The disease can be visuali)ed as yellowing and dropping of leaves in one or two branches of the tress, subse*uently followed by drying of the branches. As the disease progresses, the defoliation and drying symptoms are seen on the other branches. The fungus grows extensively from the bark and causes white rot of the sap wood which become spongy. The dried trees show characteristic fruiting bodies of the fungus which arise from the base of the trees at the soil level. Pat o!e": It produces a thick and woody basidiocarp named as +racket ,Sexual fruiting body-. The fungus survive in the soil and release hundreds of basidiospores ,Sexual spores- which initiate fresh infection during the moist rainy weather. Floweri"! parasite : ,ia"t Mistle toe6 #endrophthoe $alcata The parasite is a partial parasite which has a very hard flattened prostrating stem which run over the stem portions of the host and produce haustorial connections to drive the food source. The point of parasitism become thickened to form a gall like structure from which multiple shootings ranging from (%#"2 arise as a clusters. In the case of the severe parasitism, the afftected branch start withering drying from tip and dry off. The parasite has dark green leaves and produce erect, clustered branches from the galled portion. It produces cluster of orange coloured tubular flowers. The parasite produce dark red coloured berries.The birds are attracted by the fruits and act as a dissemination agents. The seeds dropped on the crevices of the stem germinate and produce haustoria to attach to the host and proliferate in large numbers.
DISEASES OF 7AS8ARINA AND E87A$-PT8S E87A$-T8S . %ucalyptus tereticonis) $ea% spot&Die 'a39 : Colletotrichum eucalytii
Symptoms: The infection starts as watersoaked lesions, which later turns to minute black spot with a dark margins. As the disease progresses, the spots enlarge and cause irregular blighting of the leaf lamina. The blighted leaf tissues show a hundreds of minute black coloured fruiting body of the fungus in concentric rings. The infection can also spread to young shoots leading to death of the growing point and die back symptoms. Pat o!e": The mycelium of the fungus is localised in the spot. The type of fruiting body is acervulus with a large number of hyaline single celled oblong or cylindrical conidia. The conidia contain oil globules in the centre and hence, termed as :7uttulate; or :<acuolate;. $ea% spot : Cylindrocaldium &uin&ueseptatum
Symptoms: 4inute grayish black water soaked lesions on young and old leaves. Several spots coalesee leading to blighting. Pat o!e": The fungus produces dull brown coloured mycelia with hyaline to dull brown conidia. $ea% 'li! t : Alternaria alternata single celled
Symptoms: A brown water soaked lesion develop on the leaf and spreads fast to occupy ma'or portion of the leaf leading to complete drying of the lamina. The disease can easily identified by presence of concentric rings in the blighted area showing the sporulation of the fungus.
Pat o!e": The mycelium of the fungus is dull brown and septate and produce large number of pale grey#yellow conidiophores which are straight or curved. The conidia are light olive coloured with transverse and longitudinal septa with a beak at the top. There are $#% septate and are borne over short conidiophore.
Stem 3a"9er
:#iaporthe cu'ensis
Symptoms: The disease develops as minute black cankerous growth, which later enlarges and occupies ma'or portion of the branch. .ater cracks develop longitudinally and cause drying of the infected branches showing gummy exudations. Pat o!e": The fungus produces large number of pycnidia in the infected portion. The conidia are single celled initially having dull brown colour, later it may become two celled and black in colour. R#st : Puccinia psidii
Symptoms: The disease develops as minute yellow dots on the lower surface of the leaves with chlorotic spots on the upper surface. The yellow dots represent the uredia ,uredosori-. As the disease advances thousands of black raised rough spots develop on the lower surface representing telia ,teliosori-. In the most advanced stage of infection defoliation occurs leaving plants barren. Pat o!e": The uredosori contain group of yellow colured single celled uredospores with a spiny walls. The matured teliosori expose thousands of dark brown colored, two celled teliopsores.
CA(UA")*A (Casuarina e&uiseti$olia) $ea% spot& Needle 'li! t : Phoma casuarinae
Symptoms: The disease develop as yellow discoloration from the tip of the needle initially and later spread to occupy ma'or portion of the needle leading to blighting and drying of the needles. .ater, the affected needles turn to black coloured due to production of hundreds of pycnidia, the asexual fruiting bodies. Pat o!e": The fungus produces round shaped pycnidia in large number in the infected needles, containing thousands of single celled, dark coloured conidia. Root rot : Ganoderma lucidum
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Symptoms: The disease can be visuali)ed as yellowing and dropping of leaves in one or two branches of the tress subse*uently followed by drying of the branches. As the disease progresses, the defoliation and drying symptoms are seen on the other branches. The fungus grows extensively from the bark and causes white rot of the sap wood which become spongy. The dried trees show characteristic fruiting bodies of the fungus which arise from the base of the trees at the soil level. Pat o!e": The fungus survives in the basidiocarps ,+rackets- for several years and releases hundreds of basidiospores which initiate fresh infections in the new plantations. Floweri"! parasite : Dodder. Cuscuta campestris1 The infection is normally seen in the nursery as well as in the very young plantations. The infection appear as small yellow thready growth of the parasite from the lower portion of the stem which later spreads very fast covering ma'or portion of the plant with complete net work of golden yellow coloured threads of the parasite growth. In the severe stage of the parasitism, the young tree show withering symptom and later lead to complete drying. The parasite is a slender twining plant with a yellow stem, which is thread like with minute scales in the place of leaves. 8lowers are tiny and white= seeds are reddish brown or grey in color. Seeds, which fall on the ground, may germinate immediately or remains dormant in the soil. Floweri"! Parasite : ,ia"t Mistle toe6 #endrophthoe $alcata+
The parasite is a partial parasite. It produces a very hard flattened prostrating stem which run over the stem portions of the host and produce haustorial connections to drive the food source. The point of parasitism become thickened to form a gall like structure from which multiple shootings ranging from (%#"2 arise as a clusters. In he case of the severe parasitism, the affected branch start withering drying from tip and dry off. The parasite is a shrubby plant with green leaves and produce erect, clustered branches from the galled portion. It produces cluster of orange coloured tubular flowers. The parasite produce dark red coloured berries.The birds are attracted by the fruits and act as a dissemination agents. The seeds dropped on the crevices of the stem germinate and produce haustoria to attach to the host and proliferate in large numbers.
DISEASES OF (AM(OO, SIMAR8(A, PO$-A$THIA AND P8N,AM (AM(OO .,am'usa 'am'os1 $ea% spot : ,ipolaris 'am'usae ,ipolaris maydis
Symptoms 4inute spindle shaped water soaked lesions appear on the leaf surface, which later turn dark brown to dull violet with greyish brown centres. .esions coalesce to form large necrotic areas. Pat o!e" The mycelium is septate and dull brown in colour and produce $#6 septate spindle shaped conidia on the septate conidiophores. The young conidia are hyaline and later matured conidia are dark brown in colour. $ea% 'li! t : -elminthosporium turcicum
Symptoms 4inute spindle shaped water soaked lesions appear on the margin of the leaf blade, which later extends and occupies ma'or portion of the leaf, giving a blighted appearance. Pat o!e" The mycelium is septate and dull brown in colour and produce 1#& septate, spindle shaped conidia on the septate conidiophores. The conidia are dark brown in colour. $ea% 'li! t : Alternaria alternata
Symptoms: A brown water soaked lesion develop on the leaf and spreads fast to occupy ma'or portion of the leaf leading to complete drying of the lamina. The disease can easily identified by presence of concentric rings in the blighted area showing the sporulation of the fungus. Pat o!e": The mycelium of the fungus is dull brown and septate and produce large number of pale grey#yellow conidiophores which are straight or curved. The conidia are light olive coloured with transverse and longitudinal septa with beak at the top. There are $#% septate and are borne over short conidiophore.
A"t ra3"ose
: Colletotrichum !loeosporioides
Symptoms: The infection starts as watersoaked lesions, which later turns to minute black spot with a dark margins. As the disease progresses, the spots enlarge and cause irregular blighting of the leaf lamina. The blighted leaf tissues show a hundreds of minute black coloured fruiting body of the fungus in concentric rings. The type of fruiting body is
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acervulus with a large number of hyaline, oblong, single celled conidia which helps in the secondary spread of the disease. Some times infection also spread to the tip of the young twigs which started drying back and this is named as 3die back5 symptom, leading to complete drying of the young shoot. The extensive dieback symptom leading to blighting of the new shoots is called Twig blight. Pat o!e": The mycelium of the fungus is localised in the spot. Acervuli with setae arise through epidermis. Conidia are hyaline, single celled, vacuolate and oblong or cylindrical in shape R#st : Puccinia 'am'usicola
Symptoms: The disease develops as minute yellow dots on the lower surface of the leaves with chlorotic spots on the upper surface. The yellow dots represent the uredia ,uredosori-. As the disease advances thousands of black raised rough spots develop on the lower surface representing telia ,teliosori-.In the most advanced stage of infection defoliation occurs leaving plants barren. Pat o!e": The uredospores are dark yellow coloured, single celled uredospores with a spiny walls. The teliospores are two celled and dark brown in colour. 7#lm rot& (row" rot : Fusarium monili$orme :ar2intermedium F+e&uiseti. F+solani
Symptoms= 7reyish lesions with a dark brown margin appear on the outer most leaf sheath of the emerging culms near the soil level. .esions also form on the tips and margins of the culms which spread rapidly to cover the entire outer culm sheath leading to necrosis and drying. .ater infection spreads to inner sheaths and cause rotting of tender and succulent young shoots emitting a sweet odour of molasses. Pat o!e" The pathogen produces dull pink coloured mycelia with a large number of macroconidia which are sickle shaped, hyaline and 1#9 septate. The macroconidia are produced in chain over a short conidiophore. The macroconidia are single celled and oval shaped. The pathogen also produces the resting spores#chlamydospores in large number. (la39 mildew : Meliola 'am'usicola Symptoms The infection appears on the upper surface of the leaf as a sparse, black patches. >hen the infection become serious the upper leaf surface becomes densely coated with a black powdery growth of the fungal hyphae with sporulation. The infection also occur on the leaf sheath and also on the young shoots in a closed canopy plantations during cool weather periods. Pat o!e": The fungus produces septate, black coloured mycelia. The conidia are single celled and dull black in colour. ?ccassionally they are closely crowded to give a ball like structure. The fungus also produce perithecia.
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Sooty mo#ld
: Capnodium 'raziliense
Symptoms The infection appears on the upper surface of the leaf as a sparse, black network of hyphae. Then a thin effuse black powdery coating can be seen covering a ma'or portion of the leaf. This indicates the sporulation of the fungus. The heavy infestation of the sucking pests lead to development of the sooty growth on the leaf surface. Pat o!e": The fungus produces black coloured mycelia and 6 types of s pores in the black sooty growth. They are Torula, Coniothecium, +rachysporium and Trichothecium. Stripe mosai3 : (am'oo Mosai3 :ir#s
Symptoms The infection initially appears on the young leaves as yellow discoluration which become stripes giving a alternate dark green and light yellowish green areas. In advanced stages of infection entire leaf become dull yellow or white giving a bleached appearance. Pat o!e": The disease is caused by +amboo 4osaic <irus. The mode of spread and survival of the virus are not known. Strea9 mosai3 : w eat strea9 mosai3 :ir#s
Symptoms The infection initially appears on the young leaves as minute yellow streak which later enlarges to occupy the entire length of the leaf. .arge number of yellow streaks cane be seen on the leaves. In advanced stages of infection the leaf si)e is reduced abnormally with necrotic patches. Pat o!e": The disease is caused by >heat Streak mosaic virus . The mode of spread and survival of the virus are not known. PO$-A$THIA .Polyalthia lon!i$olia1 $ea% spot : Cercospora sp2
Symptoms: Small circular spot with a re margin develops on old leaves. As the disease advances, the centre of spot become white, thin and drops off leaving a shot holes. In severe infection defoliation also occurs. Pat o!e": 4ycelium of the fungus is hyaline and septate. Conidiophores emerge in clusters through stomata, which are brown producing hyaline, thin walled, %#& celled long obclavate conidia.
