Digital Photography

Guidebook

Copyright © 2008 by Marcu Mihai

All Rights Reserved

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 Digital Photography Guidebook

Section One
Since the first photograph was made in the 1830’s, there has been a sense of awe
involved in seeing an image on paper that the photographer saw in nature or envisioned in his
mind. For the first fifty years of photography, getting the image to paper was a painstaking task.
The photographer had to coat the plates, expose the plates in the camera, then process them and
make prints.

Factory made dry-plates, and then flexible film, made the job a lot easier, but the real
revolution came in 1888 with the first Kodak and the birth of the photofinishing industry. All of
a sudden anybody could push the button and send the film in to be processed and printed.

Some serious photographers still had their own darkrooms to process film and make
prints. With the advent of color film, most professional photographers would send their film to
professional photo labs which carefully developed the film and made prints by hand using
enlargers. But the vast of majority of people just sent their film to a photofinishing plant that
cranked out millions of pictures on increasingly more automated and complex machines. With
the advent of digital cameras, photographers once again have control of their images using
computers.

In the era of photofinishing plants and pro labs, most photographers, even professionals,
didn’t understand the quantity of decisions and the quality decisions that could be made in
processing and printing photographs. People routinely accepted the pictures that came back from
the processor as being as good as they were going to get. With a digital camera and a computer,
those decisions are once again in the hands of the photographer and the choices may be
overwhelming.

The purpose of this book is to help the reader understand those choices and give you
more control over what your photographs look like. In the end, you decide what looks good,
what you like, and what the photographs say. There are no right or wrong photographs or right
or wrong approaches to photography. If the results are what we want, it is right; if the results are
not what we intended, we can do it differently until we get what we want.

The choice of cameras, exposure, focusing, computer processing, and printers all have to
do with control and achieving the desired results.

The big disadvantage of film is the time it takes to process the film and make prints or
view the slides. This time lag makes it difficult for the creative photographer to improve his
skills because there is not direct reinforcement of small changes in technique.

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 Imagine bowling or playing golf without being able to see the pins or where the ball
landed. Then going back a week later and watching a replay of the pins falling down or the ball
landing on the fairway or on the green. That was the challenge facing photographers before the
digital age.

Now, with digital cameras, the image can be viewed instantly on a LCD screen. This
gives the photographer the information he needs to make changes to improve the image or to
know that the photo is what he intended. This should result in large steps being made in the
overall quality of photographs produced.

Types of Cameras

First let’s talk about cameras. Cameras are generally categorized based upon the viewing
system. The viewing system shows the photographer what he is getting. In the past, with film
and chemical based systems we had: viewfinder cameras, rangefinder cameras, single-lens reflex
or SLR cameras, twin-lens reflex or TLR cameras, and view cameras. These terms all have to do
with the viewing system.

Viewfinder cameras have some sort of optical viewfinder that the photographer looks
through to compose the photographs. These can range from nothing more than a peep hole to
very sophisticated optical systems. Rangefinder cameras are viewfinder cameras with a
mechanical focusing apparatus built in to the viewfinder or in some cases a separate window.
SLR cameras use a complicated mirror system that allows the photographer to see directly
through the taking lens. The mirror swings out of the way when the shutter is released. Some
SLRs use a two-way fixed mirror. In either case a very accurate preview of what will be captured
is seen in the viewfinder. TLR cameras use two identical lenses to accomplish the same purpose
but without the movable mirror. With a view camera, the photographer looks at an image on a
ground glass at the back of the camera. When he is ready to expose the film, the photographer
places a film holder in front of the ground glass and makes the exposure. A view camera is the
most accurate, but also the most cumbersome type of camera. It is used almost exclusively for
inanimate objects, usually in the controlled environs of a studio.

There have also been many combinations of these systems through the years, especially
in the first half of the twentieth century. There have been view cameras with rangefinders,
normally called press cameras; waist-level SLRs; and even twin-lens view cameras.

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 Lancaster wooden view camera from the 1880’s

Graflex 4x5 Single-lens-reflex (SLR) from the 1930’s.

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 Canon 7 35mm rangefinder camera from the 1950’s.

In the digital age there is less need for view cameras, TLR cameras have fallen out of
favor, and autofocus has all but eliminated the need for rangefinder cameras. That leaves
viewfinder cameras, now referred to as “point and shoot” or PS and SLRs, called DSLR in their
digital form. A new viewing system has also emerged called the electronic viewfinder or EVF
camera. This system combines elements of both PS and DSLR cameras.

Most photographers start with a PS or point and shoot style camera. Modern electronics
allow an amazing range of features. Almost all have automatic focusing, automatic exposure,
built-in flash, automatic color-balance, and most have some sort of variable angle lens called a
zoom lens. These cameras are also usually quite small. Most can easily be carried in a pocket or
purse.

Choosing a PS camera

The first consideration in choosing a camera is price. How much money do you want to
spend? Your budget should be determined by your financial resources and how serious of a
photographer you are or intend to be. A person whose principle hobby or profession is
photography will want to spend more on a camera than would a person whose only interest is
recording family events. Remember a good photographer can get good results from an
inexpensive camera, while a poor photographer’s pictures probably will not be improved with a

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more expensive camera. A camera is only a tool and the quality is in the hands of the craftsman,
not the tool.

Next you need to decide what features are necessary for the type of photography you
want to do. For example, if your interest is in photographing very small objects such as jewelry
or insects, a camera with close focusing capabilities would be necessary along with a tripod
socket. A tripod is necessary for extreme close-up photography because of the difficulty in
holding the camera steady.

If your main purpose is to photograph sports, a longer telephoto lens and very short
shutter-lag would be appropriate. It is unlikely that one camera will do everything. That is why
professional photographers usually have several cameras that serve different purposes. If they do
only one type of photography, they might need only one specialized camera. Likewise, the
beginning or amateur photographer should decided what the primary use will be before he can
decide on which camera best suites his needs.

A camera should be easy to use. In an effort to make cameras increasingly smaller,

manufactures have, in many cases, made the cameras more difficult to use. The controls are
smaller and not located in obvious places. Many functions can only be accessed through
complicated menus and some features, that may be important to you, may have been eliminated
all together. These are the things to be considered when shopping for a new camera. Remember:
the camera manufacturer makes cameras for only one reason – to sell cameras. The photographer
buys a camera for only one reason – to make photographs. These two purposes may or not be in
conflict.

What are some specific things a photographer should look for when buying a new PS
camera?

Can I see through the camera well enough to compose the picture? This may seem
obvious, but many camera manufactures have eliminated viewfinders all together, instead relying
on LCD screens to view the image. These screens can be very hard to see in bright sunlight and
impossible to use on a snowy day with sunglasses. Holding the camera at arm’s length makes it
very difficult to hold the camera steady and older photographers may have trouble seeing the
LCD screen well enough to get a reasonable accurate idea of what the photo will look like.

Can I turn the flash off and on manually? If so, is the control readily accessible or is it
difficult to do? Often you will not want to use the flash in low light situations, or you will want
to use it in bright light for fill. A fully automatic flash greatly reduces the photographer’s ability
to control the image.

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 Can I control the focus or exposure manually? Automatic exposure and auto-focus work
great about 80-90% of the time. Not having the ability to bypass these features reduces your
control and thus the quality of your photos.

How long does it take for the shutter to fire after the button is pushed? This is called
shutter lag. Shutter lag has become a big problem on modern cameras because the camera must
focus and set the exposure between the time the shutter release button is pushed and the time the
image is recorded. Most manufactures list shutter lag as a specification. This time varies greatly
between cameras. Generally speaking, more expensive cameras have less shutter lag. If the
photographer is planning on photographing sporting events, people, or anything where quick
reaction time is important, check the shutter lag time closely, then try out the camera to make
sure it is sufficiently quick.

The angle of view – how much of the subject the camera takes in – is determined by the
focal length of the lens in comparison to the physical size of the image sensor. A low number is
considered to be wide-angle and a larger number is called telephoto. These are relative terms and
mean different things to different people. Generally an angle of view greater than the human eye
is considered wide-angle and a narrower view is called telephoto. A lens with a variable focal
length is called a zoom lens. Cameras now are often labeled with a ratio of the shortest to the
longest focal length the lens is capable of. For example if a camera has the equivalent of 35mm
to 105mm lens, this would be called a 3X. If the lens were adjustable for focal lengths 35mm to
350mm it would be called a 10X zoom. The ratio does not say anything about the widest angle or
the narrowest angle possible, only the ratio. A lens with a range of 25mm to 75mm and a lens
with a range of 100mm to 300mm are both 3X zooms, but completely different. A longer ratio or
zoom range isn’t necessarily better. Depending upon the type of photography you intend to do,
you may need a different range all together.

If the lens is actually a variable focal length lens it is called an optical zoom. Many
cameras have a method of cropping the image electronically in the camera. This is called digital
zoom. Digital zoom degrades the image and probably should not be used by serious
photographers. Do not confuse digital zoom with optical zoom. Read the features carefully.

Many cameras now have some sort of stability control. This is a system designed to
reduce shake or vibration. The idea is to move the sensor opposite the movement of the camera
to reduce image blur due to camera movement. While not a cure-all, image stabilization seems to
help, especially as cameras become lighter and thus, harder to hold steady, and viewfinders are
designed in such a way as to prevent good camera holding techniques. (More about that later.)

