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DECLARATION OF THESIS / UNDERGRADUATE PROJECT PAPER AND COPYRIGHT
Authors full name :
Date of birth :
Title : SUSTAINABILTY: RAINWATER HARVESTING SYSTEM
IN CAMPUS
Academic Session:
I declare that this thesis is classified as:
I acknowledged that Universiti Teknologi Malaysia reserves the right as follows:
1. The thesis is the property of Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
2. The Library of Universiti Teknologi Malaysia has the right to make copies for the
purpose of research only.
3. The Library has the right to make copies of the thesis for academic exchange.
Certified by:
SIGNATURE SIGNATURE OF SUPERVISOR
(NEW IC NO. /PASSPORT NO.) NAME OF SUPERVISOR
Date : 16 APRIL 2010 Date : 16 APRIL 2010
NOTES : * If the thesis is CONFIDENTIAL or RESTRICTED, please attach with the letter from
the organisation with period and reasons for confidentiality or restriction.
UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA
CONFIDENTIAL (Contains confidential information under the Official Secret
Act 1972)*
RESTRICTED (Contains restricted information as specified by the
organisation where research was done)*
OPEN ACCESS I agree that my thesis to be published as online open access
(full text)
HOE HSYIANG LUNG
2009/2010
860805-52-6035 ASSOC. PROF. DR JOHAN SOHAILI
5 AUGUST 1986

I hereby declare that I have read this thesis and in my opinion this thesis is
sufficient in terms of scope and quality for the award for the degree of Bachelor of
Civil Engineering.
Tandatangan : ______________________
Nama Pensyarah : Assoc. Prof. Dr. Johan Bin Sohaili
Tarikh : 16 April 2010
\
SUSTAINABILITY: RAINWATER HARVESTING SYSTEM
IN CAMPUS
HOE HSYIANG LUNG
A report submitted in partial fulfillment of the
Requirement for the award of the degree of
Bachelor of Civil Engineering
Faculty of Civil Engineering
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
APRIL 2010
ii
I declare that this thesis entitled Sustainability: Rainwater Harvesting System in
Campus is the result of my own research excpt as cited in the references. The thesis
has not been accepted for any degree and is not concurrently submitted in
candidature of any other degree.
Signature : ______________________
Author : HOE HSYIANG LUNG
Date : 16 APRIL 2010
iii
To my beloved parents whom I loved
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
In preparing this thesis, I was in contact with many people as well as
references. They have contributed towards my understanding and thoughts. In
particular, I wish to express my sincere appreciation to my thesis supervisor,
Associate Professor Dr. Johan Bin Sohaili, for the encouragement and guidance in
this thesis as well as friendship.
My thanks also go to the librarians in Faculti Kejuruteraan Awam (FKA) for
their help. I am indebted with my fellow undergraduate students for their support and
assistance. Unfortunately, it is not possible to list all of them in this limited space.
Last but not least, to my family members who have been supportive I wish to
extend my deepest thanks.
v
ABSTRACT
Harvesting rainwater will contribute towards a sustainable living. It will
eliminate the wastage and reduce the dependency of potable water. The demand of
potable water increases in accordance to the population. Rainwater harvesting is
capable to combat water crisis and serves as an alternative water resources during
water shortage. The purposes of this study are to evaluate the potential of rainwater
in potable water saving, propose a rainwater harvesting system for the usage of
flushing of toilets and estimate the total cost for the construction of the rainwater
harvesting system. By practicing rainwater harvesting, the total dependence on usage
of potable water can be minimise to only cater for activities involving direct human
contact. Result indicated that the quality of rainwater samples meet the WHO
standards for drinking water parameters. The rainwater harvesting system is design
using the flow of gravity and the total cost for construction estimated to be RM 1715.
Payback period for the rainwater harvesting system are 15.5 years. There is a
probability that rainwater in UTM campus being harvested.
vi
ABSTRAK
Pengumpulan air hujan akan mewujudkan kehidupan lestari. Air hujan
terkumpul akan mengelakkan pembaziran dan mengurangkan pergantungan terhadap
air dirawat. Permintaan terhadap air dirawat sentiasa bertambar berekoran dengan
populasi. Pengumpulan air hujan mampu menagatasi masalah air bekalan dan
digunakan sebagai punca air alternatif apabila berlakunya kekurangan air. Tujuan
kajian ini adalah untuk mengkaji air hujan dalam penjimatan air dirawat,
mencadangkan satu system pengumpulan air hujan untuk kegunaan tandas dan
membuat anggaran terhadap cost pembinaan system. Dengan penggunaan air hujan,
pergantungan terhadap air dirawat dapat dikurangkan kepada tujuan kegunaan
manusia. Keputusan menunjukkan bahawa kualiti sampel air hujan menepati
parameter yang ditetapkan oleh WHO. Sistem penuaian air hujan direka supaya
menggunakan graviti dan cos pembinaan dianggar sebanyak RM 1715. Permulangan
balik sistem ini adalah 15.5 tahun. Kemungkinan penuaian air hujan di campus UTM
dapat dijalankan.