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$ea% 'li! t
: Alternaria alternata
Symptoms: A brown water soaked lesion develop on the leaf and spreads fast to occupy ma'or portion of the leaf leading to complete drying of the lamina. The disease can easily identified by presence of concentric rings in the blighted area showing the sporulation of the fungus. Pat o!e": The mycelium of the fungus is dull brown and septate and produce large number of pale grey#yellow conidiophores which are straight or curved. The conidia are light olive coloured with transverse and longitudinal septa with a beak at the top. There are $#% septate and are borne over short conidiophores. Sooty mo#ld : Capnodium 'raziliense
Symptoms The infection appears on the upper surface of the leaf as a sparse, black network of hyphae. Then a thin effuse black powdery coating can be seen covering a ma'or portion of the leaf. This indicates the sporulation of the fungus. The heavy infestation of the sucking pests lead to development of the sooty growth on the leaf surface. Pat o!e": The fungus produces black coloured mycelia and 6 types of s pores in the black sooty growth. They are Torula, Coniothecium, +rachysporium and Trichothecium.
SIMAR8(A. (imarou'a !lauca1 $ea% spot : Cercospora sp2
Symptoms: 4inute red spot develops and enlarges to form a grey spot with a dark margin. 8inally the infected leaf portion drops off leaving a shot hole symptom. Pat o!e": The pathogen produces septate mycelium and produces conidia in groups. The conidia are dull brown in colour and 6#% celld. $ea% 'li! t&spot : -elminthosporium sp2
Symptoms: Irregular shaped bark brown spots appear and later 'oin together to form blighted lesions on the leaves.
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Pat o!e": The pathogen produces septate, brown coloured mycelium. The conidia are dull brown in colour and spindle shaped with $#6 septa. Root rot : Ganoderma lucidum
Symptoms: The disease can be visuali)ed as yellowing and dropping of leaves in one or two branches of the tress, subse*uently followed by drying of the branches. As the disease progresses, the defoliation and drying symptoms are seen on the other branches. The fungus grows extensively from the bark and causes white rot of the sap wood which become spongy. The dried trees show characteristic fruiting bodies of the fungus which arise from the base of the trees at the soil level. Pat o!e": It produces a thick and woody basidiocarp named as +racket ,Sexual fruiting body-. The fungus survive in the soil and release hundreds of basidiospores ,Sexual spores- which initiate fresh infection during the moist rainy weather. Sooty mo#ld : Capnodium 'raziliense
Symptoms The infection appears on the upper surface of the leaf as a sparse, black network of hyphae. Then a thin effuse black powdery coating can be seen covering a ma'or portion of the leaf. This indicates the sporulation of the fungus. The heavy infestation of the sucking pests lead to development of the sooty growth on the leaf surface. Pat o!e": The fungus produces black coloured mycelia and 6 types of s pores in the black sooty growth. They are Torula, Coniothecium, +rachysporium and Trichothecium. P8N,AM. Pon!amia pinnata) $ea% spot : Cercospora pon!amiae
Symptoms Small circular spot with a re margin develops on old leaves. As the disease advances, the centre of spot become white, thin and drops off leaving a shot holes. In severe infection defoliation also occurs. Pat o!e" 4ycelium of the fungus is hyaline and septate. Conidiophores emerge in clusters through stomata, which are brown and simple and bear hyaline, thin walled, 6#1 celled and long obclavate conidia. $ea% 'li! t : Alternaria alternata
Symptoms: A brown water soaked lesion develop on the leaf and spreads fast to occupy ma'or portion of the leaf leading to complete drying of the lamina. The disease can easily
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identified by presence of concentric rings in the blighted area showing the sporulation of the fungus. Pat o!e": The mycelium of the fungus is dull brown and septate and produce large number of pale grey#yellow conidiophores which are straight or curved. The conidia are light olive coloured with transverse and longitudinal septa with a beak at the top. There are $#% septate and are borne over short conidiophores. $ea% 'li! t : Phoma indica
Symptoms: Spots appear as minute dark brown dots and later enlarge and turn to light grey centre with dark brown outline. 4inute pycnidia are seen in the centre of the spot. Pat o!e": The pathogen produces pycnidia on the leaf surface celled dull brown conidia in thousands. Sooty mo#ld : Capnodium 'raziliense containing single
Symptoms The infection appears on the upper surface of the leaf as a sparse, black network of hyphae. Then a thin effuse black powdery coating can be seen covering a ma'or portion of the leaf. This indicates the sporulation of the fungus. The heavy infestation of the sucking pests lead to development of the sooty growth on the leaf surface. Pat o!e": The fungus produces black coloured mycelia and 6 types of s pores in the black sooty growth. They are Torula, Coniothecium, +rachysporium and Trichothecium. Floweri"! Parasite: ,ia"t Mistle toe6 #endrophthoe $alcata+
The parasite is a partial parasite. It produces a very hard flattened prostrating stem which run over the stem portions of the host and produce haustorial connections to drive the food source. The point of parasitism become thickened to form a gall like structure from which multiple shootings ranging from (%#"2 arise as a clusters. In he case of the severe parasitism, the affected branch start withering drying from tip and dry off. The parasite is a shrubby plant with green leaves and produce erect, clustered branches from the galled portion. It produces cluster of orange coloured tubular flowers. The parasite produce dark red coloured berries.The birds are attracted by the fruits and act as a dissemination agents. The seeds dropped on the crevices of the stem germinate and produce haustoria to attach to the host and proliferate in large numbers.
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DISEASES OF SISSOO, SI$4ER OAK, 7EI(A AND AI$ANTH8S SISSOO (#a)'er!ia sissoo) $ea% spot : Cercospora sissoo
Symptoms: Small circular spot with a re margin develops on old leaves. As the disease advances, the centre of spot become white, thin and drops off leaving a shot holes. In severe infection defoliation also occurs. Pat o!e": 4ycelium of the fungus is hyaline and septate. Conidiophores emerge in clusters through stomata, which are brown and simple and bear hyaline, thin walled, 6#1 celled and long obclavate conidia. $ea% 'li! t : Alternaria alternata
Symptoms: A brown water soaked lesion develop on the leaf and spreads fast to occupy ma'or portion of the leaf leading to complete drying of the lamina. The disease can easily identified by presence of concentric rings in the blighted area showing the sporulation of the fungus. The fungus produces brown coloured conidia with both vertical and hori)ontal septa with a beak at the top. Pat o!e": The mycelium of the fungus is dull brown and septate and produce large number of pale grey#yellow conidiophores which are straight or curved. The conidia are light olive coloured with transverse and longitudinal septa with a beak at the top. There are $#% septate and are borne over short conidiophore. $ea% 'li! t : Phoma indica
Symptoms: A black water soaked lesion develop on the leaf and spreads fast to occupy ma'or portion of the leaf leading to complete drying of the lamina. The disease can easily identified by presence of large number of black dots in the infected tissue showing the asexual fruiting bodies, pycnidia. Pat o!e": The mycelium of the fungus is dull brown and septate and produce large number of dull black coloured pycnidia containing hundreds of single celled, oval dull grey conidia
A"t ra3"ose&Fr#it rot
: Colletotrichum sissoo
Symptoms: The infection starts as watersoaked lesions, which I later turns to minute black spot with a dark margins. As the disease @ progresses, the spots enlarge and cause (/
irregular blighting of the leaf lamina. The blighted leaf tissues show a hundreds of minute black coloured fruiting body of the fungus in concentric rings. The type of fruiting body is acervulus with a large number of hyaline, oblong, single celled conidia which helps in the secondary spread of the disease. Pat o!e": The mycelium of the fungus is localised in the spot. Acervuli with setae arise through epidermis. Conidia are hyaline, single celled, vacuolate and falcate in shape Powdery mildew : Phyllactinia sissoo
Symptoms: The powdery mildew disease develops as a minute white patch on the upper surface or lower surface, which later extends to cover the entire leaf lamina. As the disease progresses the powdery growth turns to light brown patches leading to defoliation. The infection may also occur on the flower stalk and flowers resulting in the shedding of flowers and young fruits. The white powdery growth of the pathogen represents the mass of conidiophore and conidia. In the advanced stage of the disease the fungi produce the sexual fruiting body called Cleitothecia. Pat o!e": The produces both external and internal mycelium in the leaf surface. The conidiophore arise form the external mycelia and bear single celled hyaline conidia with a pointed tip. R#st : Uredo sissoo
Symptoms: The disease develops as minute yellow uredia on the lower surface of the leaves with chlorotic spots on the upper surface. As the disease advances thousands of black raised rough telia also develop on the lower surface. Pat o!e": The fungus produces single celled, oblong, dull yellow coloured uredospores which are slightly curved at the centre. Root rot : Ganoderma lucidum
Symptoms: The disease can be visuali)ed as yellowing and dropping of leaves in one or two branches of the tress, subse*uently followed by drying of the branches. As the disease progresses, the defoliation and drying symptoms are seen on the other branches. The fungus grows extensively from the bark and causes white rot of the sap wood which become spongy. The dried trees show characteristic fruiting bodies of the fungus which arise from the base of the trees at the soil level. Pat o!e": The fungus produce thick woody brackets in the soil near the base of the severely infected trees. SI$4ER OAK (Grevillea ro'usta)
(1
,rey lea% spot
: ,otryodiplodia theo'romae
Symptoms: 4inute dull black spot appear on the leaves which later enlarges to form a grey spot with a dark margin. Several such spots 'oin to form necrotic lesions on the lamina. A large number of minute black dot like fruiting bodies are produced in the advanced stages of infection. Pat o!e": The fungus produces large number of pycnidia in the affected tissues. The pycnidium contains hyaline to dull coloured conidia in hundreds which are single celled, occasionally two celled. $ea% spot : Cercospora a!har/eri
Symptoms: Small circular spot with a re margin develops on old leaves. As the disease advances, the centre of spot become white,thin and drops off leaving a shot holes. In severe infection defoliation also occurs. Pat o!e": The fungus produces dull coloured or hyaline and septate mycelium. The conidiophores arise in clusters and bear 6#/ celled hyaline thin needle shaped conidia. Floweri"! Parasite : ,ia"t Mistle toe6 #endrophthoe $alcata+ The parasite is a partial parasite. It produces a very hard flattened prostrating stem which run over the stem portions of the host and produce haustorial connections to drive the food source. The point of parasitism become thickened to form a gall like structure from which multiple shootings ranging from (%#"2 arise as a clusters. In the case of the severe parasitism, the affected branch start withering drying from tip and dry off. The parasite is a shrubby plant with green leaves and produce erect, clustered branches from the galled portion. It produces i cluster of orange coloured tubular flowers. The parasite produce dark red coloured berries.The birds are attracted by the fruits and act as a dissemination agents. The seeds dropped on the crevices of the stem germinate and produce haustoria to attach to the host and proliferate in large numbers. AI$ANTH8S (Ailanthus e0celsa) $ea% spot : Cercopsora !landulosa
Symptoms: Small circular spot with a re margin develops on old leaves. As the disease advances, the centre of spot become white, thin and drops off leaving a shot holes. In severe infection defoliation also occurs. Pat o!e": The fungus produces dull brown, septate mycelium. The conidiophores arise in groups and bear thread like multiseptate hyaline conidia.
(&
$ea% 'li! t
: Alternaria sp2
Symptoms: A brown water soaked lesion develop on the leaf and spreads fast to occupy ma'or portion of the leaf leading to complete drying of the lamina. The disease can easily identified by presence of concentric rings in the blighted area showing the speculation of the fungus. Pat o!e": The mycelium of the fungus is dull brown and septate and produce large number of pale grey#yellow conidiophores which are straight or curved. The conidia are light olive coloured with transverse and longitudinal septa with a beak at the top. There are %# & septate and are borne over short conidiophore. SEM8$ .,om'a0 cei'a1 $ea% spot : Cercospora 'am'icina
Symptoms: Small circular spot with a red margin develops on old leaves. As the disease advances, the centre of spot become white, thin and drops off leaving shot holes. In severe infection defoliation also occurs. Pat o!e": The mycelium is septate and dull coloured showing large number of unbranched conidiophores in clusters. The conidia are hyaline 6#1 celled with a broader base and a tapering tip.
$ea% spot
: Myrothecium roridum
Symptoms Small reddish spots of 2.% mm#( cm appear near the margins of the leaves, The affected portions fall off leaving irregular shot holes in the leaves. Pat o!e":The fungus produces single celled or two celled, hyaline to dull brown conidia in large numbers. Sooty mo#ld : Capnodium 'raziliense
Symptoms The infection appears on the upper surface of the leaf as a sparse, black network of hyphae. Then a thin effuse black powdery coating can be seen covering a ma'or portion of the leaf. This indicates the sporulation of the fungus. The heavy infestation of the sucking pests lead to development of the sooty growth on the leaf surface.