How about pixel count? The number of pixel or picture elements on the sensor will, to a
large degree, determine how big a photograph you can make, or how much it can be cropped,
without the individual pixels showing up to ruin the picture. By pixel count alone, all modern
cameras are capable of making very large prints. Of course other factors come into play when

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making larger size photographs. Five megapixel cameras are capable of making very nice 16X20
inch prints. Eight megapixel cameras can make high quality 30X40 inch prints. If your main
interest is in making photos that are no larger than 8X10 inches, any modern camera should do
fine. Small cameras such as those in cell phones may be one meg or less and are probably limited
to snapshot size or web use only.

Finally, do I like the looks of the camera? Some cameras are cool, some are ugly. With
the myriad number of camera models, from dozens of different manufactures, every
photographer should be able to find a camera that they like, that has the features they need,
controls that are easy to use, and that they can afford.

DSLRs

At the other end of the price-scale are digital single lens reflex cameras or DSLRs.
DSLRs are bigger, heavier, and generally more expensive than PS cameras. DSLR cameras have
feature-sets that are designed more for serious amateur and professional photographers. Most
have interchangeable lenses; all have manual override in addition to automatic adjustments for
exposure, focus, color balance, flash, and sensor sensitivity. These features are designed to give
the photographer maximum control over the image. Remember: to get the photographs you want,
you have to have as much control over the process as possible.

DSLR cameras can get very expensive, but very high quality results can be obtained with
even modestly priced models. In this category, higher prices usually mean higher quality
materials, more rugged construction, and of course, prestige; not necessarily more features or
better pictures.

If the photographer is planning on using studio type flash units, he should buy a camera
that will accommodate a pc (point-contact) flash cord. Only the higher-end cameras tend to have
this once basic feature. Other features, that may or may not be needed, might be limited or
unique to certain models, so shop carefully if you are spending a large amount of money for a
DSLR camera.

As with PS cameras, look and feel are important. For the professional photographer, how
the camera feels in his or her hands can make the job a joy or make it miserable.

The camera body and lens are often sold separately on more expensive DSLR cameras.
This allows the photographer to choose the lens or lenses best suited to his type of work. The
most expensive lens may not serve your purpose any better than less expensive lenses. Know
your purpose, what kind of photographs you intend to make, and shop accordingly.

For example, a sports photographer might need a very long and fast lens for football or
baseball but a totally different lens for basketball. Golf is seldom played in low light and a

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photographer who only does weddings has completely different needs than one who photographs
horses.

Another variation of the DSLR is the medium format camera. These are derived from the
medium format film camera such as Hasselblad, Mamiya, and Bronica. The current crop of
medium format digital cameras have resolutions in the 25 to 50 megapixel range with prices well
over $10,000. If your needs require ultra-high resolution and cost is not important. The cameras
in this class cannot be ignored.

A typical DSLR camera – a Pentax K20D

EVF Cameras

A third type of camera, made possible by digital photography, is the electronic

viewfinder or EVF. EVF cameras share some of the features of both the PS and D-SLR cameras
and are generally priced in between as well.

EVF cameras are small and compact like PS cameras but allow for more accurate
viewing like a DSLR. These cameras use a LCD like PS cameras, but have a second LCD that is
viewed through a magnifier at eye-level. This means the camera can be held pressed to the face

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for steadier images, the image appears immediately in the viewfinder after the shutter is released
for a quick check. Menus and other information can be viewed directly on the LCD, and even
more importantly the viewfinder can be seen in all kinds of light. These cameras are typically
easy to use, small enough to carry easily, have many easy to control features, and produce
excellent results. EVF cameras make great travel cameras.

They lack interchangeable lenses like their larger D-SLR brothers and are often not as
durable for extreme use. For the majority of photographers, the EVF camera may be the best
compromise. Many professional photographers use EVF cameras for those situations where they
don’t want to have to carry a big camera or interchangeable lenses are not necessary.

A Nikon CoolPix 8400 EVF camera

When should I buy a new camera? Cameras have always had a very long life span.
Mechanically or electrically speaking age is not a factor. Most cameras die from abuse rather
than old age. Only a professional photographer making hundreds of photographs a day is likely
to wear out a camera in five or ten years. In the digital age, each year brings new models, new
features and higher performance. If your old camera is giving the results you want, there is little
need to buy a new one. But if your camera is more than three or four years old, there is a good
chance that a much better camera can be purchased for less than you paid for the old one only a
few years ago.

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Composition

Now that you have your new camera, it is time to make some great pictures. It is time to
talk about composition. In art like a lot of other things, it is a good idea to know some rules
before you start breaking them.

One handy rule to get started is the rule of thirds. Imagine that the frame is divided by
thirds vertically and horizontally like a tic-tac-toe game. The most important part of the picture is
along the one-third lines, or where they cross. When in doubt about how to compose your
picture, try to put the most important thing along these lines. The most important thing might be
a person’s eyes, the horizon, or the central subject. Avoid the bulls-eye syndrome; you don’t
want the subject to look like a target.

Another rule has to do with people. Generally speaking, you do not want the subject
looking off the edge of the frame. It is more comfortable when they are looking into the frame.
This also applies to a layout on a page. If a person is looking off the edge of the page or into the
crack between the pages it can be very disturbing. If you place the subject at the edge of the
frame looking away from the center of the photo, be sure you know why you are doing it. This is
a good technique to make an alarming photo or to get the viewer’s attention. It is generally not a
pleasing composition.

Avoid a lot of empty space. An old adage says, “If your pictures aren’t good enough, you
are not close enough.” This obviously is not always true, but moving in closer or zooming in
tighter will almost always give the picture more impact.

S-curves are nice. If there is something in the photo that suggests an “S” such as a winding road,
a river, or some other curvy subject, lay it out like a big “S” on the page and it will almost
always be a good composition. The “S” should lead the viewer into the photo. Conversely, an
“S” or other form that directs the subject away from the picture can be disturbing or even
subconsciously offensive to the viewer.

Light and dark space. The eye is naturally drawn to the brightest spot in the picture. This can
be used to an advantage or it can be a distraction. If there is a bright spot in the photo, it should
be a significant part of the composition. Make use of light and dark areas to direct the viewer to
the important part of the picture.

Composition is a learned skill. Go to art galleries, look at paintings, and look at great
photographs in magazines. You will see thirds, you will see “S” curves, and you will see all
kinds of things. You might even see things that have not been seen before. That is the great thing
about creativity. We can learn from others and add our own experiences to make images that
reflect our own way of seeing.

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An example of an “S” curve composition

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 Section Two

Camera Controls

To move beyond the “point and shoot” approach, the photographer needs a good
understanding of camera controls, how they work, and how they affect exposure and why that is
important.

Exposure Controls

Film is designed with a specific sensitivity. In other words, to get the best results a very
specific amount of light is required. This is called the speed of the film. The term “speed” is used
because in the early days it had to do with how long it took to get the correct exposure. More
sensitive films are said to be faster. Films might be given an ISO rating of 50, 100, 200, 400,
800, etc. (ISO stands for International Organization for Standardization. It is headquartered in
Geneva, Switzerland.) Each time the number is doubled, half as much light is needed. Doubling
or halving the light is called “one-stop.”

The terminology has carried over to the current digital era. CCD and CMOS chips used in
digital cameras have a native or natural sensitivity. This is often around 100 ISO. The signal
coming from the chip can be amplified to increase the sensitivity resulting in a rating comparable
to film using the same numbers: 100, 200, 400, 800, and so forth. When the signal is amplified it
picks up noise which looks a little like the grain associated with higher-speed films. The amount
of noise at higher ISO speeds is a factor of the quality of the sensor, its size and the quality of the
electronics. There is a strong relationship between these things and the cost. More expensive
cameras have less noise at higher speeds.

There are only two ways to control how much light enters the camera. Thinking in terms
of letting fresh air into your house, you can open the windows more, or you can leave them open
longer. If a person wanted to fill a bucket with water, he could control how long the faucet is on,
and how much water comes out at a time. It is the same with exposure. How big the window is is
called the aperture or f-stop. The length of time the window is open is called the shutter speed.

Shutter Speed

Shutter speeds are given in fractions of second. Common shutter speeds are 1/30, 1/60,
1/125, 1/250, 1/500 of a second. If the photographer were to expose the image for five minutes or

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for 1/8000 of a second, it is still called the shutter speed. Each step halves or doubles the amount
of light the shutter lets in.

In addition to determining how much light enters the camera, the shutter speed also has
an effect on the subject. If the subject is moving, a slow shutter speed will render the subject
blurry. A fast shutter speed will stop action. One of the biggest contributors to unsharp pictures is
camera movement. The problem of camera movement increases dramatically with slower shutter
speeds.

The implications of this are tremendous. Using the shutter speed control the photographer
can stop a race car on the track or intentionally blur a runner’s leg to give an illusion of motion.
In photographing sports, the photographer can decide if he wants to freeze the ball as it enters the
goal or does he want to show the blur of players surrounding the ball.

To stop camera movement at slow shutter speeds a sturdy tripod is required. At higher
shutter speeds a tripod is not necessary unless the photographer wants to walk away from the
camera and fire it remotely for some reason.

The definition of which shutter speeds are slow and which are fast is a long-running
discussion among photographers. This is complicated by factors such as the size and weight of
the camera, the skill of the photographer to hold the camera steady, and the focal length of the
lens.