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE
DECLARATION ii
DEDICATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv
ABSTRACT v
ABSTRAK vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
LIST OF TABLES xi
LIST OF FIGURES xii
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Research Background 1
1.2 Problem Statement 2
1.3 Study objectives 4
1.4 Scope of study 4
1.5 Significance of Study 5
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Water 6
2.2 Water Cycle 7
2.3 Rainfall Pattern in South East Asia 8
viii
2.4 Sustainability of Rainwater 9
2.4.1 Rainwater Harvesting in Malaysia 10
2.4.2 Historical Development for Rainwater
Harvesting Policy 11
2.5 Economic Impact 12
2.6 Rainwater Harvesting System Components 13
2.6.1 Collection Area 13
2.6.2 Conveyance System 15
2.6.3 Storage Tank 16
2.7 Rainwater Storage Tank Design 18
3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction 20
3.1 Testing of Parameters 20
3.1.1 pH 21
3.1.2 Dissolved Oxygen 21
3.1.3 Biological Oxygen Demand 21
3.1.4 Chemical Oxygen Demand 22
3.1.5 Total Suspended Solids 23
3.1.6 Escherichia coli 23
3.2 Design of Rainwater Harvesting System 24
3.2.1 Storage Tank 24
3.2.2 Height of storage tank 24
3.2.3 Piping System 24
3.3 Cost 25
3.3.1 Water Savings 25
3.3.2 Rainwater Harvesting System
Construction Cost 25
3.4 Volume of Rainwater Collected 25
ix
4 RESULT ANALYSIS
4.0 Introduction 27
4.1 Water Quality 27
4.2 Designing Rainwater Harvesting System 29
4.2.1 Flow Rates, Q 30
4.2.2 Hazen-Williams Coefficient, C
w
31
4.2.3 Effective Pipe Length, L
eff
31
4.2.4 Head Loss, h
L
32
4.2.5 Flow Velocity, 32
4.2.6 Residual Pressure Head 33
4.2.7 Designing Water Storage Tank Capacity 34
4.2.8 Designing Cistern Tank 35
4.3 Cost 37
4.3.1 Collection Area 37
4.3.2 Conveyance System 38
4.3.3 Storage Tank 39
4.3.4 Concrete Platform 39
4.3.5 Summary 41
4.3.6 Cost Saving 42
5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Conclusions 45
5.2 Recommendations 46
REFERENCES 48
APPENDICES 51
x
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE
2.1 Estimated Global Water Distribution 7
2.2 Pattern of Rainfall on Prominent Locations in
Peninsular Malaysia 9
2.3 Sizing of Rainwater Pipe for Roof Drainage 15
2.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of a Cistern Type 17
2.5 Minimum Storage Capacity 18
2.6 Storage Requirement Per Fittings 18
2.7 Storage Requirement Per Person 19
4.1 The test results for collected rainwater 28
4.2 Comparison of test results with WHO drinking guideline,
INWQS class IV and Standard A effluent 28
4.3 Design Flow Rates for Fittings 30
4.4 Hazen-Williams coefficients 31
4.5 Equivalent Pipe Lengths 31
4.6 The computation of flow rate 34
4.7 Calculation of cost for installation of gutter 38
4.8 Estimation of cost for the piping system 39
4.9 Total volume of concrete in m
3
40
4.10 Daywork Labour Rates 40
4.11 Workers pay 41
4.12 The overall cost for the installation of
rainwater harvesting 41
4.13 The price per m
3
of water in RM 42
xi
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE
2.1 The Water Cycle 8
2.2 A Diagram of Rainwater Harvesting Storage Tank 17
4.1 The Proposed Rainwater Harvesting System 29
4.2 Schematic Drawing for Piping System 30
4.3 The Design of Rainwater Storage Tank 35
4.4 Automation system for switching between
rainwater and potable water 36
4.5 The Dimension of Rooftop 38
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Research Background
Water is essential for life in this world. All living organisms require water to
sustain life. Human consists of 57% of body water (Guyton, 1991). It is subdivided
into two categories which is the intercellular and intracellular fluid (John and Bruce,
2002). Biological processes which are on going inside the human bodies majorly
depend on water to help facilitate the processes. Such processes are digestion and
absorption of food, serve as a medium for transportation of nutrients and oxygen in
the blood stream, as an internal cooling system to sustain body temperature and so
forth. Water which form streams, lakes, rivers and oceans serves as a natural habitat
to accommodate millions and billions of sea creatures. Apart from that, the other
common usage of water for human activities includes drinking, cooking, washing,
agriculture and aquaculture, power generation, transportation, recreational and
aesthetic purposes.
As the demand for clean water increases due to the increase in population
growth, numerous methods have been introduced to combat the chronic problem of
obtaining clean water due to the ever increasing pollution of water bodies. One of
such methods introduced is Rainwater Harvesting (RWH). RWH is not considered as
a new technology because it has provided a water source for communities around the
world dating back to circa 1500 B.C (Hunt and Laura, 2006). This ancient
2
technology continues to serve populations today, mainly in poor, rural or dry regions
of the world and island communities (Hicks, 2008).
Basically, RWH is a technology used for collecting and storing rainwater
from rooftops, land surfaces, road surfaces or rock catchments using simple
techniques such as pots, tanks and cistern as well as more complex techniques such
as underground check dams (Prinz, 1995; Zhu et al., 2004). It consists of three basic
components: a collection area (roof), a conveyance system and a cistern or storage
tank (Texas Water Development Board, 2005).
Harvested rainwater is a renewable source of non potable water. Non potable
uses may include toilet flushing, building or car washing, air conditioner coolant, fire
suppression, industrial processes and landscape irrigation (LaBranche et al., 2007)
Water harvesting systems provide flexible solutions that can effectively meet the
needs of new and existing, as well as of small and large sites, using a water
harvesting system is an ongoing proves that can be developed over time. The greater
attraction of a rainwater harvesting system is low cost, accessibility and easy
maintenance at the household level (Fayez, 2009).
1.2 Problem Statement
The water pollution in Malaysia is originated from point sources and non-
point sources. Point sources that have been identified include sewage treatment
plants, manufacturing and agro-based industries and animal farms. Non-point
sources are mainly diffused ones such as agricultural activities and surface runoffs.
According to Malaysia Environmental Quality Report 2004, the Department of
Environment has recorded 17,991 water pollution point sources in 2004 comprising
mainly sewage treatment plants (54%), manufacturing industries (38%), animal
farms (5%) and agro-based industries (3%). In 2006, a total of 1,064 water quality
monitoring stations located within 146 river basins were monitored. Out of these
1,064 monitoring stations, 619 (58%) were found to be clean, 359 (34%) slightly
polluted and 86 (8%) polluted. Stations located upstream were generally clean, while
3
those downstream were either slightly polluted or polluted. In terms of river basin
water quality, 80 river basins (55%) were clean, 59 (40%) slightly polluted and 7
(5%) were polluted (Malaysia Environmental Quality Report, 2005).