(9
Pat o!e": The fungus produces black coloured mycelia and 6 types of spores in the black sooty growth. They are Torula, Coniothecium, +rachysporium and Trichothecium.
"2
DISEASES OF SANDA$, TAMARIND, A$(I;IA AND ,ME$INA SANDA$. (antalam al'um1 Spi9e : P ytoplasma
Symptoms The infected trees exhibit shortened internodal length leading to crowding of the leaves at the top. A drastic reduction in the si)e of the leaves was also observed. The leaves show tendency to stand stiffy from the branches giving a spiky appearance. .ater the leaves become yellowish and finally turn to red in colour. The affected branches do not flower, if flowered produce only fruits with aborted seeds. In severe cases, the floral parts are modified into green leafy structures called :0hylloids;. Pat o!e": The causative agent was confirmed as 0hytoplasama. A large number of pleomorphic bodies are found to present in the infected tissues. The pathogen is transmitted through the leaf hoppers# Jassus indicus and Moonia albimaculata Floweri"! Parasite : ,ia"t Mistle toe6 De"drop t oe %al3ata2
The parasite is a partial parasite. It produces a very hard flattened prostrating stem which run over the stem portions of the host and produce haustorial connections to drive the food source. The point of parasitism become thickened to form a gall like structure from which multiple shootings ranging from (%#"2 arise as a clusters. In the case of the severe parasitism, the afftected branch start withering drying from tip and dry off. The parasite is a shrubby plant with green leaves and produce erect, clustered branches from the galled portion. It produces cluster of orange coloured tubular flowers. The parasite produce dark red coloured berries.The birds are attracted by the fruits and act as a dissemination agents. The seeds dropped on the crevices of the stem germinate and produce haustoria to attach to the host and proliferate in large numbers.
TAMARIND .1amarindus indica1 Powdery mildew : Oidium sp2
Symptoms: The powdery mildew disease develops as a minute white patch on the upper surface or lower surface, which later extends to cover the entire leaf lamina. As the disease progresses the powdery growth turns to light brown patches "(
leading to defoliation. The infection may also occur on the flower stalk and flowers resulting in the shedding of flowers and young fruits. The white powdery growth of the pathogen represents the mass of conidiophore and conidia. In the advanced stage of the disease the fungi produce the sexual fruiting body called Cleitothecia. Pat o!e": The fungus produces septate mycelium and mostly external and produce haustoria to the host epidermis. The conidiophres are short and club shaped non septate and produce barrel shaped conidia in chains. $ea% spot : Colletotrichum !loeosporioides
Symptoms: The infection starts as watersoaked lesions, which later turns to minute black spot with a dark margins. As the disease progresses, the spots enlarge and cause irregular blighting of the leaf lamina. The blighted leaf tissues show a hundreds of minute black coloured fruiting body of the fungus in concentric rings. The type of fruiting body is acervulus with a large number of hyaline, oblong, single celled conidia which helps in the secondary spread of the disease. Some times infection also spread to the tip of the young twigs which started drying back and this is named as 3die back5 symptom, leading to complete drying of the young shoot. The extensive dieback symptom leading to blighting of the new shoots is called Twig blight. In addition, the fungus also cause infection on the fruits as a black depressed lesion with a dark margin which cause extensive rotting of the fruit skin and internal tissues, named as fruit rot or fruit spot. Pat o!e": The mycelium of the fungus is localised in the spot. Acervuli with setae arise through epidermis. Conidia are hyaline, single celled, vacuolate and falcate in shape
$ea% 'li! t
: Alternaria alternata
Symptoms: A brown water soaked lesion develop on the leaf and spreads fast to occupy ma'or portion of the leaf leading to complete drying of the lamina. The disease can easily identified by presence of concentric rings in the blighted area showing the sporulation of the fungus. Pat o!e": The mycelium of the fungus is dull brown and septate and produce large number of pale grey#yellow conidiophores which are straight or curved. The
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conidia are light olive coloured with transverse and longitudinal septa with a beak at the top. There are $#% septate and are borne over short conidiophore. Root rot : Ganoderma lucidum
Symptoms: The disease can be visuali)ed as yellowing and dropping of leaves in one or two branches of the tress, subse*uently followed by drying of the branches. As the disease progresses, the defoliation and drying symptoms are seen on the other branches. The fungus grows extensively from the bark and causes white rot of the sap wood which become spongy. The dried trees show characteristic fruiting bodies of the fungus which arise from the base of the trees at the soil level. Pat o!e" The fungus produces woody basidiocarp named as +racket ,Sexual fruiting body-. The fungus survive in the soil and release hundreds of basidiospores ,Sexual spores- which initiate fresh infection during the moist rainy weather. A$(I;IA.Al'ezia saman) $ea% spot : Cercospora al'iziae
Symptoms: Small circular spot with a re margin develops on old leaves. As the disease advances, the centre of spot become white, thin and drops off leaving a shot holes. In severe infection defoliation also occurs. Pat o!e": The mycelium is hyaline and septate with a large number of conidiophores bearing multiseptate, hyaline conidia in large numbers. $ea% spot al'izicolum :-elminthosporium
Symptoms: The disease appears first as minute brown dots, later becoming cylindrical or oval. Several spots coalesce to larger necrotic lesions and leaf dries up. Pat o!e": The fungus produces greyish#brown to dark brown septate mycelium. Conidiophores may arise singly or in small groups. Conidia are usually curved a bulge in the centre and I tapering towards the ends occasionally almost straight, pale olive green to golden brown colour and are /#9 septate. Root rot : Ganoderma lucidum
with
Symptoms: The disease can be visuali)ed as yellowing and dropping of leaves in one or two branches of the tress, subse*uently followed by drying of the branches.
"$
As the disease progresses, the defoliation and drying symptoms are seen on the other branches. The fungus grows extensively from the bark and causes white rot of the sap wood which become spongy. The dried trees show characteristic fruiting bodies of the fungus which arise from the base of the trees at the soil level. Pat o!e": >oody thick structured basidiocarps ,+rackets- appear near the base of the completely dried dead trees. Floweri"! Parasite : T ,ia"t Mistle toe6 #endrophthoe $alcata
he parasite is a partial parasite. It produces a very hard flattened prostrating stem which run over the stem portions of the host and produce haustorial connections to drive the food source. The point of parasitism become thickened to form a gall like structure from which multiple shootings ranging from (%#"2 arise as a clusters. In he case of the severe parasitism, the affected branch start withering drying from tip and dry off. The parasite is a shrubby plant with green leaves and produce erect, clustered branches from the galled portion. It produces cluster of orange coloured tubular flowers. The parasite produce dark red coloured berries.The birds are attracted by the fruits and act as a dissemination agents. The seeds dropped on the crevices of the stem germinate and produce haustoria to attach to the host and proliferate in large numbers.
"6
,ME$INA. Gmelina ar'orea1 $ea% spot : Cercospora ranjita
Symptoms: Small circular spot with a re margin develops on old leaves. As the disease advances, the centre of spot become white, thin and drops off leaving a shot holes. In severe infection defoliation also occurs. Pat o!e" The fungus produces hyaline and septate mycelium. The conidiophores arise in groups and borne 6#& celled, thin walled, hyaline clavate conidia. Powdery mildew : Phyllactinia corylea
Symptoms: The powdery mildew disease develops as a minute white patch on the upper or lower surface, which later extends to cover the entire leaf lamina. As the disease progresses the powdery growth turns to light brown patches leading to defoliation. The infection may also occur on the flower stalk and flowers resulting in the shedding of flowers and young fruits. The white powdery growth of the pathogen represents the mass of conidiophore and conidia. In the advanced stage of the disease the fungi produce the sexual fruiting body called Cleitothecia. Pat o!e": The fungus produces both internal and external mycelia in the infected leaves. The simple conidiophores arise from external mycelia and borne single celled hyaline conidia with a pointed tip.
"%
DISEASES
OF
PE$TOPHOR8M,
MAH8A,
M8$(ERR-,
(A8HINIA,
$E87AENA AND HARD5I7KIA PE$TOPHOR8M (Peltophorum $eru!ineum) $ea% (li! t : Alternaria alternata
Symptoms: A brown water soaked lesion develop on the leaf and spreads fast to occupy ma'or portion of the leaf leading to complete drying of the lamina. The disease can easily identified by presence of concentric rings in the blighted area showing the sporulation of the fungus. The fungus produces brown coloured conidia with both vertical and hori)ontal septa with a beak at the top. Pat o!e": T e mycelium of the fungus is dull brown and septate and produce large number of pale grey#yellow conidiophores which are straight or curved. The conidia are light olive coloured with transverse and longitudinal septa with a beak at the top. There are $#% septate and are borne over short conidiophore. Root rot : Ganoderma lucidum
Symptoms: The disease can be visuali)ed as yellowing and dropping of leaves in one or two branches of the tress, subse*uently followed by drying of the branches. As the disease progresses, the defoliation and drying symptoms are seen on the other branches. The fungus grows extensively from the bark and causes white rot of the sap wood which become spongy. The dried trees show characteristic fruiting bodies of the fungus which arise from the base of the trees at the soil level. Pat o!e": The fungus produce thick woody brackets in the soil near the base of the severely infected trees. MAH8A (Mathuca lati$olia) ,rey $ea% spot : Pestatiopsis mathucae
Symptoms: 7rey coloured irregular lesion normally develop near the tip of the leaf or margin, which advances to occupy ma'or portion of the leaf area showing blighted appearance. The necrotic dried spots large number of black dots can be seen. They are the fruiting body of the fungus namely Acervulus. Pat o!e": The pathogen produces septate mycelium and Acervuli in the host tissues. The conidia are % celled with a three way branched appendages from the top cell. The centre three cells are dark black in colour. $ea% (li! t : Phoma sp2
"/
Symptoms: Spots appear as minute dark brown dots and later enlarge and turn to light pale brown with dark brown outline. The margin grow out wards forming one to three dark brown concentric rings around the light coloured centre spot. Pat o!e": The pathogen produces pycnidia on the leaf surface containing single celled dull brown conidia. Sooty Mo#ld : Capnodium indicum
Symptoms: The infection appears on the upper surface of the leaf as a sparse, black network of hyphae. Then a thin effuse black powdery coating can be seen covering a ma'or portion of the leaf. This indicates the sporulation of the fungus. The heavy infestation of the sucking pests lead to development of the sooty growth on the leaf surface. Pat o!e": The fungus produces black coloured mycelia and 6 types of spores in the black sooty growth. They are Torula, Coniothecium, +rachysporium and Trichothecium. Pat o!e": The pathogen produces septate mycelium and Acervuli in the host tissues. The conidia are % celled with a three way branched appendages from the top cell. The centre three cells are dark black in colour. Red r#st : Cephaleuros parasiticus
Symptoms: Aeddish circular spots with slightly radiating margin develop on the upper surface of the leaves, The affected spots turn to greyish green in colour and leaf shedding occurs in severe infection. 0athogen The pathogen is an Alga and produces filamentous thalli with large number of sporangiophores. The sporangiophore ends with bulged structure called vesicle form the vesicle pedicels are formed. The pedicels end with sporangium. Boospores are form in the sporangia and releases )oospores which infect the host subse*uently.