A rule of thumb is that a photographer can safely hand-hold a camera with a shutter speed
equal to or faster than one over the focal length of the lens. In other words, if the photographer is
using a lens set at the 50mm setting, he could assume that his pictures would be sharp at shutter
speeds of 1/50 or higher. This becomes an issue when using very long telephoto lens, especially
in very low light. The opposite is also true. Wide-angle lens allow the use of slower shutter
speeds without a tripod. This rule varies from camera to camera and photographer to
photographer. It is a good idea to test yourself and your camera to see at what shutter speed
camera movement becomes a problem in your pictures. Some cameras flash the shutter speed
indicator or change color of the read-out if the shutter speed is too slow to hand-hold, but this is
only a guide, your mileage may vary.

To test your slow-shutter speed skills, try photographing a spot of light such as a laser
pointer on a wall. Using various shutter speeds, one can easily see at what speed the dot becomes
a streak.

Many modern cameras have an electronic image stability system. This system generally
allows the photographer to use shutter speeds one or two speeds slower than would be possible
without it. This feature varies from one camera model to another. Again, it is a good idea to
experiment with your camera to see how much difference it makes.

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 Another useful technique is panning. Panning is following the subject movement with the
camera and then tripping the shutter at an appropriate time. This technique is used to photograph
race cars, runners, or any subject moving at a predictable rate and direction. In panning it is a
good idea to turn off the stability control and use manual focus as well.

The manufactures specification will give the minimum and maximum shutter speed the
camera is capable of using.

An example of using a slow shutter speed and panning to give the feeling of motion.

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 An example of panning and a high shutter speed to stop action. Note one-third rule. Also note
that the planes are moving into the frame, not out of it. This is a good rule of composition.

F-Stops

The other control for exposure is the aperture. This is the size of the opening in the lens.
A larger opening lets in more light and a smaller opening lets in less light. The size of the
opening is stated as a ratio of the size of the opening compared to the focal length of the lens. A
50mm lens with a 50mm opening would be called f/1. If the lens opening of a 50mm lens were
12.5mm we would call it the opening f/4. As the focal length of the lens changes, the opening
must change to keep the same F-number. A lens with a larger opening is said to be “faster.” A
f/2.8 lens is one stop faster than a f/4 lens.

Lenses are rated according to their maximum possible f-stop. This usually is determined
by the physical size of the lens. A PS camera might have a zoom lens with a range of 6-20mm
and a maximum f-stop of f/2.8 to f/4.9. That means at the wide-angle setting of 6mm the lens

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opening is 2.14mm and at the telephoto end of 20mm it is an opening of 4mm. A larger DSLR
camera will often have faster lenses because there are fewer size restrictions.

The standard f-stops are: f/1, f/1.4, f/2.0, f/2.8, f/4, f/5.6, f/8, f/11, f/16, f/22, f32, and so
on. Each step up or down doubles or halves the amount of light that the lens lets in. For example
f/4 lets in twice the amount of light as f/5.6. There are in between settings such as f/3.5 or f/4.8.
These may or may not be half-stops depending upon how the lens manufacture chose to label the
settings.

Each step up or down is called a stop. Since changing the shutter speed in even
increments of doubling or halving the speed is also called a stop, we can use the term
interchangeably whether we are changing the shutter speed or the aperture. “One stop” changes
the exposure the same whether we are changing the shutter speed one stop or the f-stops one
stop.

Photographers use the term “stopping down” to indicate that less light is let in or
“opening up” to indicate more light is let in. On a bright sunny day the camera would stop down.
On a cloudy day it would open up. Modern automatic cameras do this automatically, but it is a
good idea to know the correct terms.

Depth of Field

In addition to controlling the amount of light entering the camera at a time, the aperture
also affects the depth of field. Depth of field is nothing more than how much of the subject is in
focus. Depth of focus has to do with the area behind the lens that is in focus. This is mainly a
concern to camera and lens designers.

The higher the f-stop, the greater the depth of field. At a high f-stop of f/11 or f/16 for
instance, a large area front to back will be in focus. A photographer would want to use a high f-
stop for scenic photos where it is important for everything from the near foreground to the distant
mountains to be sharp. If the photographer wanted to isolate the subject from the background by
causing the background to be out of focus, he would want to use a lower f-stop number, which is
a larger opening. Remember: f-stop is a ratio, the larger the opening, the smaller the number.

Depth of field is also affected by the focal length of the lens. The longer the focal length,
the shallower the depth of field. The shorter the focal length, the more depth of field. Wide angle
lens have more depth of field than telephoto lenses. This is why we typically use wide-angle
lenses for landscapes where we want everything sharp, lots of depth of field; and telephotos lens
for portraits where we want the background to be soft and out of focus, shorter depth of field.

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 Depth of field is also affected by the distance from the camera to the subject. The greater
the distance, the greater the depth of field. As the camera gets closer to the subject, the depth of
field decreases.

Here is an example of shallow depth of field, selective focus, and compression due to telephoto
effect.

To get everything in focus use a high f-stop and a wide-angle setting. To get the least
amount in focus, use a low f-stop and a telephoto setting.

In practice, with wide-angle lenses, at moderate to high f-stops, and at normal to longer
camera to subject distances, the depth of field is so great that there is hardly a need to focus. For
this reason, some inexpensive cameras with slow wide-angle lenses have no focusing system.
These are called fixed-focus camera. Focus becomes critical with telephoto lenses, fast f-stops,
and/or close focusing distances.

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Putting it all together

Through all this, the exposure has to be correct. That means that the f-stops and shutter
speeds work together. If the f-stop is raised, the shutter speed must be lowered and vice versa. If
say, the correct exposure for a given amount of light were 1/60 at f/8; the photographer could
also use 1/125 at f5.6, 1/250 at f/4, 1/500 at f2.8, 1/30 at f/11, 1/15 at f/16, or 1/8 at f/22. These
are all the same amount of light as far as the sensor is concerned. Using this concept the
photographer can control how action is recorded, affect of camera movement, and depth of field
just by switching between various shutter speeds and f-stop combinations.

Digital cameras usually have a fully-automatic setting indicated by a green square. In this
position all manual controls are shut-off and the camera makes all the choices.

There is also usually a “P” position for program. In this position the camera chooses the
appropriate combination of shutter speeds and f-stops to give the best picture in most situations.
In the “P” position the camera manufacturer decided when it would be best to open up the f-stop
and when it would be better go to a slower shutter speed and so forth following a pre-determined
program. Most often, this works fine, but the program cannot anticipate every possible
photographic situation. Most cameras have some sort of “scene” control where the program
setting can be adjusted for different situations. For example if you set the camera to ‘Mountains”
higher f-stops are favored, and so forth. A portrait setting would favor lower f-stops.

As you move up in price, cameras begin to have shutter priority, “S or T,” and aperture
priority, “A” settings. In these positions you can set either the shutter speed you prefer or the
aperture you prefer and the camera sets the appropriate corresponding aperture or shutter speed.
Once the photographer has a clear understanding of how these two controls affect the photo,
these become very useful controls and the “scene” settings become less useful.

In the manual or “M” position both shutter speed and aperture can be set manually. With many
cameras a meter will become visible in the manual setting to show whether you are over or under
exposed.

Many cameras also have a “B” or bulb position. The name “bulb” comes from the old
days when camera shutters were tripped with a rubber bulb using air. The shutter speed could be
controlled by how hard or fast the bulb was squeezed. If the photographer squeezed the bulb
slowly and held it, the shutter would stay open until the bulb was released. Today, in the “B”
setting the shutter remains open as long as the button is held down. This is used for very long
exposures and other special effects.

P, S, A, and M are all useful settings and the photographer should take the time to read
the manual and understand how each works. The large number of models and manufactures,
along with continual updating and improvements mean that it is hard to make uniform statements
about where these controls are located and how they react, but the principles are the same. A

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good understanding will allow the photographer to pick-up any camera and quickly figure out its
handling characteristics.

Sensor Sensitivity

The next thing to consider about exposure is the sensitivity of the chip that captures the
image. Most cameras use either CCD or CMOS chips and there will surely be others in the
future. Too much light will cause the chip to overload resulting in everything being white. Too
little light will cause everything to be black. In between, if the exposure isn’t right, the light
colors in the subject will block up – no detail in the white or lighter colors, or the shadows will
lose detail due to not enough exposure in the darker areas. The same results happen with film
that is over or under exposed.

We use the shutter speeds and f-stops to control the amount of light, but the chip also has
some adjustment capability. Particularly the camera can amplify the signal to produce a better
picture with less light. The sensitivity of the chip is given as an ISO number which compares to
the ISO number of film.

Generally speaking a lower IOS setting will render better color with less noise or other
distortions, but don’t be afraid of higher ISO settings if the situation calls for them. Many
cameras will produce excellent results at ISO 1600, 3200, or higher.

20
 Some cameras now allow the photographer to set the shutter speed and aperture manually
and let the camera choose the appropriate ISO setting for the sensor.

Again, read the owner’s manual to determine how a particular model of camera sets the
sensitivity based on various settings and situations.

Histograms

Many cameras will allow the photographer to view a histogram on the LCD window.
This graph shows the distribution of light and dark areas over the sensitivity range of the sensor.
This allows the photographer to make sure that important areas of shadows and highlights are not
being lost.