Changing weather patterns can cause disruption to the water supply. Such
phenomenon was El Nino. El Nino, driven by an abnormal warming of the eastern
Pacific Ocean, can create havoc in weather patterns across the Asia-Pacific region,
unleashing droughts in some places and heavy storms in others. It typically lasts
from 9 to 12 months. In 1998, the El Nino related drought caused severe water stress
in the states of Kedah, Penang and Selangor. The state of Selangor was forced to
impose severe water rationing in Kuala Lumpur and Petaling Jaya for many months.
This shows that Malaysia is still not ready to face unexpected events to curb the
problems that surfaces.
Population growth is inevitable. In Malaysia, population has increased from
8.1 million in 1960 to 27 million in 2008. As the population increases, the demand
for clean water increases as well. And to cater the demand, dams and water treatment
plant has to be constructed to meet the needs of the people. As the supply and
demand are in a cat and mouse race, with the limited water resources, eventually the
demand will exceed the supply and this situation will create problems to the country.
The peoples attitude also plays an important part towards creating a
sustainable living. Campaigns had been ongoing to educate and remind the public
that water is precious thus it is not to be wasted. Not only will it save the water bill
but also reduce the water stress on water demand as well as possess sufficient
reserves for emergencies uses such as droughts and dry spells.
Since clean water is important, it is seen as a waste for it to be used for
flushing of toilets and for watering plants. Furthermore, rainwater can be used as a
substitute by collecting and utilise it rather than let it go to waste. Apart from that, by
collecting rainwater from roof, flash floods can be avoided or minimise as few
percentage of rainfall is retained and thus reduce the volume of surface run-off.
Besides, by using rainwater as an alternative, clean water can be saved and be used
for other purposes and simultaneously decrease the demand of clean water which
4
resulted in lower cost of water bill and cost of operation in the water plants. The use
of untreated rainwater for non-potable uses that would otherwise be supplied by
potable water ultimately conserves municipally supplied potable water (Persyn et al.,
2004).
1.3 Study Objectives
The objectives of this study are:
(i) To estimate the amount of rainwater that can be collected in Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) campus by obtaining the total catchment area available
in campus.
(ii) Obtain the quality of the rainwater collected for decision making based on
these 6 parameters; ph, Dissolved Oxygen (DO), Biological Oxygen Demand
(BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Total Suspended Solid (TSS) and
Escherichia coli (E.Coli).
(iii) Evaluate the potential for potable water savings by using rainwater and
the payback period for the system.
(iv) Propose a rainwater harvesting system.
1.4 Scope of Study
To accomplish the objectives specified above, it was necessary to obtain
rainfall data and population in UTM campus. Then, the total roof area in the campus
was calculated based on the aerial map of the campus. The potential rainwater
harvesting volume is estimated based on the total roof area, the average annual
rainfall and the runoff coefficient. After that, the potential saving percentage is
calculated by dividing the potential volume of harvested rainfall by the annual
5
domestic demand. Rainwater collected is tested to obtain these 6 parameters namely
pH, DO, BOD, COD, TSS and E.Coli. Next is to propose an appropriate rainwater
harvesting system based on the data and information collected.
1.5 Significance of Study
This project will help to initiate a starting point to create a green campus
concept into reality. Besides that, it will also give an idea to other researchers in this
field to better the design to give a more effective result and the same time maximize
the usage of harvested rain water. Furthermore, other campus can adapt this system
and start to realize the concept of green campus to create environmental friendly
surroundings as a stepping stone to educate and the same time save the environment
and minimize the energy wastage.
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Water
Water is the most abundant substance on Earth. About 75% of the surface is
covered with salt-water oceans, the remainder consisting of continents and islands.
Based on the research done by (Gleick, 1996), it is estimated that the amount of
water volume on Earth is 1,386,000,000 km
3
. Based on Table 2.1, approximately
1,338,000,000km
3
that is around 97% of the total volume is saline water which is the
oceans, seas and bays. The remainder 3% of Earth water is fresh water which
consists of ice caps and glaciers, groundwater and surface water. Although the Earth
holds that much amount of water, only the freshwater is drinkable after treatment
where as the saline water have to undergo desalination processes to get rid of the
salts before treated for drinking purposes.
With the little amount of availability of freshwater versus the ever growing
population of the Earth now at 6 billion people and counting, we will soon deplete
the natural reservoirs of this precious water for our own needs. To make things
worse, pollution by human activity in the name of development has further decrease
the availability of fresh water. Without fresh water, other methods such as treating
water apart from fresh water will be proposed. More costly technologies will be
invented to perform such task and poor countries will suffer from clean water
shortage. This problem can be seen in Jordan where the scarcity of water resources
seemed to be dictated by climatic conditions such as aridity and abundance of high
solar radiation and by population pressure (Salemah and Bannayan, 1993). Before
7
we reach a point of no return, we must have proper planning for water usage to
ensure that water will always be available for us in the distant future.
Table 2.1 Estimated Global Water Distribution (Gleick, 1996)
Water source Water volume,
in cubic miles
Water volume, in
cubic kilometers
Percent of
freshwater
Percent of
total water
Oceans, Seas & Bays 321,000,000 1,338,000,000 -- 96.5
Ice caps, Glaciers, &
Permanent Snow
5,773,000 24,064,000 68.7 1.74
Groundwater 5,614,000 23,400,000 -- 1.7
Fresh 2,526,000 10,530,000 30.1 0.76
Saline 3,088,000 12,870,000 -- 0.94
Soil Moisture 3,959 16,500 0.05 0.001
Ground Ice &
Permafrost
71,970 300,000 0.86 0.022
Lakes 42,320 176,400 -- 0.013
Fresh 21,830 91,000 0.26 0.007
Saline 20,490 85,400 -- 0.006
Atmosphere 3,095 12,900 0.04 0.001
Swamp Water 2,752 11,470 0.03 0.0008
Rivers 509 2,120 0.006 0.0002
Biological Water 269 1,120 0.003 0.0001
Total 332,500,000 1,386,000,000 - 100
2.2 Water Cycle
Water is considered a renewable source as it cannot be destroyed nor created.