M8$(ERR- (Morus spp+) Powdery Mildew : Phyllactinia corylea
Symptoms: The powdery mildew disease develops as a minute white patch on the upper surface or lower surface, which later extends to cover the entire leaf lamina. As the disease progresses the powdery growth turns to light brown patches leading to defoliation. The infection may also occur on the flower stalk and flowers resulting in the shedding of flowers and young fruits. The white powdery growth of the pathogen
"1
represents the mass of conidiophore and conidia. In the advanced stage of the disease the fungi produce the sexual fruiting body called Cleitothecia. Pat o!e": The produces both external and internal mycelium in the leaf surface. The conidiophore arise form the external mycelia and bear single celled hyaline conidia with a pointed tip. $ea% spot : Cercospora moricola
Symptoms: Small circular spot with a re margin develops on old leaves. As the disease advances, the centre of spot become white, thin and drops off leaving shot holes. In severe infection defoliation also occurs. Pat o!e": The pathogen produces hyaline and septate with large number of short conidiophores which give rise to %#9 celled hyaline to dull brown clavate conidia at the tip. Pi"9 disease : Corticium salmonicolor
Symptoms: The diseases normally starts initially as on young twigs as silvery white growth and later turns to pinkish growth with white feathery margin. The infected bark splits and exposes a pinkish pustulesCcontaining thousands of minute conidia and later with large number of basidiospores which help in the disease spread. +ecause of the severe damage to the bark the infected twigs are killed. As the pathogen survives in the dead twigs, the disease is severely noticed in the trees without proper care and irregular pruning operations. The rainwater and wind help in the spread of the disease. Pat o!e": The fungus produces light pink coloured septate mycelium. The conidiophores are pink in colour and single celled. The fungus also produces basidiospores in the infected twigs showing blistered areas. The basidium is simple and bear 6 basidiospores. (A8HINIA (,auhinia purpurea) $ea% spot : Cercospora 'auhiniae
Symptoms: Small circular spot with a re margin develops on old leaves. As the disease advances, the centre of spot become white, thin and drops off leaving shot holes. In severe infection defoliation also occurs. Pat o!e": The pathogen produces hyaline and septate mycelium. The conidia are hyaline to dull brown colour with $#/ cells. They are produced on the tip of short conidiophore arise as groups. $ea% spot : Phyllosticta 'auhiniae
"&
Symptoms: 4inute dull black spot appear on the leaves which later enlarges to form a grey spot with a dark margin. Several such spots 'oin to form necrotic lesions on the lamina. A large number of minute black dot like fruiting bodies are produced in the advanced stages of infection. Pat o!e": The fungus produces large number of pycnidia in the affected tissues. The pycnidium contains dark coloured conidia in hundreds which are single celled. LEUCAENA (.eucaena leucophloa) $ea% Spot : Cercospora cruenta
Symptoms: Small circular spot with a re margin develops on old leaves. As the disease advances, the centre of spot become white, thin and drops off leaving shot holes. Pat o!e": 4ycelium of the fungus is hyaline and septate. The hyaline, 6#1 celled thin thread like conidia develop on the conidiophores which arise in clusters. $ea% 'li! t : Alternaria alternata Symptoms A brown water soaked lesion develop on the leaf and spreads fast to occupy ma'or portion of ,the leaf leading to complete drying of the lamina. The disease can easily identified by presence of concentric rings in the blighted area showing the sporulation of the fungus. The fungus produces brown coloured conidia with both vertical and hori)ontal septa with a beak at the top. Pat o!e": T e mycelium of the fungus is dull brown and septate and produce large number of pale grey#yellow conidiophores which are straight or curved. The conidia are light olive coloured with transverse and longitudinal septa with a beak at the top. There are $#% septate and are borne over short conidiophore. Sooty Mo#ld : Capnodium indicum
Symptoms: The infection appears on the upper surface of the leaf as a sparse, black network of hyphae. Then a thin effuse black powdery coating can be seen covering a ma'or portion of the leaf. This indicates the sporulation of the fungus. The heavy infestation of the sucking pests lead to development of the sooty growth on the leaf surface. Pat o!e": The fungus produces black coloured mycelia and 6 types of spores in the black sooty growth. They are Torula, Coniothecium, +rachysporium and Trichothecium. Root rot : Ganoderma lucidum
Symptoms: The disease can be visuali)ed as yellowing and dropping of leaves in one or two branches of the tress, subse*uently followed by drying of the branches. As the
"9
disease progresses, the defoliation and drying symptoms are seen on the other branches. The fungus grows extensively from the bark and causes white rot of the sap wood which become spongy. The dried trees show characteristic fruiting bodies of the fungus which arise from the base of the trees at the soil level. Pat o!e": The fungus produce thick woody brackets in the soil near the base of the severely infected trees. HARD5I7KIA. -ard2ic/ia 'lnata1 $ea% spot : Phoma sp2
Symptoms: Spots appear as minute dark brown dots and later enlarge and turn to light pale brown with dark brown outline. The margin grow out wards forming one to three dark brown concentric rings around the light coloured centre spot. Pat o!e": The pathogen produces pycnidia on the leaf surface containing single celled dull brown conidia.
$2
DISEASES OF 7OFFEE, TEA AND 7O7OA 7OFFEE. Co$$ea ara'ica) $ea% R#st : -emileia vastatri0
Symptoms: The disease develops as minute yellow dots on the lower surface of the leaves with chlorotic spots on the upper surface. The yellow dots represent the uredia of the fungus. As the disease advances thousands of black raised rough spots develop on the lower surface representing telia ,teliosori- of the fungus. In the case of most advanced stage of infection defoliation occurs leaving plants barren. Pat o!e": The uredosori contain hundreds of orange yellow coloured, single celled, kidney shaped uredospores with a spiny walls. The matured sori expose thousands of hyaline single celled turnip shaped teliospores. $ea% rot Pellicularia /olero!a ( Corticium /olero!a)
Symptoms The symptoms appear as small water soaked spot near the tip or margin of the leaf, which slowly expands to cover ma'or portion of the leaves. During the wet weather, the fungus produces thread like black mycelial webbings. The leaf may defoliate but hang from the branch with the mycelial thread. The advanced stages of infection, the group of leaves 'oin together showing the complete blackening of the tissues. Pat o!e" The fungus produces dull black coloured mycelia with large number of single celled dull black conidia in the rotten tissues. $ea% 'li! t : Alternaria co$$eicola
Symptoms: A brown water soaked lesion develop on the leaf and spreads fast to occupy ma'or portion of the leaf leading to complete drying of the lamina. The disease can easily identified by the presence of concentric rings in the blighted areas showing the sporulation of the fungus. Pat o!e": The fungus produces dull brown septate mycelium, having brown coloured conidia with 1#(2 septa , having both vertical and hori)ontal septation. $ea% spot : Cercospora co$$eanum
Symptoms: Small circular spot with a re margin develops on old leaves. As the disease advances, the centre of spot become white, thin and drops off leaving shot holes. In severe infection defoliation also occurs.
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Pat o!e": The fungus produces needle shaped multiseptate, dull brown coloured conidia on the tips of conidiophore which normally develop in groups. (ooty Mould 3 Capnodium indicum
Symptoms: The infection appears on the upper surface of the leaf as a sparse, black network of hyphae. Then a thin effuse black powdery coating can be seen covering a ma'or portion of the leaf. This indicates the sporulation of the fungus. The heavy infestation of the sucking pests lead to development of the sooty growth on the leaf surface. Pat o!e": The fungus produces black coloured mycelia and 6 types of spores in the black sooty growth. They are Torula, Coniothecium, +rachysporium and Trichothecium. TEA . 1hea sinensis1 (lister 'li! t : E<o'asidi#m :e<a"s
Symptoms The disease initiates as a small water soaked spot in the young leaf bud, which later extends fast and occupies larger areas of the leaf. The affected become pink, red and finally black in colour and the leaf portion show downwardE upward curling giving a blistered appearance to the leaves. .ater the blistered area become velvetty and rough leading to drying. Pat o!e": The fungus produces both conidia and basidiospores in the infected leaf areas. The conidia are hyaline and single celled, occasionally two celled, produced on a short conidiophores. .ater, same spot may give rise to basidia each containing single celled basidiospores. $ea% 'li! t : Alternaria theae
Symptoms: A brown water soaked lesion develop on the leaf and spreads fast to occupy ma'or portion of the leaf leading to complete drying of the lamina. The disease can easily identified by presence of concentric rings in the blighted area showing the sporulation of the fungus., Pat o!e" :The fungus produces dull brown septate mycelium with dark brown conidia with %#/ septa having both hori)ontal and vertical septation. ,rey (li! t : Pestatiiopsis theae
Symptoms: 7rey coloured irregular lesion normally develop near the tip of the leaf @ margin, which advances to occupy ma'or portion of the leaf area showing blighted appearance. The necrotic dried spots large number of black dots can be seen. They are the fruiting body of the fungus namely Acervulus bearing large number of % celled spores with apical appendages.
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Pat o!e": The pathogen produces septate mycelium and Acervuli in the host tissues. The conidia are % celled with a three way branched appendages from the top cell. The centre three cells are dark in colour whereas the end cells are hyaline in colour. 7O7OA . 1heo'roma cacao1 $ea% 'li! t : 7yli"dro3ladi#m =#is=#iseptat#m
Symptoms 4inute greyish black water soaked lesions develop on both young and old leaves. Several spots coalesce leading to complete blighting of the leaf lamina. 0athogen The fungus produces dull brown coloured mycelia with single celled hyaline to dull brown conidia. Pi"9 disease : Corticium salmonicolor
Symptoms: The diseases normally starts initially as on young twigs as silvery white growth and later turns to pinkish growth with white feathery margin. The infected bark splits and exposes a pinkish pustules containing thousands of minute conidia and later with large number of basidiospores which help in the disease spread. +ecause of the severe damage to the bark the infected twigs are killed. As the pathogen survives in the dead twigs, the disease is severely noticed in the trees without proper care and irregular pruning operations. The rainwater and wind help in the spread of the disease. Pat o!e": The fungus produces light pink colour and single celled conidia. The fungus also produces basidiospores in the infected twigs showing blistered areas. The basidium is simple and bear 6 basidiospores.
Red r#st
: Cephaleuros parasiticus
$$
$6
DISEASES OF 7$O4E, N8TME,, 7INNAMON AND PEPPER 7$O4E. %u!ena caryophyllata1 Red lea% spot : Colletotrichum capsici Symptoms: The infection starts as watersoaked lesions, which later turns to minute black spot with a dark margins. As the disease progresses, the spots enlarge and cause irregular blighting of the leaf lamina. The blighted leaf tissues show a hundreds of minute black coloured fruiting body of the fungus in concentric rings. The type of fruiting body is acervulus with a large number of hyaline, oblong, single celled conidia which helps in the secondary spread of the disease. Some times infection also spread to the tip of the young twigs which started drying back and this is named as 3die back5 symptom, leading to complete drying of the young shoot. The extensive dieback symptom leading to blighting of the new shoots is called Twig blight. In addition, the fungus also cause infection on the fruits as a black depressed lesion with a dark margin which cause extensive rotting of the fruit skin and internal tissues, named as fruit rot or fruit spot. Pat o!e": The mycelium of the fungus is localised in the spot. Acervuli with setae arise through epidermis. Conidia are hyaline, single celled, vacuolate and falcate in shape N8TME, .Mystrica $ra!rans1 $ea% spot : Colletotrichum capsici Symptoms: The infection starts as watersoaked lesions, which later turns to minute black spot with a dark margins. As the disease progresses, the spots enlarge and cause irregular blighting of the leaf lamina. The blighted leaf tissues show a hundreds of minute black coloured fruiting body of the fungus in concentric rings. The type of fruiting body is acervulus with a large number of hyaline, oblong, single celled conidia which helps in the secondary spread of the disease. Some times infection also spread to the tip of the young twigs which started drying back and this is named as 3die back5 symptom, leading to complete drying of the young shoot. The extensive dieback symptom leading to blighting of the new shoots is called Twig blight. In addition, the fungus also cause infection on the fruits as a black depressed lesion with a dark margin which cause extensive rotting of the fruit skin and internal tissues, named as fruit rot or fruit spot. Pat o!e": The mycelium of the fungus is localised in the spot. Acervuli with setae arise through epidermis. Conidia are hyaline, single celled, vacuolate and falcate in shape $ea% 'li! t : Alternaria alternata
Symptoms: A brown water soaked lesion develop on the leaf and spreads fast to occupy ma'or portion of the leaf leading to complete drying of the lamina. The disease can easily identified by presence of concentric rings in the blighted area showing the sporulation of the fungus., $%
Pat o!e" :The fungus produces dull brown septate mycelium with dark brown conidia with %#/ septa having both hori)ontal and vertical septation. Fr#it rot : Colletotrichum !loeosporioides
Symptoms: The infection starts as watersoaked lesions, which later turns to minute black spot with a dark margins. As the disease progresses, the spots enlarge and cause irregular blighting of the leaf lamina. The blighted leaf tissues show a hundreds of minute black coloured fruiting body of the fungus in concentric rings. The type of fruiting body is acervulus with a large number of hyaline, oblong, single celled conidia which helps in the secondary spread of the disease. Some times infection also spread to the tip of the young twigs which started drying back and this is named as 3die back5 symptom, leading to complete drying of the young shoot. The extensive dieback symptom leading to blighting of the new shoots is called Twig blight. In addition, the fungus also cause infection on the fruits as a black depressed lesion with a dark margin which cause extensive rotting of the fruit skin and internal tissues, named as fruit rot or fruit spot. Pat o!e": The mycelium of the fungus is localised in the spot. Acervuli with setae arise through epidermis. Conidia are hyaline, single celled, vacuolate and falcate in shape 7INNAMON.Cinnamomum zeylanicum1 $ea% spot : Colletotrichum capsici Symptoms: The infection starts as watersoaked lesions, which later turns to minute black spot with a dark margins. As the disease progresses, the spots enlarge and cause irregular blighting of the leaf lamina. The blighted leaf tissues show a hundreds of minute black coloured fruiting body of the fungus in concentric rings. The type of fruiting body is acervulus with a large number of hyaline, oblong, single celled conidia which helps in the secondary spread of the disease. Some times infection also spread to the tip of the young twigs which started drying back and this is named as 3die back5 symptom, leading to complete drying of the young shoot. The extensive dieback symptom leading to blighting of the new shoots is called Twig blight. In addition, the fungus also cause infection on the fruits as a black depressed lesion with a dark margin which cause extensive rotting of the fruit skin and internal tissues, named as fruit rot or fruit spot. Pat o!e": The mycelium of the fungus is localised in the spot. Acervuli with setae arise through epidermis. Conidia are hyaline, single celled, vacuolate and falcate in shape $ea% 'li! t : Cylindrocladium &uis&uiseptatum Symptoms: 4inute greyish black water soaked lesions develop on both young and old leaves. Several spots coalesce leading to complete blighting of the leaf lamina.