Other Controls

White Balance

The color of light varies greatly. On a sunny day the light will be blue. An incandescent
light bulb is quite yellow. The human eye adjusts to these various lighting conditions but film
cannot. Film is rated as to its color temperature or color balance. Digital cameras can adjust to
the various colors of light in much the same way as the human eye. It does this by assuming that
all of the colors in the image when mixed together will come out white or shades of gray. This is
called the “white balance.”

Most of the time this works fine, but not always. If there is a predominance of one color
in the subject, say a close-up of a red dress. The camera will assume that the light is reddish and
try to correct for all that red. The result may still be a red dress, but the colors will be much less
vivid than they could be. The solution is to use the manual white balance control. Inexpensive
cameras may not have manual white balance or it may be hidden in a menu making it unhandy to
use. DSLRs or more sophisticated cameras will probably have a “WB” button that brings up a
choice of several settings.

Color is rated in terms of degrees Kelvin. Daylight is roughly 5000° K. Tungsten lights
are about 3200° K. Most advanced cameras will allow the photographer to set the “K” number or
will have some symbols such as a sun or a light bulb. Most cameras also allow the camera to
read the color off of a white object. To do this, point the camera at a white piece of paper or
other white object held in the same light as the subject. Push the white balance lock, the camera
sets the color off the white object and you are all set. This is the standard procedure in video or
movie production.
21
 Most DSLRs have a variety of white balance settings allowing the photographer to set
white balance in several different ways. In difficult lighting situations such as photographing a
stage presentation with changing colored lights, it may be necessary to experiment to see which
setting works best. This is one of the huge advantages that digital has over film. Photographers
don’t have to wait days to see if they guessed right in difficult light situations. For most
situations AWB or automatic white balance works fine. Just be aware that in some situations it
must be set manually.

With film, color temperature was usually corrected with filters or later in the darkroom to
some degree. Digital allows for more accurate color balance in the camera with further
corrections in the computer.

Some light is not continuous and therefore it is not possible to give it a Kelvin
temperature number. Fluorescent lights, mercury vapor lights, neon, and a few others are in this
category. Modern digital cameras do a remarkable job of correcting these kinds of lights, but be
aware that it may not be possible to get the colors perfect in every lighting situation.

Manual versus Auto-focus

Like the other automatic features of modern digital cameras, auto focusing works great
most of the time. There are, however, special situations where autofocus must be turned off and
the camera focused manually. For example most cameras will not focus automatically on a plain
wall; they need a feature to focus on. There are other times when the auto-focus feature is just
slow or annoying. Some auto-focus cameras will not focus through glass; others are distracted by
a foreground when the main subject is in the background. Usually a focus-lock button will
suffice. To use the focus lock, point the camera at the main subject, when the camera is in focus,
press and hold the focus lock button and then reframe the subject. Exactly how this works varies
from camera to camera. The most common technique is to hold the shutter release half way
down, but this is not universal.

DSLR cameras generally have at least two types of auto-focus: continuous and single-
shot. The single-shot mode is the most commonly used. In this setting the camera focuses on the
subject when the shutter release is pressed half way down. This locks the focus on the subject.
To refocus, let up on the shutter and press the shutter again. In the continuous mode, the focus is
adjusted continuously, tracking the subject. This is the setting to use if the subject is moving,
such as a bride walking down an aisle.

Another common technique for a moving subject is to pre-focus on a spot where the
subject will be and trip the shutter when the subject comes into focus. This technique is easier
with manual focus. For example, a wedding photographer might focus on a certain spot in the

22
church aisle, and fire the shutter when the bride steps on that spot. This is quicker and more
accurate than allowing the camera to auto-focus on a moving subject.

In some situations, to achieve maximum depth of field, it may be necessary to focus

midway between two or more subjects instead of on a specific subject. Manual focusing is easier
in this situation.

In many situations it is quicker and easier to use manual focus than it is to allow the
camera to focus automatically. Keep this in mind when shopping for a new camera. Is it easy or
even possible to turn off the auto-focus and focus manually?

Light

Light has four characteristics: intensity, direction, color, and quality.

Intensity is how bright the light is. Light falls off exponentially so brightness is a function
of how far away the light is from the subject, and how much light the source is putting out. The
sun is a very bright source, but it is also a long way away.

Direction is where the light is coming from. Is the direction high, low, in front of or
behind the subject, or directly overhead?

Light can be any color. The color temperature can vary as mentioned earlier, but there are
also colored lights.

Quality has to do with softness or hardness. A spotlight is a hard light that produces very
distinct shadows. As the light softens the shadows soften and go away. On a bright clear day, the
sun produces a fairly hard light with clear shadows. An overcast day is a soft light.

The size of the light source and the distance from the subject has a big affect on its
quality. A very small light source such as the flash on a compact camera will produce a very hard
light. A larger light source such as a fluorescent light will produce a softer light. The quality of
light can be modified with reflectors, diffusers, umbrellas, etc.

Outdoor portraits are best on an overcast day because the light is softer. Alternately early
morning or evening light is from a better direction and can be softened or redirected with
diffusers and reflectors. Buildings and landscapes tend to look better with a low light such as
early morning or late afternoon, but a hard light will make the features stand out more.

The photographer should always be aware of these four characteristics of light and be
able to use them or modify them to good advantage depending upon the situation and the desired
effect.

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Flash photography

Flash is a special situation. The first thing to know about flash photography is that the
duration of the flash is very short. The time the light is actually on is likely to be in the range of
1/10,000 of a second, depending upon the flash unit. This means that the shutter speed of the
camera has no affect on the flash. As long as the shutter is completely open at the time the flash
fires, the shutter speed can be used to control the ambient light. The flash is only affected by the
f-stop. Since the output of modern flash units varies automatically with the situation, it is for all
practical purposes, possible to control the flash and the natural or ambient light, separately. This
is useful for using fill-light outdoors. For example, if the subject is golfers on a golf course, at
noon with caps or hats on their heads. Flash would be very useful for filling in the light on their
faces. Without flash their faces would disappear in the shadows.

In a normally lit room, it is possible to make the background go completely black or give
the whole space a sense of even lighting, just by manually controlling the exposure, separate
from the flash exposure, using the shutter speed. With an automatic flash unit, just setting the
camera to shutter priority and using the shutter speed to control the ambient light will give this
kind of control. DSLRs will have a maximum shutter speed for use with flash. This is because
above a certain shutter speed the shutter is beginning to close before it is completely open.
Therefore there is not a time in the cycle when the shutter is completely open preventing flash
from firing correctly. This is a serious limitation with 35mm film SLR cameras, but with modern
DSLRs this is seldom a problem, assuming the photographer knows the maximum flash sync
speed of his particular camera.

Another thing about built in flash units is that they are not very powerful. Light falls of
exponentially so a flash that works well at a distance of 10 feet or 3 meters may be completely
inadequate to light a subject 20 feet or 6 meters away. Be aware of the power of your flash unit
and purchase a shoe mounted or larger flash if your subjects are likely to be more than 20 feet or
30 feet away. PS camera usually will not have the capability of using an external flash unit.
DSLR camera always will and EVF cameras usually will.

Pointing the flash unit at the ceiling or at a wall, makes the ceiling or wall part of the light
source, softening the light and reducing shadows. Of course, this also significantly increases the
amount of light needed. This is called “bounce flash.” Bounce flash can be tricky because of the
many variables involved. Instant previews made possible with digital cameras have made bounce
flash less scary.

Another advantage of DSLR cameras is that they will usually have provision for TTL or
through –the-lens flash control. This means that there is a sensor inside the camera that controls
the duration of the flash. The camera fires the flash when the shutter is fully open. When the
sensor senses that the correct amount of light has arrived back at the camera, it turns off the
flash. This process can take as little as 1/30,000 of a second. This allows for very sophisticated

24
automatic control of the flash unit or multiple flash units. Years ago using multiple flash units
could be a complicated affair with guide numbers and calculations. With digital cameras and
TTL control this process is greatly simplified. If nothing else, the photographer can just fire the
shutter, take a look at the image on the LCD and make lighting adjustments accordingly. This is
the way most professional photographers work - fire a test shot, make corrections, and try again,
until it is perfect.

Red Eye

Red-eye first appeared with the Kodak Pocket Instamatic of 1973. Poor design put the
flash directly over the lens where the flash could reflect directly off the subject’s retina and back
to the film.

Red-eye is now more common than ever as camera manufactures keep putting the flash
head too close to the lens. Often the size of the camera gives them little choice. The problem can
be solved in several ways.

1. Don’t use on-camera flash. Use natural light or off-camera flash.

2. Make sure there is enough room light that the subject’s pupils are not wide open.
3. Pre-fire the flash so that the subject’s pupils close before the actual picture is taken (this
is a very odd but common solution provided by many camera manufactures.)
4. Retouch out the red later. (This is far easier with digital than with film.)

Professional photographers seldom have problem with red-eye because they seldom use
on-camera flash except as a fill. Red-eye was not an issue before 1973 because until then it was
not possible to get the flash so close to the lens axis that it would cause a problem.

Holding the camera

The most common cause of unsharp photographs is camera movement. If your flash
pictures are sharp but your natural light pictures are blurry, it is definitely camera movement.
Like many other endeavors; playing a musical instrument, firing a rifle, or hitting a tennis ball,
how the photographer holds the camera is critical. If you are not using a tripod, and most of the
time you are not, your body becomes the tripod. Think of your body as a devise to hold the
camera steady. Stand with your feet slightly apart in a stable position, elbows tucked in and the
camera braced against your face. Exhale gently and squeeze the shutter release, don’t punch it.
Also be aware of what shutter speed you are using, the slower the speed the more critical it is to
hold the camera steady.