There is no beginning or end to water. This is because water will continually exist in
a cycle called the Water Cycle and illustrated in Figure 2.1.
The sun plays a vital role to ensure the continuity of the cycle. From the heat
of the sun, water evaporates from the surface of any surface water namely oceans as
the surface of the water is almost still. These vapours then rise into the atmosphere
and condense into clouds as the temperature is much cooler. Evapotranspiration
which is the process of transpiration from plants and evaporation from soil occurring
simultaneously also involved in the process of cloud formation through the process
of evaporation and condensation. The accumulation of water particles, also known as
cloud, from the condensation of water vapour, until a certain point where the water
particles cannot hold together longer, will fall towards Earth as rain or precipitation.
Other form of precipitation can be snow or hail. Water that flows on the ground is
known as surface runoff which will eventually enter rivers and oceans to continue
8
the cycle. A portion of surface runoff will seep into the ground through the process
of infiltration where it will accumulate as groundwater. In time, the water will seep
back into surface water bodies and the water cycle will continue.
Figure 2.1: The Water Cycle (United States Geological Survey, Colorado
District)
2.3 Rainfall Pattern in South East Asia
Countries in South East Asia are blessed with abundant rainfall spread more
or less evenly throughout the annual cycle, with peaks during the monsoon periods.
It is noted that annual rainfall in these countries ranges between 1500mm to
2500mm, with certain highlands experiencing rainfall in excess of 4000mm. seasonal
variations inevitable occur, with high monsoonal rainfall in the last quarter of the
annual cycle and season low rainfall in a few regions, mostly in the first quarter of
the year. Overall monthly average rainfall ranges from 176mm to 260mm. Table 2.2
shows the pattern of rainfall on prominent locations in South East Asia. In the state
of Johor, the range of rainfall throughout the year is 156mm to 264mm with a wetter
side at the last quarter of the year. Although the average of rainfall does not depict
9
the actual situation, it provides sufficient data on how much water can be saved for
the use of rainwater to substitute the potable water in activities that requires non-
potable water usage.
Table 2.2: Pattern of Rainfall on Prominent Locations in Peninsular Malaysia
(Jitender, 2008)
Location Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Cum Annual
Perlis 64 173 228 191 1970
Kedah 70 192 227 212 2103
Terengganu 140 120 153 479 2676
Kelantan 159 192 240 422 3038
P. Pinang 92 176 219 237 2172
Pahang 178 166 155 313 2434
Johor 188 168 156 264 2327
Selangor 145 172 153 237 2121
N. Sembilan 153 162 137 241 2077
Perak 128 161 144 211 1933
Melaka 102 145 175 139 1684
2.4 Sustainability of Rainwater
For a sustainable urban future, society must move towards the goal of
efficient and appropriate water use. Rainwater harvesting has a significant role to
play in this task. Water availability has been a matter of concern all over the world. It
has been reported that rainwater harvesting can promote significant water saving in
residences in different countries. In Germany, a study performed by Herrmann and
Schimida, (1999) showed that the potential of potable water saving in a house might
vary from 30% - 60%, depending on the demand and roof area. In Australia,
Coombes et al. (1999) analysed 27 houses in Newcastle and concluded that
rainwater usage would promote potable water saving of 60%. In Brazil, a study
performed by Ghisi et al. (2006) showed the potential water saving by using water
harvesting in 62 cities ranges from 34%to 92%, with an average potential for potable
saving of 69%.
Rainwater harvesting is a technology used for collecting and storing
rainwater from rooftops, land surfaces, road surfaces or rock catchments using
simple techniques such as pots, tanks and cistern as well as more complex techniques
10
such as underground check dams (Prinz, 1995; Zhu et. al, 2004). It consists of three
basic components: a collection area (roof), a conveyance system and a cistern or
storage tank (Texas Water Development Board, 2005). The collection of rainwater
from roofs, its storage and subsequent use is a simple method of reducing the
demand on both the public water supplies and waste treatment facilities. In the
Uniter Kingdom, 30% of potable water supplied to the domestic sector is used for
water closet (WC) flushing and the transportation of foul waste (Welsh Office,
1992). Without extensive treatment the rainwater is suitable for a range of uses such
as WC flushing, garden irrigation and clothes washing. The capacity of the rainwater
store is important both economically and operationally (Fewkes, 1999).
Harvested rainwater is a renewable source of clean water that is ideal for
domestic and landscape uses. Water harvesting systems provide flexible solutions
that can effectively meet the needs of new and existing, as well as of small and large
sites, using a water harvesting system is an ongoing proves that can be developed
over time. The greater attraction of a rainwater harvesting system is low cost,
accessibility and easy maintenance at the household level.
2.4.1 Rainwater Harvesting in Malaysia
Malaysias capital city, Kuala Lumpur and its industrial state neighbor,
Selangor, are working hard to find alternative water supply to cope with the rising
demand in water, to this end, they are planning to build the first underground pipe in
the country to get water supply from Sungai Bernam in the State of Perak starting
2009. The estimated cost for the project is RM9 billion and will be able to supply
one billion liters of water daily to Kuala Lumpur and Selangor. Be that as it may, the
need for inter-state supply of water of water rationing may not have arisen should all
Malaysians learn from the 1998 draught incident where water was rationed and many
had to do without it.
11
Straight after the incident, the Ministry of Housing and Local Government
has introduced a guideline on rainwater harvesting in 1999 but it generally passed by
without notice. Up till now very few government buildings have used rainwater
harvesting. On March 27, 2006, the prime minister announced that rainwater
harvesting would be made mandatory to large buildings. It remains to be seen
whether this motion would be implemented without resistance or reservations.
2.4.2 Historical Development for Rainwater Harvesting Policy
The 1999 Guidelines for Installing a Rainwater Collection and Utilization
System can be seen as the initial phase of rainwater harvesting policy in Malaysia.