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Pat o!e": The fungus produces dull brown coloured mycelia with single celled hyaline to dull brown conidia.
PEPPER (0iper nigrum) $ea% rot& $ea% 'li! t : Phytophthora capsici
Symptoms: The disease can be visuali)ed as paling and yellowing of few leaves in the lower portion of the vines. As the disease progresses, the rotting symptom develop from the margin of the leaf or from the tip of the leaves showing lighted areas. .ater defoliation is very commonly noticed with slow drying of the vine from the tip. The conspicuous diagnostic symptom of the disease is extensive decay of the collar region of the vine with exudation of black coloured fluid. ,7ummosis- During the highly moist weather the fallen leaves show extensive wet rot symptoms covered with cottony white webby mycelial growth.
Pat o!e": The pathogen produces hyaline non#septate mycelium. The sporangia are single celled, hyaline and pear shaped with a papilla at the top. The sexual spores are oospores which are dark brown and spherical in shape. These oospores survive in the soil for several years and cause initial infection in the field. Red r#st : Cephaleuros parasiticus
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TIM(ER DE7A- AND POST HAR4EST SPOI$A,E OF 5OODS In general, the breaking down of the wood tissues is termed as Decay. Decay or rot is mainly caused by fungi. Some time rot due to bacteria also occur but the decay process is very slow when compared to the fungal invasion. >ood decaying fungi are those which inhabit the live, dead or felled tree trunks ,.ogs-, roots and coppiced wood. These are the ma'or contributor for lignin decomposition in the forest or in the plantation. These include large number of genera and species from 0olyporaceae, so called 3+racket fungi5. The importance of >ood Decaying 8ungi ,>D8- was recogni)ed only after the establishment of the concept of :Feart rot; by Aobert Fartig. The ma'ority of the fungi belong to the genus# Fomes ,GP ellinus- are the most important in causing loss of timber through out the world. The phenomenon of wood decay by fungi is both an asset and a liability. +ecause of their uni*ue capacity to degrade lignified tissues, these fungi play a critical role in the carbon cycle. As the fungi decay wood, the forest debris is diminished, organic material are added to the soil and carbon is returned to the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide. In commercially important trees, wood decay fungi are liability since they destroy valuable raw material. Some also attack wood in service, an additional significant loss. T-PES OF DE7A+ased upon the nature of infection and damage to the wood, the diseases may be classified as >Stai"i"!?a"d :De3ay?. STAININ, Stain or discolouration phenomena are fre*uently considered along with decay but are actually important independent processes in themselves. Decay is typically associated with some degree of stain. Stain, however, may exist in the absence of any decay. Stains may be divided into those which occur in trees under natural conditions in the forest and those which develop in the wood of harvested trees. The former may be of considerable significance in the preconditioning of wood for decay organisms and in direct tree mortality. The staining is mainly noticed in the sap wood as a dark coloured growth of the mouldy fungi which can be easily planed off as it is a superficial infection on the surface of the wood. The fungal hyphae initially concentrate with in the ray cells and nutrition is obtained from the cell contents as they do not have en)yme system to break down the components of cell wall. The causal fungi manly develops mainly in the sap wood, cause little strength reduction. The fungi may be surface moulds like 0enicillium spp. ?r interior sap stain fungi such as Ceratocystis spp. ?f Cladosporium spp. A common blue stain is caused by the latter type of fungi.
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Some times, the pathogen may spread deep into the wood and the toxic substance produced by the fungi, mainly belong to the Sub Divisions# Asomycotina and Deuteromycotina- show blue, brown or black stains. Among them, the blue staining is very common leading to deterioration of the wood *uality. The pathogen involved in the decay also cause stains in the wood in the initial stages of the infection, which later develop into a typical rotting. DE7AIn living trees, microbial decay is primarily restricted to the heart wood, which is the interior core of the tissue in stems and branches of the mature trees and consists of xylem devoid of living parenchyma cells. Sap wood decay is usually associated with large wounds. Constituents of 0rimary and secondary layers of wood Constituent Cellulose. .inear glucose polymers Femicellulose, short polymers of various sugars, glucose, mannose, galactose, xylose and arabinose.ignin Hxtraneous organics ,>axes, fats, oils, tannins, resins4iscellaneous inorganics 6 Traces Approximate percentage %( "$ ""
+ased on the nature of the pathogen involved, the decay may be classified as (a3terial de3ay a"d F#"!al de3ay (A7TERIA$ DE7AThe decay caused by bacteria are very slow and prolonged process. The bacteria coloni)e the ray parenchyma cells of sap wood and grow. .ater, they attack the walls of the ray cells by producing some pectic en)ymes leading to soft rots. F8N,A$ DE7A+ased on the nature of destruction of the wood tissues, the wood destroying fungi can be broadly grouped into three broad classification as So%t rots, 5 ite rots a"d (row" rots2 So%t rots: >hen the wood is exposed to highly humidE moist weather, soft rot occurs superficially on the surface of the wood due to the break down of the cellulose. This type
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of rot is found to be insignificant in the standing trees, but most important in wood in service. It is most prevalent in the wood exposed to excessive moisture, such as in cooling tower slats, pilings, boats, fence posts, telephone poles, ponded logs and unpainted building siding. The fungi which soft rot are primarily members of Ascomycotina and Deuterumycotina. The organisms mainly attack polysaccharide constituents of secondary cell wall, while lignin is left relatively left unaffected. 5 ite rots >hite rot and brown rot are commercially and ecologically extremely important as they are the types found in standing trees. The fungus decomposes all components of wood, including lignin. +ecause of degradation of both lignin and cellulose, the affected wood is reduced to spongy mass, to white pockets or streaks of various si)e separated by firm, strong wood, giving a bleached appearance to the wood. The decomposed wood is usually white, but sometimes it may be yellow, tan or even light brown in colour. This type of rot is very common in hard woods when compared to soft woods. Although a few fungi under Ascomycotina ,mostly the family# Iylariaces- cause these types of rots, ma'ority are the results of fun belong to +asidiomycotina. 8amily Agaricaceae Species Coll!bia veluti"es #c i$o" !llum commune Fydnaceae 0olyporaceae Lentinus le"ideus Ec inodotium tincto%ium &!dnum abietis Foems "ini 'anode%ma lucidum Pol!"o%us sul" u%eus Po%ia (ei%ii Thelephoraceae Conio" o%a ce%ebella Penio" o%a )i)antean (row" rots: In contrast to soft rot fungi, organisms which cause white and brown rots generally move through and between, as well as, within the wood cell walls. The fungus Fost Fard woods Fard woods Conifers Conifers 8irs ?aks Fard woods Fard woods Conifers Conifers Conifers Decay type >hite >hite +rown +rown >hite >hite >hite +rown +rown +rown >hite
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decomposes the cellulose and its associated pentosans, leaving the lignin more or less unaffected. The fungus removes cellulose and hemi cellulose in very short time from the wood leaving behind modified lignin as brown rot residues. The wood is reduced to a carboneous mass in various shades of brown, which can be powdered between fingers and to which the name @dry rot? is often applied. Decays can often described according to their position in the tree as root rot, '#tt rot or st#mp rot which confined to the base of the tree tr#"9 rot in the main portion of the bole= top rot confined to the top portion of the tree. Again the names sap rot and eart rot are used to denote the type of wood attacked. Feart rots in the standing trees does not occur till heart wood is formed. This may occur after the formation of heart wood and may de serious during (% to $2 years based on the nature of the tree attacked. >hen the centre core of the heart wood is exposed through wounds or openings in the sap wood and bark, the pathogen make entry and progress slowly with time. Jormally decay attacks only heart wood and living wood remain free from infection and thus the trees are not usually killed immediately. The decay of heart wood is caused by the fungi belong to the family 0olyporaceae of the class Fymenomycetes of the Sub Division# +asidiomycotina. Differentiating characters of >hite rot and +rown rot >hite rot (. 4ore common in Angiosperms ". Decomposition of all components of wood, including lignin $. Decayed wood is white in colour or gives a bleached appearance 6. Dark lines ,Bone lines- are seen in the decayed wood due to strings of tightly woven hyphae. %. >hite rotted woods has normal shrinkage properties and is *uite similar to uninfected wood in terms of dimensional stability /. >hite rotted wood exhibits only slight reduction in strength 1. Jo ma'or reduction in the pulp yield in comparison to sound wood +rown rot (. 4ore associated with 7ymnosperms ". Decomposition of celllulose and its associated pentosans, leaving the lignin more or less unaffected $.Decayed wood is brown in colour, presumed due to lignin residues resulting from preferential utili)ation of carbohydrates 6. Absent
%. +rown rotted woods exhibit longitudinal swellings and shrinkage which gives rise to characteristic cubical checking pattern /. +rown rotted trees show considerable reduction in the strength 1. 4uch reduction in the pulp yield is noticed
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>ood decay fungi are fre*uently classified as top# rotting organisms or buttE root rotting organisms, depending on where they generally reside in the host tree. F8N,I IN4O$O4ED IN DE7AHeart rots 'anode%ma a""lanatum# Acacia, Albi)ia, mulberry, 8ir, Chir 0ine, 'ack Fomes ca%!o" !lli# sal F* +astuosus# sal, Albi)ia F*badius# Acacia F* +astulosus# Casuarina F* annosus, Hucalyptus ,e"eral Root rots 'anode%ma lucidum, Jeem, +amboo, 0ungam, Sal, sissoo, Acacia, Casuarina, Semul, Albi)ia, Hucalyptus, Deoder, Chir 0ine, 0oplar, Aose wood Fomes lamaoensis K Sal, teak, Aubber, 'ack F*no-ius# teak, Albi)ia, Aubber F* li)nosus# Semul, Aubber,'ack F*"ini# Chir 0ine,+lue pine F* ca%!o" !lli# 4athuca F*me%illii # 0ungam &elicobasidium com"actum# Teak, Hucalyptus, Chir 0ine &*mom"a# 4ulberry Penio" o%a % i$omo%" o,sul" u%ea , Tea. P* luna # Deoder Pol!"o%us s o%eae# sal, teak Po!"o%us )ilvus# Sissoo. Aose wood, Acacia, Albi)ia, +lue pine P*$onalis# teak, 'ack P* )lome%atus# Casuarina P* tomentosus# Deoder P*annosus# +lue pine Rosellinia necat%i-# 4ulberry, R* bunodes# Silver oak Ustulina $onata# Aubber Po%ia !"ob%unnea# Aubber
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A%milla%ia mellea 6 Tea./ Casua%ina/ Albi$ia/ %ubbe%/ Eucal!"tus/ 0eode%/ Fi%/ C i% Pine/ 1lue "ine/ #ilve% oa./ 'melina Root rot a"d '#tt rot# Fomes annosus/ Pol!"o%us sc (einit$ii St#mp rot# Fomes li)nosus STA,ES OF DE7AThere are two stages in the decay as wood is changed from sound to completely decayed. In the earliest stages, the wood appears to be hard and firm, the only evidence of attack is a slight to marked colour change from normal. This is known as i"3ipie"t or early or i"itial or 'e!i""i"! or %irst or primary or i":asio" sta!e2 In the case of +rown rot, the incipient decay itself is highly dangerous as it seriously weaken the wood and it should not be used where strength is re*uired. In some cases, the decays continue to develop under favorable conditions after the tree is converted which lead to rapid deterioration of the timber. After the incipient stage is passed , the wood becomes more and more affected until it is finally changed in appearance and structure, leading to destruction of the tissues. This is known as ad:a"3ed or late or mat#re or typi3al or 3omplete or #ltimate or destr#3tio" sta!e2 In this stage, the strength of the wood is so reduced that it can be crumbled between the fingers or easily broken into pieces. FA7TORS INF$8EN7IN, DE7AThe decay of wood is highly influenced by some factors which can be grouped as Hxternal and Internal. The progress and severity of the decay occur in combination of the both the factors. I"ter"al Fa3tors /2 Nat#ral Resista"3e o% t e wood The natural durability and decay resistance of the wood may be based on the inherent character of the tree species and it can resist the invasion by the fungi. The inherent characters may be the thickness of the bark, nature of the sap wood, nature of the heart wood, pF of the substrate and the nature of the *uality of the wood i.e. soft wood or hard wood. 8orest Aesearch Institute, Dehra Dun has devised four decay resistant classes based on the filed and service tests of the wood. 7lass Class I Class II De3ay Resista"3e o% wood& tim'er <ery resistant Average life of timber is more than ("2 months or more Aesistant Average life of timber is between /2# (99 months.