25
 A serious photographer will practice holding the camera in different positions: sitting,
kneeling, standing, etc. in order to be able to get sharp photographs in a variety of situations. It is
also a good idea to look for external support when possible. For example: hold the camera
against a wall, sit it on a fence post, lean against a wall to make yourself part of a natural tripod,
or hold the camera against a chair or park bench. These are all normal procedures for travel
photographers who want to travel light without a tripod, but need sharp images from low light
situations. For example, museums often restrict the use of flash photography or tripods. Holding
the camera against a wall or door frame is an excellent alternative.

In situations where it is impossible to hold the camera steady, such as in a helicopter, or

on a boat, use a high enough shutter speed that the movement has no affect – 1/500 second or
higher for example.

Many PS cameras without conventional viewfinders are very difficult to hold steady due
to the design of the camera. Many are also too small to be held securely. This is the primary
cause of unsharp pictures.

This is the correct method of holding a camera, elbows in, camera pressed to face, camera
cradled in left hand, feet apart. Squeeze shutter release with right hand.

26
 Side view of correct position

Lenses

The angle of view of a lens is a function of the focal length of the lens and the size of the
sensor. The physical size of sensor chip in a digital camera varies with different camera styles
and models, therefore the actual focal length of the lenses will vary. Camera manufactures often
gives specifications in terms of 35mm equivalent in order to reduce confusion. For those
photographers who are familiar with 35mm lenses, this is a good idea. For others, it may just add
to the confusion.

A full frame chip is the same size as a 35mm film frame - 24x36mm. This is sometimes
called FX. A smaller common size chip in DSLR cameras is often called DX. DX size sensors
require a lens two-thirds the focal length of a 35mm camera. In other words to find the 35mm
equivalent multiple the DX lens focal length by 1.5. A 30mm lens on a DX size camera is equals
to angle of view of a 45mm on a 35mm or FX camera. There are other size sensors used by
different manufactures. Canon’s most expensive DSLR cameras have a full frame 24x36mm
sensor. The medium priced cameras use either the APS-H or APS-C size. To obtain the 35mm
equivalent use a factor of 1.3 or 1.6 respectively. The APS-C size is 14.8x22.2 mm. Smaller
cameras have smaller sensors.Consult the manufactures specifications to determine the size of
the sensor for a specific model.

27
 Since the actual focal length varies with the size of the sensor for a given angle of view, it
is easy to see that cameras with smaller sensors, with shorter lenses, will have a greater depth of
field at a given f-stop and angle of view.

The normal lens on a 35mm camera is usually considered to be 50mm. This gives an
angle of view of about 45 degrees. Wide angle lenses generally are 35mm or less and have an
angle of view of about 60 to 100 degrees. Lens with an angle of view greater than 100 degrees
are considered ultra-wide angle or extreme wide angle. Telephoto lenses have a narrow angle of
view, anywhere from about 25 degrees down to 1 degree. Variable focal length lenses are called
zoom lenses.

A good way to think about lenses is the effective distance from the subject. A wide-angle
setting moves the camera further away from the subject. A telephoto setting moves the camera
closer to the subject. Walking up or back does the same thing. Because the effective distance
from the subject changes, the perspective also changes. This is the reason that a wide-angle lens
gives the feeling of expansiveness and a telephoto lens tends to compress the subjects, making
subjects appear closer together front to back. The perceived camera to subject distances
determines the perspective.

These five photos were all made from the same camera position but with different zoom settings:

27mm lens

28
50mm lens

75mm lens

29
100mm lens

200mm lens

30
 To illustrate that perspective is a function of the camera to subject distance and not the
focal length of the lens, here is the 27mm imaged cropped to include the same area as the
200mm image:

Photo shot at 27mm cropped tight to area of 200mm.

The following photographs were made from different camera to subject distances to show
how the perspective changes with the distance to the subject. The zoom setting was changed to
keep the sign about the same size.

Perspective of a 24mm wide angle lens

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Perspective of 27mm wide angle lens

Perspective of 50mm normal lens

32
 Perspective of 75mm short telephoto lens

Perspective of a 200mm long telephoto lens

Critical lens specifications are maximum aperture, closest focusing distance, and of
course, sharpness. The maximum aperture is called the speed of the lens. A lens with a maximum
aperture or f-stop of f/2.8 is considered fast. A lens with a maximum f-stop of f/5.6 would be
considered slow. Remember the lower the number, the faster the lens and the more light it can let
in.

33
 Lenses with a very close focusing capability are called macro lenses. Macro is just a
photographic term meaning close focusing or close-up.

Some lenses are designed to go from wide-angle to telephoto, others are made primarily
for macro work, and others are designed for extreme wide or extreme telephoto use. A few try to
do everything.

Lenses come in a huge variety of shapes and sizes, and prices. Generally speaking, fast
lenses are expensive due to the fact that they have to be larger to produce large maximum f-
stops. Slower lenses with more moderate aspirations can be quite reasonable priced and still
perform well.

Most manufactures of DSLR cameras and lenses have lenses in several different series at
different price points. Usually the least expensive lenses will come with the camera. These are
sometimes called the “kit” lens because they are sold with a package. Then there is a mid-level
line and a prestige or pro-line. For example Canon calls there most expensive lenses “L” series.
Other manufactures have similar designations. Not surprising, the more expensive lenses are
better in just about every category, but the differences may be less than the price would indicate.
Few people require the extra speed or durability of the premium lenses, but if cost is not a big
consideration, or if you insist on the best, you will not be disappointed with the high end lenses
from any camera manufacture.

Special purpose lenses are also widely available. Special purpose lenses include soft
focus, tilt and shift lenses, microscope adapters, slide copy lenses, and more. The big advantage
of DSLR cameras is the ability to use a variety of lenses.

Memory Cards

Once the exposure is made, the camera converts it to a digital file and stores it on a
memory card. There are Compact Flash (CF), SD, xD, SM and many more. Usually the camera
manufacture decided for you what kind of card to use, though a few cameras will take more than
one type of card. Memory cards come in different sizes which are able to store different amounts
of files. Since there is only marginal difference between types of memory cards, the type of card
used probably would not be a factor in choosing a camera.

Memory cards are quite reliable, but not 100% fool proof. It is a good idea to have more
than one card and switch cards occasionally when photographing important subjects.

Memory cards are small memory chips encased in plastic. They are usually quite sturdy,
but care still should be taken in handling them. For one thing they are small and my contain
hundreds of prized photographs, so treat them with respect. A good rule of thumb with all
electronic equipment is that if you are comfortable it is. If you are hot and humid or cold and

34
freezing, chances are your camera and memory cards feel the same way. Show them some
respect and they will last a long time.

The price of memories cards keeps falling so that large capacity cards are now available
at moderate prices.

File Formats

The most common file format used by digital cameras is JPEG (Joint Photographic
Experts Group.) This format compresses the image in order to make the file smaller in order to
transfer quicker, and allow the memory cards to hold more images. The compression, however,
degrades the image some. Most cameras allow for different compression rates. Unless there is
shortage of memory it is usually best to use the highest quality of JPEG which uses the least
amount of compression and yields the largest file size. The exception might be where image
quality is not the highest issue, but speed is.

Each time a JPEG file is saved, it loses a little bit of quality due to the compression. It is a
good idea to use a lossless format such as TIFF or PSD if the image will require very much
computer processing.

Most cameras also have some form of RAW format. RAW can best be described as the
pure file right off the sensor with no processing and no compression. RAW is the highest quality
but it results in larger file sizes and requires more computer processing for things like color
balance, brightness/contrast, sharpening, etc.

Different camera manufactures have their own versions of RAW which require extra or
proprietary software to open. This means an extra step in getting your photos to the computer
and ready to print or transmit.

In short, JPEG works great and is best for all around use, especially at its highest quality
sitting and lowest compression. For maximum quality, but added steps and time, use RAW.

It is good practice to save the file in different forms as adjustments are made. Regularly
back-up your images to CDs or other removable media. Always save the file at the highest
resolution so that large prints can be made later if need be.

Getting the pictures to the computer

One of the simplest methods of transferring your photos from the camera to the computer
is to use the USB cord supplied with the camera. The computer will recognize the camera as an
external drive and you can then drag and drop the files into your picture folder on your hard

35
drive. Many forms and styles of card readers are also available. Software such as Adobe
Photoshop allows for importing the files directly from the camera, card reader, or scanner.

Scanning

Scanners are a special type of camera. Think of the scanner as a camera that can only
photograph flat objects up to about 8.5x11 inches. Normally used for copying documents or
photographs, any flat object can be scanned. Many scanners also allow for the scanning of
negatives and transparencies. Once the image is saved in the computer, it can be adjusted,
manipulated, and printed like any other digital file.

Image Editing Software

Once the files are in the computer the real strength of digital photography becomes
apparent. Compared to conventional darkroom work, computer processing is more accurate and
it is reversible. The first necessity is an accurate monitor. There are several calibration programs
available commercially which are a good idea if critical color rendition is important. For many
people a high quality monitor that gives consistent results will be adequate.