Introduced after the 1998 drought, it aims at reducing the dependence on treated
water and provides a convenient buffer in times of emergency or a shortfall in the
water supply. It also proposes the construction of mini dams or rainwater tanks in
urban areas instead of continuing to build giant dams upstream. This may not only
conserve the treated water but can act as urban flood control. Nevertheless the
guideline is intended as an ideal manual for reference for those who want to install
a rainwater collection and utilization system. It generally does not deal with cost and
implementation issues. As rainwater harvesting is new to many Malaysian, as well as
the fact that most of the system was not available locally, the implementation of the
new policy was not really successful.
After five years of the introduction of the Guidelines, the Ministry prepared
another cabinet paper to the National Water Resources Council to encourage
government buildings to install a rainwater collection and utilization system. The
Council has later announced that water utilization is to e encouraged but not
mandatory in all federal and state government buildings, there is a need for rainwater
utilization campaign and to provide a solution for prevention of mosquito breeding.
To date, only two federal government buildings have been equipped with the
rainwater harvesting system, namely the Department of Irrigation and Drainage and
the Ministry of Energy, Water and Communication. With a few exceptions as in
12
Johore and Penang, many local governments have not implemented rainwater
harvesting in their locality. Few types of council like in Sandakan and Shah Alam
has introduced it in new housing developments. Despite this effort, it is unfortunate
to learn that in the Kota Damansaras new housing project; nearly 40% of the
rainwater harvesting system installed has been dismantled to give way for
renovation.
2.5 Economic Impact
Rainwater harvesting plays major roles in reducing potable water demands
and averting water wastages. Several R&D efforts of rainwater utilization for
domestic, office and mosque complex, industry and agriculture use have been
conducted by NAHRIM in collaboration with other government bodies and
universities.
One of the projects is installation of two 2500 litre capacity high density
polyethylene (HDPE) tanks that were later replaces with a 3,300 litre brick storage
tank design that incorporated aesthetic and utility aspects to trap rainwater falling
onto a 60m
2
roof top area. This system was able to save on one third of the
household water use of 40650 litres (Ahmad Jamaluddin and Adhityan, 2000). The
rainwater utilization system for a double storey terrace house located at Taman
Melawati for non-potable household use and also reducing peak storm runoff. The
system was able to trap 61.4 to 65.5% of the rainwater flow. The initial cost was RM
2700 for the two HDPE tank constructions and RM4300 for the rainwater cum
detention storage system. The maintenance cost for both was RM53/year. The annual
total cost of the earlier system is RM188/year and the latter was RM268/year. The
HDPE tank is projected to collect 109m
3
of water resulting in a unit ccost of
RM1.72/m
3
. While the brick tank could collect 102m
3
of water incurring a unit cost
of RM2.62/m
3
.
Second is the installation of an underground 60 m
3
storage tank to collect
rainwater to be pumped to toilets and standpipes at a mosque in Ampang. The
13
installed cost of the system was RM95000 with the life expectancy of 25 years. With
the annual cost of RM4100 and an annual rainwater utilization of 3249 m
3
/annum,
the unit cost of water is RM1.26m
3
. in both cases, the per unit costs are both still
high. The government has to urgently provide subsidies to encourage the public to
install new rainwater harvesters (Mohd Shahwahid et al., 2007)
2.6 Rainwater Harvesting System Components
Rainwater is harvested sing an installation of pipes and tanks in such a way
that allows automatically or manually diverting the first flush of rain that is
contaminated with debris and dirt on the catchment area followed by collection in a
storage tank for further use. The basic rainwater harvesting system consists of 3
major parts which is the collection area, the conveyance system and the storage
tanks. The materials use for these components will influence the efficiencies as well
as the quality of the rainwater collected.
2.6.1 Collection Area
Catchment area is the surface area from which rainwater can be collected as
clean water. The most popular shape of rooftops in homes in Asia is a sloping roof in
inverted V shape in varied designs and architectural features (Jitender, 2008). The
roof is fitted with gutters to divert rainwater into drains, to prevent erosion of ground
surface directly below the edge of the roof as well as diverting the flow into storm
water drains.
To harvest rainwater, a suitable catchment area namely the roof must be
installed with suitable material. The material used for the roof must not jeopardize
the water quality of the rainwater as well as provide a good surface to optimize the
harvest rainwater. Besides that, the materials must be ready available and
economically wise to reduce the starting cost for the installation of the rainwater
harvesting system.
14
The effective roof area and the material used in constructing the roof
influence the efficiency of collection and the water quality. Smoother, cleaner and
more impervious roofing materials are preferred. They contribute to better water
quality and greater quantity (Fayez, 2009)
Not all roofing materials are suitable to act as a surface to collect rainwater.
One of the roofing materials that should be avoided is asphalt roof. Asphalt is
commonly used as the roofing material. Nevertheless, asphalt does not give a good
surface to harvest rainwater. Besides that, it can create debris from crumbling asphalt
shingles and also leach petroleum into the rainwater. Next, wooden shingles are not
suitable as well because it is porous and harbor mold and fungus that will end up in
your rainwater harvesting system. There are those treated wooden shingles as well to
avoid the growth of fungus are not fit to harvest as it will be contaminate the
rainwater with chemicals.
Roofing materials that are considered acceptable for rainwater harvesting is
slate or tile. It provides a good surface to harvest rain when kept clean and it does not
deteriorate. Fiberglass can be considered as it provides great surface to harvest rain
as well as is light weight to east the installation of roof. Apart from that, membrane
roofing material, although not commonly used in residential application, is
considered ideal because its chemical makeup is not friendly to bacteria and could be
painted on an existing rooftop.
Nonetheless, take note that all rooftops are not clean no matter what material
they are made from. The reason is that bird dropping and other debris such as leaves
and branches as well as dirt will fall and contaminate the rainwater and wash into the
rainwater harvesting systems. So it is wise to clean the rooftop on a regular basis,
install filter and install a first flush system to remove contaminant that passes
through the filter to obtain clean rainwater.
15
2.6.2 Conveyance System
A conveyance system usually consists of gutters and pipes that deliver
rainwater falling on the rooftop to cisterns or tanks. Gutter or pipes must be properly
sized, sloped and installed in order to maximize the quantity of harvested water.