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Class III Class I<
4oderately resistant Average life of timber is less than %9 months Jon# resistant Average life of timber is very less
)2 Nat#ral to<i3 e<#dates The natural toxic extracts present in the wood give a certain degree of resistance to the to the fungal infection. These chemicals usually formed during development of the heart wood and are deposited in the cell wall. 4ost of the extractives are phenols and their chemical nature varies from tree species to species. Some of the phenolics present in tree species are shown below Thu'aplicin # Conifers Tactile # Teak .epachono # +road leaved species Coumarins and 0henols# 4any other forest trees In addition, the pF of the substrate also plays a role in the invasion by the decay fungi. ?ptimum growth of the fungi is experienced between pF of / to 1, below and above which the growth is adversely affected and the timber rendered less prone to attack by the pathogen. E<ter"al %a3tors /2 Tree a!e The age of the tree also have an impact on the decay pathogens. The tree becomes more prone to attack by heart rot with age. The severity of the heart wood decay in forest stand increases with age. Decay is more common in a severe form in over mature trees. In the same age class, stand vigour has a ma'or impact on the decay incidence. >hen the plantation is in a poorly growing condition there occurs increase in the establishment and multiplication of the fungal pathogens lead to severe decay. )2 Temperat#re The atmospheric temperature also has a influence over the decay fungi. The optimum range of temperature for the fungi ranges from (1# $2L C. The growth and en)ymatic activities of the fungi are adversely affected by the very low and very high temperature. +2 Air6 moist#re 'ala"3e The balance between air and moisture is the controlling factor for the development of decay. The pathogen re*uires enough moisture in the wood and high relative humidity to survive and act. Fence, a suitable air# moisture balance has to be maintained for the pathogen to cause decay. 8ungi are unable to grow if moisture of the wood is below "2 per cent.
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A2 Soil Moist#re The soils with less moisture favour more of heart rots than the wet soils. B2 Soil rea3tio" The pF levels of the soils also have an impact on the growth of the decay fungi. The infection of Fomes annosus in 0ine forests is found increase with increase in the soil pF. Similarly, in 0icea, the F* annosus infection is mores in area of high pF. C2 Soil te<t#re The soil texture also show a bearing on the decay of heart woods. The incidence of heart rot is more in 0icea when it is grown in clayey soils and less in sandy soils. In contrast, the diseases are more in La%i-/ when it is grown in sandy soils. Po"ulus stands are less prone to heart rot diseases when grown in sandy silt or sandy loam. The disease is more in the impervious soils like clay. D2 I"E#ry The tree wounds are the main entry point for many of the fungi which cause different types of rots on the forest plantations. The in'uries caused by frost and fire also pave way for the pathogen to establish and cause decay. In Sal, the cankers developed due to frost give way for the entry of Fomes ca%!o" !li* 7HEMISTR- OF DE7AThe decay of wood is a chemical reaction on the substances secreted by the fungal pathogens on the substance comprising of wood. 7enerally the wood decaying fungi produce different en)ymes which have a specific effect on the constituents of cell wall to cause different types of wood decay. +rown rot fungi normally attack celluloses and associated pentosans by producing cellulase en)ymes. The white rot fungi attack both celluloses and lignin by producing lignases in addition to cellulases. iHarly attack on lignin and pentosans and delay in disorgani)ation of cellulose iiHarly disintegration of cellulose and its associated pentosans and delayed attack on lignin iiiHarly decomposition of both lignin and cellulose in varying proportions. The utili)ation of the chromogenic materials in the wood resulted in a typical bleached appearance. The bleaching effect of all white rot fungi is probably due to pigment destruction rather than by lignin destruction. The wood affected by white rots undergo normal shrinkage. The white rot fungi act in three ways based on the nature of the substrate.
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,ROSS 7HARA7TERS OF DE7AIn the advanced stages of decay, wood is markedly changed in its physical properties and can be easily apparent to the unaided eye. A knowledge on the gross characters of the wood is essential for intelligent use of wood and to avoid use of decayed wood. Some important gross characters usually employed are colour, )onelines, odour and strength. ODO8R In general, the odour of the decayed wood is noticeable only in the advanced stage from the freshly cut surfaces. Decay due to Pol!"o%us sc (einit$ii. In oak and spruce wood has a distinct odour of anise oil. Decay by Lentinus le"ides in pine has a characteristic odour of aromatic resinous and fungus odour. 7O$O8R 0ronounced colour change is very commonly observed in the decayed woods. !sually, in the case of sap stain the colour change takes place within a few days of infection . Though the usual shades of colour change is blue, the wood may exhibit brown or black colour. In white rot infection, the wood is bleached indicating the natural colour of the wood. Fomes a""lanatus which causes white heart rot first produces a brownish discoloured )one, later the colouration is accompanied by pinkish, reddish or purplish shades. The infection of F* annosus and Pol!"o%us ci%cinatus is indicated by pinkish to reddish discolourations. ;ONE$INES The infection by the decay fungi also form )onation lines in the affected areas of the wood. Jarrow )one line, usually black sometimes, brown are very commonly noticed in many decays. Jarrow, black to dark brown )one lines usually seen in the case of white rots showing the host cells fully filled with fungal mycelia. STREN,TH The incipient decay may or may not seriously weaken the strength, depending upon the type of decay. The wood with incipient stages of brown rot is seriously impaired in strength, however, the wood with incipient white rot is little weakened. Toughness and shock resistance is first affected by the decay so that wood breaks abruptly across the grain with relatively little resistance, indicating little tensile strength. The wood affected by white rot breaks in splinters or as peculiar fibres. In addition white rot infected wood develop pockets within the tissues and make them useless. SPE7IFI7 ,RA4IT!sually there occurs reduction in the specific gravity of the wood due to decay as the *uantity of wood substance per unit volume gets less. So the decayed wood has lower volume and colorific values
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PRESER4ATI4E TREATMENT OF 5OOD& TIM(ER In timber, the fungal pathogen attack after felling and conversion of wood may initiate from iThe fungus present in the living tree may multiply in the dead wood ii8resh infection on the dead wood after felling and conversion. Pre:e"tio" o% de3ay a%ter %elli"! a"d i" stora!e The decay resistance of the heartwood varies widely from species to species. In nature, the sapwood of most species suffers to decay very fast, if suitable protective measures are not attempted. The following are some of the prophylactic measures to be adopted for prevention of wood decay after felling. The felled and converted logs should be transported from forest immediately. iiThe cut ends should be painted with suitable preservatives. iiiThe wood logs of species whose bark are not resistant to fungal attack may be removed thereby eliminating the risk of infection. ivSuitable protective chemicals may be applied at different stage of the conversion process apply immediately after felling, after conversion and before storage. In warm and humid weather, the preservatives should be applied within 6& hrs after felling as stain causing fungi may infect *uickly the surface of the log. vAfter preservative treatment, the logs may be end# coated by applying thick, viscous bituminous preparation of asphalt or coal tar pitch. Alternatively, mud plaster can also be applied as end#coating. The end coating is useful in preventing infection of the fungi from any cracks left out in the chemically treated wood lots. 5ood Preser:ati:es The wood decay can be eliminated by proper treatment with some chemicals# preservatives. The treatment usually helps in increasing the service life of the wood. A good preservatives should be highly toxic to the fungi, have low volatility, high resistance to leaching and more ability to penetrate deep into the wood. Types o% preser:ati:es (. 0reservative ?ils Creosote is the very commonly used oil for preservation of wood used in railways and marine industry. ". Chemicals soluble in >ater i-
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The chemicals like copper sulphate, )inc chloride and mercuric chloride are used for preservation of woods. :ASC!;, the mixture of Copper#chrome#arsenic is very effectively used for wood preservation. $. Chemicals soluble in organic solvents The chemicals like pentachlorophenol, )inc and copper napthenates come under this group. Met ods o% appli3atio" o% preser:ati:es (. Surface application This type of application is used for short term preservation of wood as it is applied on the surface of the wood. ". >ood Impregnation This method is useful for long term preservation of the wood, in which the chemical is impregnated into the wood either by open tank treatment under atmospheric pressure or by employing pressure to fill the cells of wood with the chemical. $. +oucherie method In this method, the sap is replaced with the preservative chemical. Pre3a#tio"ary meas#res at Tim'er -ard iiiiiiivThe storage yard must be in an elevated area or well drained and should always be clean The floor of the yard should be of concrete or brick lined with a gradual slope to the drain. The storage of timber should be well planned and arranged in a systematic manner with proper ventilation. 0eriodic checking of the logs to be done and any log showing the symptoms must be removed.
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M8SHROOM 78$TI4ATION INTROD87TION 4ushroom is a fleshy fruiting body of some fungi arising from a group of mycelium buried in substratum. 4ost of the mushrooms belong to the Sub# Division +asidiomycotina and a few belong to Ascomycotina. In +asidiomycotina, three types of mycelia vi)., primary, secondary and tertiary, are noticed. The primary mycelium is monokaryotic and is formed by germination of +asidio#spores. These are of different mating types and give rise to secondary mycelium by somato#gamy or fusion of two basidiospores or spermati)ation of two female sex organs. The secondary mycelium forms ma'or portion of the somatic phase and later produces tertiary mycelia, which give rise to fruiting body# basidiocarp ,4ushroom-.
4ushrooms and toadstools are included under Agaricals. Their fruiting bodies are like umbrella, found in every country from snowy mountains to sandy deserts on all types of soils, pastures, forests, wastelands and cultivable lands. Jaturally they appear in all seasons, chiefly during rainy season, as the conditions favour the development of fruiting bodies from the buried mycelia. The edible fruiting bodies are called mushroom and poisonous ones are called as toadstools. The word 3toadstool5 in fact, is a distortion of the 7erman word 5Toadestuhl5, which means 3 death chair5. 4oreover, the name of the 3mycology5 was given to the 3study of mushrooms5 ,4ykes G mushroom-. In addition, some fungi belong to Ascomycotina ,Class Discomycetes, ?rder 0e)i)ales and 8amily 4orchellaceae- also produce fleshy fruiting bodies which are used as food. They are commonly called as 4orels and Truffles. Species of 4orchella and Tuber are such edible fungi under this sub division. In Tuber, the cup#shaped fruiting body is infolded and resembles like potato and hence called Tuber. In 4orels, the cup is infolded and convoluted like a sponge, hence called as Sponge mushroom. It is reported that there are about %2,222 known species of fungi and about (2222 are considered as edible ones. ?f which, about one hundred and eighty mushrooms can
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be tried for artificial cultivation and seventy are widely accepted as food. The cultivation techni*ues were perfected for about twenty mushrooms and about do)en of them have been recommended for commercial cultivation. Fowever, only six mushrooms are widely preferred for large#scale cultivation. They are (- 0addy straw mushroom # 2olva%iella spp. "- ?yster mushroom $- +utton mushroom 6- 4ilky mushroom %- Shiitake mushroom /- Mew;s ear mushroom 4orphology of 4ushroom The mycelium of the fungus is present in the substratum and produce fruiting bodies when the conditions are conducive. The fruit bodies begin as tiny knob of tissue arising from the under ground mycelium. It grows into a button, which later enlarges to form a well#developed fruiting body. The fruiting body of the mushroom consists of a stem, Stipe-, which supports as expanded, umbrella#shaped cap,0ileus-. ?n the under side of the umbrella are the gills or lamellae, which in the young stage are enclosed by a membrane that extends from the margin of the pileus to stipe.This membrane is known as 0artial veil and usually tears around the margin of the pileus as the latter expands but remains attached to the stipe where it forms a ring ,Annulus-. In some mushrooms, the young buttons are covered by a membrane called !niversal veil or 7eneral veil. >hen the cap expands, the veil is torn and the remnants at the base form <olva and some of the fragments remain attached to the pileus surface. M#s room :arieties& strai"s released %rom TNA8 %or 3ommer3ial 3#lti:atio" # Pleu%otus spp. # A)a%icus spp. # Caloc!be spp. # Lentinus spp. # Au%icula%ia sp.