The most common software for image editing is Adobe Photoshop, but there are many
others that perform similar functions. The main thing is to find software that you are comfortable
with and that will do the things that you want to do.

Photoshop comes in two basic varieties: Photoshop Elements and Photoshop CS3. Each
version is systematically updated. It would be beyond the scope of this book to address the
various differences, advantages, and disadvantages of all the software that is available.
Photoshop Elements is excellent for the beginning to serious amateur photographers. More
advanced and professional photographers will want to spend the time and money needed to move
up to the latest full-version of Photoshop, which as of this writing is CS3.

In general, you will need to be able to catalog and sort your photographs so that they are
easy to find. Adobe Bridge, which comes with Photoshop CS3, is probably adequate for most
photographers but other specialized software is available for this purpose. Adobe Lightroom 2 is
a good program for importing, sorting, and filing images. You will need to be able to correct,
crop, and fine tune each image; and it will be necessary to make prints and be able to send files
to outside printers to be printed as necessary. Photoshop easily does all this.

RAW files will need to be processed as they are converted to a format that can be edited
or printed. Adobe Camera Raw is a Photoshop plug-in for this purpose. It is available from

36
Adobe at no cost. JPEG files require less processing, but just about every image can be improved
upon in some way.

Once the image is opened, the image>adjustment command opens up a large selection of
choices. A good experiment is to open each command and move the sliders back and forth to
their extremes to see exactly what they do. By doing this you will get a good understanding of
what is meant by levels, brightness, contrast, shadow/highlight, color balance, saturation, and so
forth. These are the basic tools for tweaking the image.

The other tools in Photoshop provide for a nearly inexhaustible number of affect,
modifications, and adjustments to the image.

A good tool to become familiar with is the “transform” tool. A key use of this tool is
correcting perspective. Buildings that are leaning backward or door edges that are not straight,
can easily be corrected with the transform>perspective tool.

A key element of Photoshop and similar image editing software, is the ability to apply
adjustments to specific parts of an image through selective masking. This allows for critical
adjustments on selected areas of the photograph.

For example, the background can be selected and using the gaussian blur tool, the
background or other areas can be made to appear out-of-focus to get an affect similar to using a
telephoto lens with shallow depth of field. It is sometimes easier to control out-of-focus areas
with computer software than it is using selective depth-of-field in the camera, though the effect is
slightly different.

Always save any changes to the original under a separate file name, so that the photo is
always available in the original form.

The proprietary file format for Photoshop is PSD. This format allows for layers, undos,
history, and many other functions not available with JPEG. It is a good idea to use PSD as the
working format and archive the image in JPEG because each time a JPEG file is saved it loses a
little quality. It is a good idea to use one of the lossless formats for an image that will be opened
and closed a lot.

Printing

Depending upon the purpose of your photography, chances are that you will eventually
want to make prints. Ink-jet printers made by companies such as Epson, Canon, and Hewlett-
Packard are capable of making excellent prints with long-life characteristics.

37
 Perhaps the most critical decision is the choice of paper. It is important to use paper
specifically designed for photographs. Make sure that the printer is set for highest quality and
that the correct paper profile is selected.

Even moderately priced printers can produce outstanding results if care is taken in
adjusting the image, and the printer is correctly adjusted and maintained. Ink is a big expense in
digital photography. More expensive printers are generally less expensive to use because they
tend to use larger ink cartridges, reducing the overall cost of ink.

Inexpensive prints can be made by commercial printers and processors, but the
photographer gives up a certain amount of control and quality in going this route.

The best quality prints are made at a resolution of 300 pixels per inch or ppi. (Printing at
a higher resolution does nothing for the image quality and only adds to the file size.) This means
that for every inch of the photograph there needs to be 300 pixels. An 8x10 inch print at 300 ppi
would be 2400x3000 pixels. Multiplying 2400 by 3000 equals 7.2 megapixels. A 7.2 megapixel
camera could make a high-resolution 8x10 print without an interpretation. To make a smaller
print, some of the pixels need to be thrown away. To make a larger print, pixels need to be
added. Image editing software such as Photoshop does a good job of this as the size is adjusted.

Do not confuse the ppi of the image with the way that ink is laid down on the paper by an
ink-jet printer. Printers are rated by how close they can put dots of ink together on the page. A
printer may be a 2880 dpi printer which means that the printer can put down 2,880 individual
dots of ink in an inch, but this not related to the number of pixels in the image.

Remember to always save the image at its camera resolution or higher because once the
size has been reduced, pixels thrown away, adding them back in reduces the overall quality.

Images on a computer screen, such as on a web page, are sized by pixels. If the computer
monitor has a resolution of 800 pixels, a 400 pixel wide photo would fill half the screen.
Obviously images made for print need to be of a higher resolution (more pixels) than one made
for a web page.

Comparing 35mm to Digital

When digital photography was first introduced, it was calculated that 100 ISO 35mm film
held the equivalent of 10 million pixels or more and that it would take a sensor of at least that
resolution to compare with 35mm. At the time one meg chips were still in the future so this
seemed like a distant dream. As chip quality improved, it was found that image quality was much
higher than expected, and in fact a five megapixel camera could outperform 35mm film. The
reason is that film is always subject to generational loss. A print made from a negative is a
second generation image. Prints made with commercial photo printers usually suffer severe loss

38
of quality. Even prints made with high quality enlargers will suffer loss of resolution to some
degree. Even a projected slide is subject to the degrading affects of a projection lens.

A photo intended for publication would be developed and printed, the print copied in a
process camera to make a halftone and then sent to the press. The consumer ended up seeing a
fourth generation image in the book, magazine, or newspaper. The difference might be
comparable to the difference between sitting in a room with a band and listening to an AM radio,
the latter being several generations away from the original.

But a digital file is always a first generation image because there is no generation loss in
copying a digital file, assuming that a lossless file format is used. For this reason the quality of
digital prints can be much higher than one would expect if only pixel-count is considered. With a
completely digital system from camera to printed page, the consumer is always looking at a first
generation image.

In practice, high quality digital cameras in the 8, 10, 12, or 16 megapixel range can easily
replace not only 35mm, but medium and large format sizes as well.

Aspect Ratio

The shape of the photograph is called the aspect ratio. We normally think of photographs
in terms of standard sizes prints, 4x6, 5x7, 8x10 inches and so forth. These standard sizes vary
from country to country. The only good reason to stick with these sizes is because that is the size
that paper, albums, and picture frames tend to come in. While these reasons are legitimate, the
creative photographer will realize that not all subjects or interpretations lend themselves to
standard formats.

In the past there have been efforts to standardize square pictures or photos that are twice
as long as they are high and so forth. The truth is a photographer can make the photos any size or
shape he wants. This is especially true in the digital age as the photographer gains more control
over the process.

Photographs can be either vertical or horizontal. Don’t get into the habit of thinking that
all pictures should be longer than they are high unless you are shooting exclusively for video
production. The common usage now is to call horizontal photos “landscape” and vertical
photographs “portrait.” This is an unfortunate choice of terms because it tends to make us think
that all landscape photos should be horizontal and all portraits should be vertical. Don’t let these
terms stifle your creativity. Photographs can be long and skinny, square, round, oval, or whatever
size seems appropriate for the subject.

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Special Situations

Portraiture

Portraiture is photography where the main subject is a person or perhaps an animal. The
emphasis here is on the subject. For the portrait photographer, it is important to know the
equipment well enough that he does not have to spend a lot of time messing with the camera or
lights, but instead devote all his attention on making the subject relaxed and comfortable.

In portraiture, connecting with the subject comes first, technical proficiency second. This
is the one area of photography where the personality of the photographer plays a big part in the
final image.

Portrait lighting generally involves a main-light, a fill-light, sometimes a hair-light, or a

background light. The main-light will be the brightest and will determine the exposure. The
main-light is often a soft light such as an umbrella or a soft box at about 45° from the camera and
slightly above the subject. The fill-light will be on the opposite side and be of a lower output or
further back to fill in the shadows as desired. A hair-light is located above the subject to lighten
the hair and separate the background from the subject. A person with no hair doesn’t need a hair-
light. In this case an object called a scrim or flag might be used to cast a slight shadow on the
subject’s head to draw attention away from the top of his head. A background light lights the
back ground. The type of light or its intensity will vary with the desired effect.

That’s the basic portrait set-up. Moving the lights around, adjusting the hardness or
softness of the light, arranging people in the frame, and so forth, can keep a portrait photographer
busy for a lifetime.

Outdoor portraiture often requires reflectors or fill-flash to tame shadows or control the
quality of the light. Open shade works well because of the soft nature of this type of light. When
photographing people outside it is best to avoid direct sunlight, especially at midday.

Most often portraits are made with a medium to long telephoto lens. Traditionally the
ideal portrait lens was considered to be double the normal focal length. For example on a 35mm
full-frame camera with a normal lens of 50mm, the ideal portrait lens would be 100mm. Modern
portraiture allows for much more variation but this is a good place to start. A lens in this range
will tend to give a pleasant compression to the face and also allow for out of focus background
when used at large lens openings.

I good way to start a portrait sitting is with the subject sitting at about a 45 degree angle
to the camera and then looking back toward the camera.

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 In the example below, the subject is turned 45 degrees to her left and looking back at the
camera. The main light is an umbrella to the left of the camera with a slightly softer fill light on
the right. A smaller light sits behind the subject lighting the background. This is a classic three-
light portrait.