These transport channels collect and divert water into down spouts that drain away
the water into storm water drains. At suitable intervals alongside the gutters,
sufficient sized vertical or slanting down spouts are installed to drain away the water
into water storage tank.
The most common materials of gutters are galvanized steel, fiberglass, plastic
and stainless steel. The gutters and down pipes are usually installed in the wall of the
building and sometimes the down pipes are fitted inside the wall during construction.
The size of the gutters depends upon the area of the roof and the rainfall
amount. The size of the gutters used ranges between 20-50 cm diameters (Alpaslan
et al., 1992). Drainpipes and roof surfaces should be constructed of chemically inert
materials such as wood, plastic, aluminum, or fiberglass, in order to avoid adverse
effects in water quality (Fayez, 2009). Table 2.3 shows the relationship between
average rate of rainfall and diameter of pipe.
Table 2.3: Sizing of Rainwater Pipe for Roof Drainage
Diameter of
Pipe (mm)
Average rate of rainfall in mm/h
50 75 100 125 150 200
50 13.4 8.9 6.6 5.3 4.4 3.3
65 24.1 16.0 12.0 9.6 8.0 6.0
75 40.8 27.0 20.4 16.3 13.6 10.2
100 85.4 57.0 42.7 34.2 28.5 21.3
125 - - 80.5 64.3 53.5 40.0
150 - - - - 83.6 62.7
Debris both coarse and fine may cause blockage and contaminate the water
quality. To avoid blockage, leaf screens, made of inch wire mesh in a metal frame
is installed above the gutters to prevent debris from entering the system. The angle
bends in the system should not exceed 45 degrees. Another filtering system is placed
before the head of the cistern to filter out smaller debris from the roof.
16
To ensure clean water enters the storage tank, a first flush tank is installed
prior the entrance of the storage to trap the first flush of the rainwater that is used to
clean the roof due to debris and dust that may have deposited on it. A small container
with adequate size is installed to receive at least 30 litres of first flush dirty water for
every 100 m
2
of catchment area. It is fitted with an overflow pipe that starts to
deliver clean water after the container is filled with the predetermined quantity of
first flush water. The dirty water collected may be used for watering of plants
(Jithender, 2008).
2.6.3 Storage Tank
The water ultimately is stored in a storage tank or cistern. The size of the
cistern depends on the amount of rainwater to be collected. The tank must provide
for adequate capacity to receive required amount of rainwater to maximize
availability of water during dry period. Typically, a 500-2000 litre capacity tank is
commonly used, since the replenish frequency by rainfall in the South East Asian
region is high (Jithender, 2008).
Cistern can be built in almost any geometrical shape desired. All cisterns
should be watertight, durable and have a clean smooth interior. The cover needs to
be tight fitting to prevent evaporation and mosquitoes. A cistern with a lid allows for
easy access to attach a faucet and to occasionally clean inside. It is best to place the
cistern out of direct sunlight to prevent algae and bacteria growth, which can clog the
system. The use of two or more smaller cisterns enables service on one unit at a time
without disrupting the entire system.
There are unlimited number of options for the construction of these tanks
with respect to the shape (cylindrical, rectangular and square), the size and the
material of construction (brickwork, stonework, cement bricks, plain cement
concrete and reinforced cement concrete (Fayez, 2009), fiberglass, polyethylene,
plastic and galvanized). Table 2.4 shows the normally used cistern types and its
advantages and disadvantages of the particular cistern.
17
The placement of the cistern is elevated approximately 3 to 4 feet on a sturdy,
load bearing foundation or structure to create enough pressure to use gravity for
running the rainwater. Foundations can be made of bricks, concrete or a wooden
frame. Figure 2.2 shows a sample diagram of rainwater harvesting storage tank.
Table 2.4: Advantages and Disadvantages of a Cistern Type
Cistern type Advantages Disadvantages
Fiberglass tanks Prevents algae growth and
evaporation, rust resistant, durable
Higher initial costs, degradable,
requires exterior coating
Polyethylene tanks Various sizes, shapes, alterable,
inexpensive, movable
Can deteriorate over time if not
treated for UV radiation
Plastic garbage can Available, inexpensive Use only new cans
Barrels Attractive, alterable, great for
small systems
Hard to find, small
55 gallon steel drums Available, durable, great for small
systems, moveable
Prone to corrosion, rust and/or
toxins
Galvanised tanks Inexpensive, attractive, moveable,
alterable
Can rust, higher long term costs
Plaster cisterns Low profile, inexpensive, can
alter colour
Large footprint, unalterable,
immovable
Concrete tanks, stone
or concrete block
Durable, permanent Potential to crack, difficult to
maintain
Figure 2.2: A Diagram of Rainwater Harvesting Storage Tank (Southface
Energy Institute)
18
2.7 Rainwater Storage Tank Design
The design criteria are based on one day minimum storage of domestic tank.
It is divided into 3 methods which are:
(i) Minimum Storage Per Capacity
(ii) Storage Requirement Per Fittings
(iii) Storage Requirement Per Person
These 3 methods are categories based on demand in the kitchen and
bathroom in a day or a person per day. Table 2.5 shows the minimum storage
capacity for different type of building. Table 2.6 shows the storage requirement per
fitting for different type of domestic activities that requires the usage of water and
table 2.7 shows the storage requirement per person in different type of buildings. The
data is obtained from MWAs Design Guidelines for Water Supply Systems. This
manual serves as useful reference material to water engineers and sub-professionals
both in the public and private sectors when designing water supply systems.