Scientific Jame
<arietyE strain name
0lace of release
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?yster mushroom Pleu%otus sa3o%, ca3u P* cit%ino"ileatus P* d3amo% P* eous (4 P* salmoneo st%amineus) P* ost%eatus P* +lo%ida P* "lat!"us P* Flabellatus &i"si$!)us ulma%ius 4ilky mushroom Caloc!be indica +utton mushroom A)a%icus bis"o%us A0N " Aegional Aesearch Station, Aruppukottai 4" Co( 4D! ( A0N ( ?oty ( 0f 0p 4D! " Co" Dept. of 0lant 0athology, TJA!, Coimbatore Dept. of 0lant 0athology, TJA!, Coimbatore Dept. of 0lant 0athology, Agricultural College O Aesearch Institute., 4adurai Aegional Aesearch Station, Aruppukottai Forticultural Aesearch Station, !thagamandalam Dept. of 0lant 0athology, TJA!, Coimbatore Dept. of 0lant 0athology, TJA!, Coimbatore Dept. of 0lant 0athology, Agricultural College O Aesearch Institute., 4adurai Dept. of 0lant 0athology, TJA!, Coimbatore
A+(,?oty( Forticultural Aesearch Station, <i'ayanagaram Forticultural Aesearch Station, ?oty " <i'ayanagaram
EF8IPEMENTS, INSTR8MENTS AND ESSENTIA$S FOR M8SHROOM 78$TI4ATION The following are the essentials needed for spawn as well as cultivation of mushroom. /2 A#to3la:e& Press#re 3oo9er
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Autoclave is a container used for sterili)ing li*uid media as well as other substrates employing super heated steam under pressure. It is a double Kwalled e*uipment, packed with glass wool in between to maintain the heat, fixed with heating elements in the bottom. A safety valve is also fixed to protect the e*uipment form high# pressure development and an outlet to release air and steam before pressure built up. The pressure cooker also works on the same principal but the pressure built inside the vessel cannot be measured as 0ressure gauge is missing. 8or small scale cultivation, pressure cookers can be used, but autoclaves should be engaged for large scale commercial cultivation. )2 Hot Air O:e" It is a hot air chamber mainly used to sterili)e glass wares like petri dishes, flasks, beakers, test tubes etc. The above materials are sterili)ed by maintaining the temperature ranging from ("2P to (&2PC for a specified time. +2 7 a%% 3#tter It is needed for chopping paddy straw into small bits of "#$5 for easy handling and bed preparation. Fand operated chaff cutters are available for small units and motor operated cutters can be used in large commercial units. A2 7#lt#re room .I"o3#latio" 7 am'er1& Air Flow 7 am'er Culture room is a most essential facility re*uired for preparation of fungal cultures and spawn production. The si)e of room may be $mI$mI$m with an air tight false roofing and a tight fitting door. A clean platform may be constructed or otherwise a laminated table may be placed inside the chamber. An !ltra <iolet ,!<- light should be fixed for sterili)ing the chamber for sterili)ing the room before operation. A fluorescent light may also fixed inside for using at the time of working inside the chamber. A gas cylinder and a +unsen burner are the other items necessarily kept inside the unit. In addition, a small plastic tray may be kept inside to keep ra)or blades, inoculation needles, forceps etc.,
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Airflow chambers of different dimensions are available readily for use. In this chamber, the atmospheric air taken in and sterili)ed air is gently flow inside the work chamber while operating. An !< lamp is fixed inside the work chamber for sterili)ing before using the e*uipment. B2 M#s room S eds: a1 T at3 ed s eds: 8or cultivation of mushroom, thatched shed is mostly suitable in 0lains whereas asbestos sheds are highly preferred in hilly areas. The erection of thatched sheds is a must for the successful cultivation of oyster as well as milky mushroom because the re*uired optimum temperature and relative humidity are easily maintained with minimum efforts. The sheds should have a door, ventilators with fly#proof nets, false roofing and racksE plastic thread hang system ,!ri method- for placing the beds. Aiver sand may be filled to a height of /5 on the floor. It is better to construct mushroom sheds with separate rooms for spawn running and cropping. ?ne or two low voltage electric bulbs may be fixed inside the shed. The shed may be constructed in Hast#west direction to avoid direct effect of sun and to reduce the temperature inside the shed. The height of thatched shed should be around 6 metres and with a false ceiling at a height of ".% metres. The si)e of door may be "."% x 2.1% metres. The ventilators si)e may 2./ x 2.$ metre and " ventilators for & s*uare metre shed is essential for proper air circulation. i1 Spaw" r#""i"! room Spawn running room is one where the newly prepared beds are kept for proliferation of mycelium in the bed. 0referably, a separate room can be erected inside the thatched shed for this purpose. The spawn running room does not re*uire light but sufficient provision for air ventilation is necessary. Jormally, the optimum temperature of ""#"%P C and a relative humidity of &2#&%Q should be maintained inside the spawn running room. ii1 7roppi"! room: Cropping room is one where the completely spawn# run beds are kept for production of mushroom. This room re*uires a relatively cooler atmosphere than the
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spawn running room. The temperature should be around "2#"$ P C with a relative humidity of &%#92Q. Cropping room should have good ventilation and diffused light. The si)e of the shed may vary according to the cost of the pro'ect. The approximate si)e of spawn running and cropping rooms re*uired for the production of mushrooms of re*uired *uantity are indicated below. 4ushroom 0roduction ,NgE day( % "2 Si)e of Spawn running room 6x"m S*.m."2 x & mR S*.m,& S*. m.Si)e of cropping room 6x"m S*.m., (/2 "2 x & mR S*.m, (/2 ,& S*. m., 6"
(/ x ".% mR
, 62 (/ x ".% mR
R Instead of single room of above si)e, small rooms with si)e of & S*. m. may be erected for easy operation and maintenance.
'1 Polyt e"e s ed: 8or cultivation of milky mushroom, in addition to thatched shed, pit with a structure covered with blue coloured polythene sheet is a must for production of mushroom buttons. 8or this purpose, normally $; deep pit is dug out and a semi#circular structure is constructed over it either with bamboo or iron rods to cover it with a blue coloured Figh#Density 0olythene ,FD0H- sheet. This is necessary to maintain temperature of $%#62 P C and relative humidity of &%#92 Q inside. The beds are placed in the thatched sheds till completion of spawn running and the beds are cased and cased beds are to be kept inside the blue tent for production of mushroom. C2 Ot er esse"tials: i- 0addy straw 8reshly harvested and well#dried paddy is highly preferable. 0addy straw. SpoiledE moulded paddy straw or cattle thrashed paddy straw are not suitable.
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ii- Cement trough or tank This is used for soaking paddy straw before sterili)ation. Instead of this, 7.I. drumsE barrels can be used for this purpose. iii- 7.I. drums 7.I. drums of different capacities ,%2, (22 and "22 litres- are necessary. The paddy straw can be soaked in big drums and for boiling the straw, small one are preferable. iv- Chullah It is used for boiling paddy straw, in the place of gas cylinder. v- >ire baskets +ig si)ed wire baskets are necessary for draining excess water after soaking or boiling. vi- Fessian cloth rolls These are essential for drying boiled straw as well as cooked sorghum grains. vii- >all thermometer It is fixed inside the mushroom sheds to observe the temperature maintained inside. <iii- Fand operated sprayersE atomi)ers These are used to spray water in side the mushroom shed as well as on mushroom beds. ix- 0olythene bags 0olythene bag of &2gauge thickness and of si)e, /2 cm x $2 cm is used for preparation of beds. 0olybags of si)e, "2cm x (% cm are used for packing mushroom after harvesting. x- 0olypropylene bags 0olypropylene bags of si)e, "1 cm x (" cm with a thickness of "22 gauge are used for spawn preparation. xi- Cotton wool Jon Kabsorbent cotton wool is used for plugging spawn bags. Absorbent cotton rolls are re*uired for cleaning the culture roomE inoculation table etc., xii- 4iscellaneous items 7as stove, Small balance ,( Ng capacity-, plastic trays, 'ute thread balls, cotton thread balls, conical flask of different capacity, 0etri plates, test tubes, boiling test tubes, funnel, muslin cloth, pF indicator papers, Fydrochloric acid, Sodium hydroxide, antiseptic lotions, waste newspapers, glassE iron rods, match boxes, permanent marker pens etc., 78$TI4ATION OF O-STER M8SHROOM 0AH0AAATI?J ?8 S0A>JS 1A#E #PA5N
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Tissue culture techni*ue is used to bring the edible mushroom to pure culture so that the mushroom fungus can further be used to prepare spawn, which is an essential material for mushroom cultivation. This nucleus culture is grown on 0otato Dextrose Agar medium in test tubes. A small tissue from a well#grown mushroom is aseptically transferred to agar medium in a test tube in a culture room. The test tubes are incubated under room temperature for (2 days for full white growth of fungal culture. This is further used for preparation of 4other spawn. 0rocedure i- Select well grown, disease free oyster mushroom early in the morning and keep it on a clean paper for "#$ hr. to get certain amount of moisture present in the mushroom to get evaporated. ii- Clean the culture roomE laminar flow chamber with antiseptic solution. iii- Neep the sterili)ed 0DA slants, ra)or blades, forceps etc. inside the chamber and put on the !< light. iv- After "2 minutes put off the !< light and and start working after % minutes. v- Sterili)e all the instruments to be used by exposing to +unsen burner. vi- Take in the mushroom and split open the mushroom longitudinally into two halves. vii- !sing a new, sterili)ed blade cut a small piece of tissue from the centre of the split mushroom at the 'unction of pileus and stipe. viii- Aemove the cotton plug of the agar slant and the tissue is aseptically placed inside the slant by using a sterili)ed forceps and close it immediately. xi- After transferring tissues from the mushroom, the tube are arranged in a wire basket and kept in a clean room at room temperature for the growth of the fungus. xii- ?bserve the tube at periodical intervals and remove the contaminated ones. The tubes will be ready for further use within another ten days. The base spawn is used for preparation of mother spawns.
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0recautions to be observed >ash the hands with antiseptic lotion before start working inside the chamber. If possible, it is better to use hand gloves while operation. It is better that the maximum of two persons may work inside the room at a time. Avoid unnecessary talking while working inside the room. >hile separating the tissue from the centre of the mushroom it should not touch the bottom or sides of the mushroom.
0AH0AAATI?J ?8 4?TFHA S0A>J 4other spawn is nothing but the mushroom fungus grown on a grain based medium. Among the several substrate materials tested by TJA!, Coimbatore, sorghum grains are the best substrate for excellent growth of the fungus. >ell#filled, disease# free sorghum grains are used as substrate for growing the spawn materials. The various steps involving in preparation of mother spawn are listed below here under. i- >ash the sorghum grains in water thoroughly to remove chaffy and damaged grains. ii- Cook the grains in an autoclave E vessel for $2 minutes 'ust to soften them. iii- Take out the cooked grains and spread evenly over a Fessian cloth on a platform to remove the excess water. iv- 4ix Calcium carbonate ,CaC?$-thoroughly with the cooked, dried grains S "2 g E Ng . v- 8ill the grains in polypropylene bags up to $E6th height ,approximately $22#$$2 g E bag-, insert a 0<C ring , bold the edges of the bag down and plug the mouth tightly with non#absorbent cotton wool. vi- Cover the cotton plug with a piece of waste paper and tie tightly around the neck with a 'ute thread. vii- Arrange the bags inside an autoclave and sterili)e under "2#lbs. pressure for " hours. viii- Take out the bags after cooling and keep them inside the culture room and put on the !< light. ix- After "2 minutes put off the !< light and start working in the culture
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room. Cut the fungal culture into two e*ual halves using a inoculation needle and transfer one half portion to a bag. Similarly, transfer another half portion of the culture to an another bag. x- Incubate the inoculated bags in a clean room under room temperature for (2 days for further use to prepare bed spawn. Jote The purpose of mixing Calcium carbonate is i- to remove the excess moisture present in the cooked grains, ii- to neutrali)e the pF of the grains and iiito avoid caking of grains after sterili)ation. 0recaution to be observed: Avoid over cooking of sorghum grains, as over cooking lead to splitting of grains. Don;t dry the cooked grains on the floor. Always dry over hessian cloth spread on a raised platform !se only recommended dose of CaCo$ for mixing with the cooked grains. 4ixing over dose reduces the fungal growth in the inoculated bags.