Architectural photography

Photographing buildings is a special challenge. Think of the photo as a portrait of the

building. How do you portray it in the best light? The first consideration is time of day and then
weather. Generally speaking early morning and late afternoons on a clear day are best for
architectural photography, but great photographs can be made at any time.

Another important issue is perspective. Lack of perspective control is the principle

distinguisher between professional and amateur architectural photography. The traditional way
of correcting perspective is with a view camera. With a view camera the back of the camera can
be made parallel to the building and the front raised or tilted to correctly frame the building. The
result is a photo where the building is standing straight up and down, not leaning forward or
backward and nicely framed in the frame.

With computers and image editing software, perspective can be corrected in the
computer.

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Two views of the same building. The one on the left is distorted because the camera is looking up
at the building. The right photo shows the perspective corrected using Photoshop.

Landscape photography

Ansel Adams, one of the masters of landscapes would often arise early in the morning to
hike to a favorite mountain scene. There he would spend a considerable amount of time making
sure that the camera was in exactly the right place to provide the best composition. This meant
making sure the objects in the foreground were in the right place to properly frame or draw
attention to the waterfall, rock formation, or whatever was the central subject. He would then
wait for the sun to be right, the clouds or fog to roll in or roll out or whatever affect he was after.

This is really the essence of landscape photography: putting yourself in the right place at
the right time, paying close attention to every detail to bring home spectacular photographs.

Wildlife

Wildlife photography is similar to landscape except now animals become the subject. It
might be good to think of wildlife being similar to both portraiture and landscapes. Finding a

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good spot where the animals are, or will be, and waiting for the conditions to be right and the
subjects to appear. Obviously this is not a hobby for those that lack patience.

For those with a little less patience, there are electronic devices such as sound triggers,
and laser trippers, etc. that allow wildlife photographers to set up their equipment and let the
animals take their own pictures.

Special wildlife cameras that strap to trees and have built in sensors for automatic firing
are now available.

For photographing birds, a long telephoto lens, a sturdy tripod, and plenty of patience are
the main ingredients.

Underwater photography

Underwater photography is a special type of wildlife photography. Obviously the most

important piece of equipment is either a waterproof camera or a waterproof housing for a
conventional camera. Waterproof housings are most often sold in dive shops along with scuba
gear and similar equipment.

If a photographer intends to do underwater photography, it would be a good idea to shop

for the housing first, and then buy a camera to fit in the housing since there are a lot more
cameras available than there are underwater housings.

Specially designed underwater cameras are also worth considering. An example is the
Sealife DC800 shown below.

To get the best results, you will need to be as close to the subjects as possible and
probably use a wide-angle lens. Most modern cameras will auto-focus underwater. A special

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underwater flash unit is a big help and even then, some computer processing will be necessary
for color correction to remove a lot of blue that comes from the water.

If your hobbies are diving and photography, you will have some great photographs before
long.

Travel

One of the most exciting areas of photography is travel. Bringing home beautiful pictures
from far off places is a dream of just about every photographer.

More often than not, the travel photographer is travelling with family members or friends
who may not want to stop at every scenic overlook or spend hours waiting for the light to be
“just right.”

Therefore a good quality for a travel photographer is the ability to immediately see the
most interesting angle or the uniqueness of a particular subject. Capture the essence of a place
quickly and then look for charming details as time allows.

It is a good idea to be very familiar with your equipment and take only what is essential.
Most people are more creative when they are not lugging a bag of heavy cameras and lenses, and
a camera left in the car or hotel room is useless.

Digital photography allows the photographer to make lots of photographs inexpensively,

but remember you are going to have to edit all those picture when you get home. But digital also
allows the photographer to see the image right away. If you have just the right photo, why shoot
ten more?

Possibly the most important thing about travel photography is knowing what you are
going to do with the pictures when you get home. A fortunate few may sell their photographs to
travel magazines or publish coffee table books, but most people will just show the pictures to
their friends and put them in a drawer.

A better solution is to have a plan before you leave home. A short-run book or an art
exhibit is a good place to start. Perhaps a local coffeehouse or bank would like to show your
series of photographs of Loire Valley Chateau. Maybe printing ten copies of your book about a
national park would be good Christmas presents for friends and relatives. Maybe just a large
format album showing your travels is all you want. Now you have a plan. It is not necessary to
devote every photograph to this cause, but you will be less tempted to photograph every single
thing if you have a purpose in mind. A great series of photographs that tell a story is better than
just a hodge-podge of pictures with no continuity.
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 Whatever the purpose, travel is a time to be creative. It is a time to explore and see things
in new ways. Don’t be afraid to get down on the ground, get up high, or look for interesting
angles. Read travel magazines and travel books to get ideas about what makes an interesting
photographs. Most people are unaware that the majority of photographs in magazines such as
National Geographic were made with wide-angle lenses. Use your widest lens and get in close
for the most interesting pictures.

Mountains look beautiful but when we get home our pictures look flat and lifeless. This
has something to do with scale. An object 12,000 feet high is not going be nearly as impressive
on a piece of paper 5 inches high, but that doesn’t mean we have to settle for unexciting photos.
Think carefully about the composition. Is there something in the foreground, such as a tree, that
can add to feeling of depth? Is there too much or not enough sky? How about a rambling stream
in the foreground leading up to the mountains in the back? A little extra thought in composition
can really make those distant mountains sparkle. Then don’t be afraid to make large prints that
better reflect the majesty of the scene. A 30x40 inch print on the wall in your living room is
better than a hundred 4x6 inch prints in a drawer.

Here is an example of wide-angle lens with lots of depth of field, foreground subject to show
depth, and one-third rule for composition.

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Black & White

Black and white was the original form of photography. Color film began to appear
around the turn of the twentieth century, but the real breakthrough was the invention of
Kodachrome in 1936. Color negative film became available in the 1950’s and color is now the
dominate form of photography.

Black and white, or more correctly “grayscale” is generally associated with art
photography. The well-known art photographers of the twentieth century such as Ansel Adams
and Brett Weston are generally associated with black and white photography.

Digital photography lends itself to black and white quite nicely. Some cameras have a
black and white setting, but a better solution is to use the black and white conversion tools in
Photoshop. Color photos can be converted to black and white under the mode command under
image, or using the saturation tool under adjustments. But a better method is to use the Black &
White converter available in Photoshop CS2 or CS3. This tool allows control that was never
possible in a darkroom using conventional black and white film and chemicals. Each color can
be adjusted as to how it affects the grayscale image. For example blue can be darkened to darken
the sky, green can be adjusted to lighten or darken grass, and so forth. Using the selection tool,
specific areas can be adjusted to bring out the maximum richness and texture of the scene.

Depending upon the subject, converting to black and white can greatly increase the
impact on the photo.

Union Station, Kansas City in color

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 Union Station, Kansas City in black & white

If high quality photo paper is used, beautiful black and white prints can be made. Be sure
to save the file as both a black and white and a color image for later use.

Night photography

There are some situations where the automatic settings just do not produce acceptable
results. One is night photography. The problem is that the black sky is a special situation and the
camera, assuming the sky is light, almost always over exposes.

One of the tricks is to realize that if the moon is shining, it is daylight on the moon. If the
photographer wants the details on the face of the moon to be visible, whether using a telescope or
a telephoto lens, the exposure is going to be about the same as on a sunny day on earth. This is a
far different exposure that the camera is reading off the dark sky. Set the camera to manual
exposure, use 1/250 second at f/11 as a starting point, and make one-stop adjustments from there.

For street scenes, stars, and other night photography, use a manual exposure and
experiment to get the results you want. Remember that the auto exposure modes are most likely
going to over expose. If the camera has a “night scene” setting this may be a good starting point.

Snow

Some digital camera will have a setting for snow, but if not, here is the principle. The
camera is trying to set an average exposure for a typical scene. It assumes that the blend of colors
in the scene will be gray - specifically 18% gray. Consequently the bright white of snow will
cause the camera to underexpose the image. This is a good time to use the +/- control to increase

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the exposure by one to two stops. This will bring out the white in the snow and keep it from
going gray. The colors will also be more vivid because they are not being underexposed.

In practice, it is usually possible to lighten snow scenes in Photoshop before they are
printed, but without adjustments in the computer or compensating in the camera, snow will
invariable come out gray and muted.

Close-ups or Macro Photography

Photographing objects up close is always a thrill because it allows us to see things in new
ways. One thing to know about close-up, or macro photography as it is sometimes called, is that
the depth of field decreases with the distance to the subject. Therefore if the subject is just inches
away from the lens, the depth of field will be very shallow. A longer lens will increase the
working distance but not solve the depth of field problem because the longer the lens, the less
depth of field. The only solution, if more depth of field is needed in close-ups, is to increase the
f-stop, that is, use a small aperture. Some dedicated macro lenses will go it f/32 or higher for this
reason. This means slower shutter speeds, more light, or a faster sensitivity setting. A tripod is
almost always used in macro photography because of the high f-stops required, and therefore
slow shutter speeds, and the fact that movement is exaggerated at close distances.

Macro photo at f5.6

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 Macro photo at f22

These principles apply regardless of the method used to focus close.

There are several ways to achieve close focusing. There are close-up lenses that screw on
the front of the camera. These are inexpensive but tend to distort around the edges. Bellows
attachments, microscopes, and other equipment all serve to help the photographer to photograph
very small objects. The best method is to use a macro lens made for this purpose.