Table 2.5: Minimum Storage Capacity (MWA, 2000)
Type of Building Minimum Nominal Storage Capacity
Dwelling House (rural) 450 litres/day
Dwelling house and flats (urban) 680 litres/day
Multi-storey flats with high level
bulk storage cistern
140 litres/day
Low cost housing (approved by
Government)
450 litres/day
Others One days supply or decided by the State Director
Table 2.6: Storage Requirement Per Fittings (MWA, 2000)
Type of Activities Storage Requirement
Shower 450-900 litres/day
Sliper Bath 900 litres/day
Water Closet 180 litres/day
Lavatory Basin 90 litres/day
Sink 90 litres/day
Urinal 180 litres/day
Bed Pan Washer 180 litres/day
Wash-up Sink 225 litres/day
19
Table 2.7: Storage Requirement Per Person (MWA, 2000)
Type of Building Storage Requirement
Hotels 270 litres/person/day
Hostels 180 litres/person/day
Day Schools 30 litres/person/day
Boarding Schools 180 litres/person/day
Offices without canteens 70 litres/person/day
Offices with canteens 90 litres/person/day
Restaurants 14 litres/person/day
Mosque 14 litres/person/day
Barrack (Army/Police) 270 litres/person/day
Out of the 3 methods, the 2
nd
method is used for reference. By referring to
table 2.5, minimum storage capacity shows the storage capacity for a building. It will
be suitable for houses that have permanent residents such as families. With the
constant number of occupants thus minimum storage capacity will be more accurate
for estimation. By referring to table 2.7, storage requirement per person indicate the
usage of water for a person in specific place. It will be suitable for buildings that
have permanent occupants as well. Due to the fact that the number of occupants is
inconsistent, storage requirement per fitting is used.
CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
Rainwater is to be collected in the campus to be tested for these 6 parameters;
pH, DO, BOD, COD, TSS and E.Coli. The location and the time of sampling are
crucial to obtain the most accurate results that reflect the actual state of rivers.
Therefore, the rainwater is collected at the end of the gutter before the rainwater is
discharged into the drain. The collection of the sample has to be done on a rainy day
and a container is used for the collection of the sample. The sample should be
collected with care to ensure originality of the sample and free from other
contaminants. Sample is then brought to the lab to proceed with the testing. The
accuracy of the results depends on how the samples are taken. Therefore, attentions
must be given to the execution of the collection and sampling techniques.
3.1 Testing of Parameters
The parameter of this study includes pH, Dissolved Oxygen (DO), Biological
Oxygen Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Total Suspended
Solids (TSS) and E.Coli. pH is measured using a pH meter where as DO, BOD, and
COD are measured using the HACH machine DR 5000 series. E.Coli is tested using
Colilert.
21
3.1.1 pH
Calibration should be performed with at least two standard buffer solutions
that span the range of pH values to be measured. For general purposes buffers at pH
4 and pH 10 are acceptable. The pH meter has one control (calibrate) to set the meter
reading equal to the value of the first standard buffer and a second control (slope)
which is used to adjust the meter reading to the value of the second buffer. A third
control allows the temperature to be set. Standard buffer sachets, which can be
obtained from a variety of suppliers, usually state how the buffer value changes with
temperature.
3.1.2 Dissolved Oxygen
The High Range Dissolved Oxygen AccuVac Ampul contains reagent
vacuum-sealed in a 14-mL ampule. When the AccuVac Ampul is opened in a sample
containing dissolved oxygen, it forms a yellow color which turns purple. The purple
color development is proportional to the concentration of dissolved oxygen. Test
results are measured at 535 nm.
3.1.3 Biological Oxygen Demand
The Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) test is carried out according to
Standard Method APHA 5210-B. The method consists of filling the samples into an
air tight 350mL BOD bottle and put into incubating at 20C for 5 days. Dissolved
Oxygen (DO) is measured initially and after incubation using Microprocessor
Logging DO Meter Model HI964400.
Samples for BOD testing may degrade significantly during collection, storage
and analysis resulting in low BOD values. Therefore, it is crucial to minimize
degradation of quality of the water samples as soon as possible by cooling them to a
22
near-freezing temperature during storage period. Chilled sample water should be
warmed to 203C before analysis is carried out. Formula to calculate BOD is as
follows:
P = Vs / (Vs + Vdw) (3.1)
BOD5 = (DOi DO5) / P (3.2)
Where :
V
s
= Volume of sample
V
dw
= Volume of dilution water
BOD
5
= Biological oxygen demand, mg/L
DO
i
= initial DO of the diluted sample about 15minutes after preparation, mg/L
DO
5
= final DO of the diluted sample after 5 days of incubation, mg/L
P = dilution factor
3.1.4 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
The procedure for Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) test is according to
Standard Method APHA 5220-C. The mg/L COD results are defined as the mg of O
2
consumed per liter of sample under conditions of this procedure. In this procedure,
the sample is heated for two hours with a strong oxidizing agent, potassium
dichromate. Oxidizable organic compounds react, reducing the dichromate ion
(Cr
2
O
7
2
) to green chromic ion (Cr
3+
). When the 0.740.0 or the 3150 mg/L
colorimetric method is used, the amount of Cr
6+
remaining is determined. When the
201500 mg/L or 20015,000 mg/L colorimetric method is used, the amount of Cr
3+
produced is determined. The COD reagent also contains silver and mercury ions.
Silver is a catalyst, and mercury is used to complex chloride interferences. Test
results for the 0.7 to 40.0 mg/L range are measured at 350 nm. Test results for the 3
to 150 mg/L range are measured at 420 nm. Test results for the 20 to 1500 and the
2000 to 15,000 mg/L COD range are measured at 620 nm.
23
3.1.5 Total Suspended Solids
The procedure to determine Suspended Solid (SS) is according to the
Standard Methods APHA 2540-D. Glass microfiber filter disc is used to filter the
water sample. The weight of a clean filter paper is recorded before the sample water
is poured into it. The filter paper is then dried in the oven for about an hour, cooled
and weight. The calculation of the TSS is:
SS, mg/L = [(A-B) x 1000] / C (3.3)
Where :
A = weight of filter + residue (mg)
B = weight of filter (mg)
C = volume of sample filtered (mL)
3.1.6 Escherichiacoli
A 100mL of sample is being mixed with a reagent i.e. Colilert in a mixing
bottle and then pour into a cell house and finally incubate it for 24hours under
temperature of 35C. Colilert simultaneously detects total coliforms and Escherichia
coli (E.Coli) in water. It is based on IDEXXs patented Defined Substrate
Technology (DST). When total coliforms metabolise Colilerts nutrient indicator,
ONPG, the sample turns yellow. When E.Coli metabolise the nutrients, the sample
fluoresces. Colilert can simultaneously detect these bacteria at 1 cfu/100mL within
24 hours even with as many as 2 million heterotrophin bacteria per mL present. After
24 hours incubation, any changes of colour to yellowish, then this sample is being
observed under UV light. When florescent is being observed, this indicates that
E.coli is present within the sample. The calculation of E.coli is being done according
to the IDEXX Quanti-Tray/2000 chart.