0AH0AAATI?J ?8 +HD S0A>J The method of preparation of bed spawn was same as that of mother spawn. The cooking, filling and sterili)ation were similar to that of mother spawn. After sterili)ation, the bags are taken for inoculation. 0rocedure i- The sterili)ed bags are placed inside the culture room and put on the !< light. ii- After "2 minute put off the !< light and take in the well#grown mother spawn. iii- Transfer spawn from the mother spawn to sterili)ed bags S (2 g per bag. iv- After inoculation the spawn bags are kept in a clean room for fungal growth. ,This is first generation of bed spawnv- !se the bed spawn after (2 days of inoculation for bed preparation.
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vi- Sub culture the first generation bed spawn as mother spawn to produce one more generation, which is second generation bed spawn. 0recautions to be observed Avoid over cooking of sorghum grains, as over cooking lead to splitting of grains. Don;t dry the cooked grains on the floor. Always dry over hessian cloth spread on a raised platform !se only recommended dose of CaCo$ for mixing with the cooked grains. 4ixing over dose reduces the fungal growth in the inoculated bags. Avoid further sub culturing of the second generation bed spawns. This leads to lose of virulence of the spawn lead to reduced yield and repeated sub culturing lead to complete lose of virulence wherein the fungal growth may be noted in the beds but no buttoning is completely arrested.
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M8SHROOM 78$TI4ATION
+HD 0AH0AAATI?J AJD CA?00IJ7 PREPARAT6ON OF #U1#TRATE# AN0 #TER6L67AT6ON Pleu%otus spp. can be grown indoors and any well#ventilated room would be suitable. A thatched shed with false roofing is an ideal room for successful cultivation of this mushroom, as the re*uired temperature pf "2#"% and relative humidity of &2#&% Q cab easily be maintained. Preparatio" o% s#'strate: In the cultivation of oyster mushroom, most cellulosic farm waste is used as substrate. These include paddy straw, corncobs, bagasse, banana leaves, leaf litters of various kinds, waste paper, cotton waste etc., Among them, paddy straw is found to be the best substrate giving more bio efficiency. 0addy straw is chopped into bits of si)e"#$5 for easy handling and operation. SteriliGatio" o% s#'strate: There are three methods with which the chopped straw can be sterili)ed. Any one method can be adopted based on the facilities available. /1 Hot water treatme"t& (oili"! met od: i- Soak the chopped paddy straw in cold water for 6 hr in a 7.I. Drum.. ii- Drain the water and add fresh water and cover the drum with gunny sac. iii- +oil the contents over the flame for one hr. iv- After boiling, take out the straw and drain the excess water by keeping
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then in wire baskets. v- Spread the straw as thin layer on a hessian cloth, spread on a raised platform. vi- Shade dry the straw to get /2#/% Q moisture capacity. )2 Steami"!: i- Soak the chopped paddy straw in cold water for 6 hr in a 7.I. Drum.. ii- Drain the water and take straw out and fill it in big wire baskets. iii- Neep the wire baskets in an autoclave and put on the autoclave and allow it to steam for ( hr. iv- After steaming, take out the straw and drain the excess water by keeping then in wire baskets. v- Spread the straw as thin layer on a hessian cloth, spread on a raised platform. vi- Shade dry the straw to get /2#/% Q moisture capacity. +2 7 emi3al met od: i- Take (22 litre of clean cold water in a "22#litre 7.I. drum and mix (2 g of carbenda)im and ("2 ml. of formalin. ii- >eigh (2 kg of dry straw and soak in the solution and cover it air tight with a thick polythene sheet. iii- Soak the straw in the chemical solution for (/ hr. . iv- After soaking, take out the straw and drain the excess chemical solution by keeping then in wire baskets. v- Spread the straw as thin layer on a hessian cloth, spread on a raised platform. /(
vi-Shade dry the straw to get /2#/% Q moisture capacity. 0recautions to be observed i- The straw should not be dried on a floor. ii- The hessian cloth should be disinfected Dettol or any disinfectant before use. iii- In the case of chemical treatment, the doses of the chemical should not exceed the recommended level. iv- The /2 Q moisture content in the straw can be 'udged by taking a handful of straw and s*uee)e it tightly. The water should not drip out and the palm can feel the wetness of the straw. ,%# P"%PA"A1)O* The cultivation of oyster mushroom is usually carried out in transparent polythene covers. The si)e of the cover should be /2 x $2 cm, with a thickness of &2 gauge. 0rocedure i- >ash hands thoroughly with antiseptic lotion. ii- Take the polythene cover and tie the bottom end wit a thread and turn it inwards. iii- 4ix the dried straw thoroughly to get a uniform moisture level in all areas. iv- Take out a well#grown bed spawn, s*uee)e thoroughly and divide into two halves. ,Two beds are prepared from the single spawn bagv- 8ill the straw to a height of $5 in the bottom of polythene bag, take a handful of spawn and sprinkle over the straw layer , concentrating more on the edges. vi- 8ill the second layer of the straw to a height of %5 and spawn it as above. vii- Aepeat this process to get five straw layers with spawns. viii- 7ently press the bed and tie it tightly with a thread.
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ix- 0ut / ventilation holes randomly for ventilation as well as to remove excess moisture present inside the bed. x- Arrange the beds in side the thatched shed, ,Spawn running roomfollowing Aack system or Fanging system. xi - 4aintain the temperature of ""#"% C and relative humidity of &%#92 Q inside the shed. xii- ?bserve the beds daily for contamination, if any. The contaminated beds should be removed and destroyed. xiii- Similarly, observe regularly for the infestation of insect pests vi$*, flies, beetles, mites etc., If noticed, the pesticide like 4alathion should be sprayed in side the shed S ( ml per litre of water. xiv- The fully spawn run beds can be shifted to cropping room for initiation of buttons. 0recautions to be observed i- Neep the spawn running room dark so that spawn running will be faster. ii- 0eriodically place Aat#baiting to kill rats as they are attracted by the spawn. iii- 0eriodically sprinkle water on sand layer to maintain the re*uired conditions. iv- Jever spray any insecticides on the mushroom beds. 7ROPPIN,, HAR4ESTIN, AND PA7KIN, The fully spawn run beds should be transferred to cropping room in the thatches shed, where the diffused light and good ventilation are necessary for the button development. There are different methods to handle the spawn run bed to initiate button development. They are (. ?pen bed method , wherein the polythene cover is completely removed and allowed for cropping.
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". Closed bed method, wherein the polythene cover is intact and buttons will come out through the holes made of pierce through the cover. $. Falf cover open method, wherein the one half of the polythene cover is removed for cropping and second half after first harvest. 6. Stripe method, wherein the polythene cover as longitudinal strips of %# cm breadth at 6#% places in the bed. %.Tear method, wherein the polythene cover is teared longitudinally at several places. /. Aound opening method, wherein the round shaped openings of % cm diameter are made at random. Fowever, among all the methods of opening of beds, complete removal of the polythene cover is found to give more yields than others. The steps followed in full opening of bed are described below 0rocedure i- !se a new blade and cut the polythene covers and remove fully. ii- Allow the bed to dry for a day, as freshly opened beds contain more moisture. iii- Spray water on the beds from second day of opening using an atomi)er. , +ased on the condition, two to three sprays are necessary daily and never allow beds to dry completely-iv- ?bserve the beds regularly and bed, if any, showing contamination should be removed. ,Two to three days after opening pinheads of mushroom button develop which will be ready for harvest with in another 6 daysv- Farvest the entire bunch of mushroom gently in the early hours of morning. vi- Aemove the straw bits adheres to the mushroom and cut off the bottom portion of the stalk. vii- 0ack neatly in a polythene cover S "22 g per bag and put a few
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ventilation holes. viii- Neep them in an icebox and send to sales unit immediately. , The freshly harvested and packed mushrooms can be kept in a refrigerator, if mushroom to be sold next dayxi- After harvest, scrap out the mushroom bed with a new comb to remove dried and rotten buds of mushroom. xii- Spray the beds daily, based on the conditions of the beds two to three sprays may be needed. , Second harvest can be done 1#(2 days after the first harvestxiii- After second harvest, scrap out the outer layers as above and spray water regularly. ,Third harvest can be had after a week or ten days-. xiv- Dispose the beds after third harvest as it is uneconomical to keep the beds further. 0recautions to be observed i- Always maintain the optimum temperature of "$#"% C and relative humidity of &2# &%Q inside the shed. ii- Jever pour water on the beds, which leads to complete rotting of young developing buds. iii- Spray water on the beds only after harvesting the mushroom. iv- Always harvest the mushroom in the morning and pack them immediately. v- If the closed bed system or other partial opening methods is followed, it is better to wet the sand layer fre*uently to maintain the temperature and relative humidity-
MI$K- M8SHROOM
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The methods of spawn and bed preparation are similar to that of oyster mushroom. After spawn running inside the thatched shed, the beds should be kept inside the +lue polythene house after casing.
CASIJ7 AJD CA?00IJ7 In the case of milky mushroom, an extra process called casing has to be done to induce button formation. After casing operation the beds should be arranged inside the +lue polythene covered pit tent for the growth of the mushroom. The fungus re*uires an optimum temperature of $2#$% C and relative humidity of &2#&% per cent for the better growth and production of sporocarp. In addition, the fungus needs a light intensity of "%22# $222#lux for production of buttons, and the cased beds should be kept inside the blue tent.
Casing Casing nothing but application of thin layer of sterili)ed soil on the surface of mushroom bed to induce buttons formation. 8or casing, garden land soil rich in calcium is preferable. Instead of that soil and river sand , mixed in e*ual proportion can also be used. Sometimes the soil is mixed with Calcium carbonate S (22 gE kg and used as a casing medium. The soil used for casing process should be free of stones and stubble and has to be sterili)ed before casing. The soil is taken in a mud pot or a vessel and steamed in an autoclave or pressure for 6% minutes. ,Soil can also be mixed with a little *uantity of water and sterili)ed for this purpose-. The soil is used for casing after cooling.
0rocedure
i- Take the fully spawn run bed and cut hori)ontally into two e*ual halves. ii- Compact the beds as much as possible by pressing firmly with hand.
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iii- Apply casing soil to a height of ( cm and press it gently. iv- Spray the water sufficiently to wet the cased soil. v- 0lace the beds inside the blue tent. vi- ?bserve the beds daily and spray water, if necessary, to keep the beds wet. vii- >atch for any contamination and insect pests. If noticed take necessary steps. , Ten after casing the small pin head buttons develop and with in another 1 days mushrooms are ready for harvestviii- Farvest the mushroom, clean it and pack it in a polythene bag for sales. xi- Stir the top of the bed after first harvest and spray water regularly. ,Second harvest can be obtained in another (2 daysxii- Disturb the topsoil after second harvest and spray water as regular. ,Third harvest can be done after (2 days and for commercial cultivation a maximum of three harvests is recommended-.
The mushroom yield of $%2 K622 g can be obtained from "%2 g dry weight of the straw, providing all optimum conditions inside the mushroom shed.
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FF( )*+ FOREST PATHO$O,- .

JATROPHA .Jatropha curcus1 Dampi"! o%% : Fusarium solani

CA(UA")*A (Casuarina e&uiseti$olia) $ea% spot& Needle 'li! t : Phoma casuarinae

SIMAR8(A. (imarou'a !lauca1 $ea% spot : Cercospora sp2

A"t ra3"ose&Fr#it rot

,rey lea% spot

TAMARIND .1amarindus indica1 Powdery mildew : Oidium sp2

,ME$INA. Gmelina ar'orea1 $ea% spot : Cercospora ranjita

M8$(ERR- (Morus spp+) Powdery Mildew : Phyllactinia corylea

PEPPER (0iper nigrum) $ea% rot& $ea% 'li! t : Phytophthora capsici

Class III Class I<

<arietyE strain name

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