An example of shallow depth of field due to low f-stop and close focusing

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 An example of high depth of field at close distance by using high f-stop.

Panoramic

Another advantage of digital images is that two or more images can be stitched together
to form an image much wider or taller than what could be made with a conventional camera. In
the past, special cameras have been made to allow 140° or wider images to be made. With image
editing software such as Photoshop, and other specialized software, images can be merged to
form a seamless image equal to two or more images in size and coverage. Care must be taken
when making the photographs that they line up fairly closely, though there is some latitude
possible.

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 Here is an example of a 120° panoramic photograph made by merging three separate images.

High Dynamic Range or HDR

There are some situations where the dynamic range of the subject exceeds the capabilities
of the camera. For example if you are photographing a room interior, but there is a window in the
image where you want the outside view to be visible in the photograph. In the past, this situation
would greatly exceed the dynamic range of the film. The solution would be to increase the
amount of light in the room to balance the outside sunlight or put neutral density film over the
window to reduce the amount of daylight coming through the window. Alternately, two
exposures could be made and the two negatives combined in the darkroom, but this is an
extremely difficult procedure.

With digital cameras, two or more exposures can be made, exposing for the darker
interior and additional exposures for the brighter window. The images can be combined in
Photoshop to produce a photograph with all parts of the photo correctly exposed. Some cameras
allow for automatic bracketing which simplifies this process a little. Bracketing should be done
with the shutter speed, not aperture, to assure consistent depth of field. Ideally a tripod would be
used to assure that all the images would coincide, though PhotoshopCS3 will automatically align
images.

With Photoshop CS2 and CS3, open two or more images of the same subject with
different exposures. Under file>automate, click on “Merge to HDR” and follow the commands.
There are several choices to make to adjust each image, type of merger, bit depth, etc.

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Photo exposed for interior

Photo exposed for window

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 Two images combined using Merge to HDR

Landscape photographs often can be enhanced by this method. For example if there is are
dark shows under trees and a bright sky with interesting clouds, HDR can be used to balance the
dark shadows and bright sky.

Filters

DSLR cameras allow for the use of filters that screw into the front of the lens. Filters are
sized according the diameter of the front element of the lens. If a specific lens requires a 62mm
filter that just means that the inside diameter of the front of the lens is 62mm.

The most common filter is the skylight or 1A filter. In truth, this filter doesn’t do much, if
anything. Its original purpose was to keep an old version of Ektachrome from going blue in the
shadows. It is usually sold as a means to protect the front element of the lens. This is a legitimate
function, but it can also be argued that two more glass surfaces on the front of the lens can only
harm the image quality.

Another common filter is the polarizing filter. A polarizer is used to eliminate or reduce
reflections from non-metallic shiny objects. A polarizing filter will reduce reflections from
windows, or glare of the surface of water or other non-metallic surfaces. The reduction in glare

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will often make colors more vivid and skies bluer on sunny days. A polarizer will reduce light by
about two-stops, but modern cameras with through the lens metering will automatically
compensate. The polarizer is turned as the photographer looks through the lens to determine the
best position for the required result.

Some cameras require a special circular polarizer because of the type of metering or
viewing system used.

There are other special effects filters such as star filters, soft focus filters, and graduated
neutral density filters that can be useful in some situations.

Color correction filters and colored filters used only in black & white photography have
become less useful in the digital age.

Cleaning and protecting your camera

Keeping your camera clean will add years to its life, however excessive cleaning can be
harmful as well. The best solution is to protect it from dirt and moisture as much as possible.
Keep lens caps on lens when not in use. In most situations, lenses seldom need to be cleaned.
Unless the lens is splattered by a soft drink or other containments, a soft lens brush a few times a
year should be adequate. If the lens is visible dirty, use only lens cleaner and a special lens cloth
to gently wipe off the surface. A little bit of dirt is less harmful than a lot of cleaning.

A soft paint brush is the easiest was to remove ordinary dust from the camera body. Most
modern cameras are sealed to prevent dirt or dust from entering critical mechanisms.

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 Section Three

Turning Pro

If people are constantly telling you that the photo you made of them is the best picture
they have ever see of themselves. If people always comment on your photographs asking what
kind of camera you have because they want to get one just like it. If you cannot image doing
anything but making photographs, it may be time to think about turning professional.

Many people around the world make either part or all of their income with photography.
But making great pictures is only half of the story. The other half involves marketing and selling
yourself and your photographs. This is an entirely different skill than making good photographs.

For the sake of this section, let us assume that everything up to now is perfectly clear and
you can come home with about any photograph you want of any subject at any time. How do you
convince somebody to pay you for this skill?

Your approach to a photography business will vary greatly depending upon your location
and your interests. A photographer in a small town or village would probably photograph
weddings, sports teams, students, family portraits, and a few commercial assignments.

A photographer in a major city might want to specialize more to find a niche. For
example, a photographer might photograph primarily sports teams or only do weddings. A
photographer in a large city might find a niche as a food photographer or photographing auto
races. The possibilities are endless.

If you decide to set-up a studio, the first thing to do is decide what type of photography
you are going to do. A photographer specializing in food would need a complete kitchen while
some one photographing large items like automobiles would need a warehouse size space with
drive-in doors.

Regardless of the physical layout, lighting equipment is very important. In the early days
of photography large windows or even opening ceilings were used to take advantage of sunlight.
Most photographers used some sort of north light to reduce direct sunshine and take advantage of
the pleasant light from the northern sky. Today most studios use artificial lighting; the most
common of which is electronic flash, commonly called strobes.

The two general categories are monolights with the power supply built into the head, and
power-pack lights with a separate power supply that powers one or more heads that contain only
the flash tube and modeling light. There are advantages and disadvantages to each. With a

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separate power supply, the heads are lighter and do not need as heavy of a light stand. If they tip
over, they are less likely to be damaged.

Monolights are self-contained and therefore are independent of each as far as control is
concerned. Each light has to be controlled separately and this may be difficult under some
situations. If there is a failure only one light is affected, not the whole system.

A typical portrait studio will have four lights: main-light, fill-light, hair-light, and
background light. However, many wonderful photos have been made with only one or two lights.
Depending open the photographer’s style and taste, one large light imitating a northern window
may be all that is needed. Commercial subjects will require different lighting. A well equipped
studio will have whatever lights are needed for the photos that will be made. Be aware that some
older studio strobes have a high voltage at the flash sync contacts that may damage digital
cameras. Strobes especially designed for digital are a safer choice.

Other things to consider when setting up a portrait studio are dressing rooms, a place to
meet with clients, computer and printers, and of course, choice of camera.

The camera choice may not be as critical as one might think. If large wall size portraits
are going to be sold, a camera of at least 8 megapixels in resolution is a good idea.
Interchangeable lenses and ease of use round-out the other requirements.

Weddings

Most professional photographers start by doing weddings. In larger cities, photographers

can make a good living doing nothing but weddings. After the photographer has done a few
weddings, referrals begin coming in from the bride’s maids and friends who were at a wedding
or saw the photographs.

It is a good idea to meet with the bride and mother of the bride ahead of time and talk
about a list of “must have” pictures. Then use this as a checklist. It is wise to attend the rehearsal
and know as many of the principals as possible before the big day.

There are many styles and approaches to photographing weddings. A couple will usually
hire a photographer based on his or her style and their budget. Some photographers have a
journalistic style, photographing the wedding like a news story. Others will take a more formal
approach. Both styles are valid and should be part of the discussion with the families beforehand.

Ideally as many photographs should be made before the ceremony as possible. A

photographer can easily raise the ire of hundreds of guests and develop a bad reputation if he

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keeps the wedding party away from their guests for too many minutes while he is making too
many photographs.

The end result of photographing a wedding is usually an album. Wedding albums have
come a long way since the advent of digital photography with many companies making beautiful
bound books from digital files. If you are interested in going into business as a wedding
photographer, request book samples from several of these companies and use them as selling
tools for your clients. It is wise to have an album or book plan in mind as you are shooting
photos during the wedding so you will have the images you need when the time comes to put
together the book.

Many wedding photographer also do video presentations using either still images or
video or a combination of the two.

After you have done a few weddings, you can put together a composite book showing
your best work.

Many photographers find that it is easier to work as a team of two. A team of two or three
photographers working together to cover a wedding, each with specific assignments, is probably
ideal.

For most people, a wedding is a once in a lifetime, high anxiety event. The photographer
needs to be calm and efficient. Use multiple cameras in case of an error, and have liability
insurance.

If these suggestions don’t scare you off, you may be the person for a lucrative career as a
wedding photographer.

Conclusion

Photography is the most popular hobby in the world with hundreds of millions of people
owning cameras. With a little bit of effort and training, a photographer’s photos can move well
beyond the norm. With a lot of work and practice just about anybody can learn to make
wonderful photographs. This principle has not changed since the early days of wet-plates,
through dry-plates, film, and now digital photography.

A famous photographer once said, “Photography is easy if you are willing to settle for
bland uninspired photographs; but if you want pictures that will inspire and move people, it is
almost impossible.” For that reason photography can be a life-long pursuit. It is almost always
connected with other interests. Aviation enthusiasts photograph airplanes, equestrians

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photograph horses, coin collectors photograph coins, and so forth. The pursuit of beauty through
photography is a lifelong and worthwhile challenge

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