24
3.2 Design of Rainwater Harvesting System
The criteria needed to be taken into consideration for the design of RWH is
the storage tank to store sufficient rainwater, the piping system to determine the flow
rate in each pipe, type of pipe used and determine the diameter of each pipe and the
height of which the tank is needed to be elevated to produce enough pressure without
the use of pump.
3.2.1 Storage Tank
The storage tank volume is estimated based on the demand of water using
Storage Requirement Per Fitting method in Table 2.6. For this design, 10 days of
storage rainwater is used to estimate the volume. From the volume required the size
of the tank can be determine.
3.2.2 Height of Storage Tank
The height of storage tank is determined using the internal plumbing design.
This is a trial and error method where the height is choose until all the pressure head
at each end of pipe passed the approved pressure by the local authority.
3.2.3 Piping System
For this system a dead end pipe network system is used. The computation of
flow rates within the pipe is to be determine based on data obtained from MWAs
manual and then the computation of residual pressure head at the end of each pipe to
ensure the pressure is sufficient as suggested by the local water authority.
25
3.3 Cost
To build rainwater harvesting system does not come without the price.
Estimation of water usage and its cost and the cost of construction of rainwater
harvesting system versus the estimated water saving cost have to be done in order to
show that this system is useful economically and environmentally.
3.3.1 Water Savings
One of the objectives of this study is to identify the amount of clean water
that can be saved and to calculate the saving of expenditure in water consumption
which is replaced by rainwater. The water tariff is based on the data provided by
Syarikat Air Johor (SAJ).
3.3.2 Rainwater Harvesting System Construction Cost
The cost of construction of a rainwater harvesting system is estimated based
on the type of material used, the amount of the material and the workers pay. The
material used is taken from Schedules of Rates (JKR, 2005).
3.4 Volume of Rainwater Collected
The volume of rainwater that could be harvested in campus is calculated
considering the annual rainfall data, the total roof area and a run-off coefficient of
0.8. The coefficient indicates a loss of 20% of the rainwater that is discarded for roof
cleaning and evaporation (Gould, 1993). Thus, the volume of rainwater that could be
harvested is determined by using Equation 3.4.
26
V = C x A x R/1000 (3.4)
Where:
V = annual volume of rainwater that could be harvested
C = run-off coefficient (non-dimensional)
A = total roof area (m2)
R = average annual rainfall (mm/year)
1000 = conversion factor from mm to m
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.0 Introduction
The rainwater sample is taken from site located at M41. The sample is taken
directly from the downpipe and the sample is taken in between the raining event. 3
samples are taken separately at 3 different raining events dated 6 February, 23
February and 8 March all in the year of 2010. After the collection which is all done
in the late afternoon around 5 pm, the sample is then carefully sealed and kept in the
lab and testing is done at the next day. To ensure the quality is not disturbed, the
sample should be tested not more than 24 hours. The purpose is to determine the
condition of the rooftop and the gutter if it is dirty and needed to be either cleaned
or replace with a new ones. By doing so, it will help with the decision making in
construction of the system whether to install new roof tiles and gutter system.
4.1 Water Quality
There are 6 parameters namely pH, DO, BOD, COD, TSS and E.Coli are
tested to determine the quality of rainwater using the instruments available in the
environment lab in University Technology Malaysia. Table 4.1 shows the result
obtained after lab testing.
28
Table 4.1: The test results for collected rainwater
Parameter Sample(6 Feb) Sample(23 Feb) Sample(8 March)
pH 7.31 7.07 7.25
DO 7.83 ppm 7.92 ppm 7.85 ppm
BOD 1.13 mg/L 1.24 mg/L 1.47 mg/L
COD 5 mg/L 4 mg/L 28 mg/L
TSS 5 mg/L 4 mg/L 3 mg/L
E.Coli 0 cfu/100mL 0 cfu/100mL 0 cfu/100mL
Based on the test result compare to the WHO guideline for drinking water as
stated in Table 4.2, pH, TSS and E.Coli is acceptable for drinking purpose. pH for
the sample collected are in between 7.07 to 7.31 which is in the range of WHO
guideline of 6.5-8.5. Although there is no value for DO, BOD, COD and TSS for
WHO guideline, test results are compared with INWQS and Standard A.
Table 4.2: Comparison of test results with WHO drinking guideline, INWQS
class IV and Standard A effluent
Parameter Sample WHO INWQS (Class IV) Standard A
pH 7.07-7.31 6.5-8.5 5-9 6-9
DO 7.83-7.92 - <3 -
BOD 1.13-1.47 - 12 50
COD 4-28 - 100 100
TSS 3-5 - 300 100
E.Coli 0 Absent in 100ml - -
All the parameters mentioned are below the maximum value allowed. These
indicate that the water quality of the rainwater is still considered clean and the level
of pollution for both organic and inorganic is at minimum due to the low value when
compare relatively to the two standards. Lastly, there is no sign of E.Coli or total
coliforms presence in the sample when tested for E.Coli test. This result fit the
requirement for WHO guideline which requires E.Coli to be absent in 100 mL of
sample.
Nevertheless, the purpose of collecting rainwater is for toilet flushing and
irrigation purposes only and no consumption and human contact is allowed for
precaution. Therefore, it is safe to say that the rainwater is considered clean and no
further treatment is necessary. Only physical treatment such as filtering is used to
ensure that the debris does not go into the storage tank which could lead to blockage.
29
4.2 Designing Rainwater Harvesting System
By using the internal plumbing design, the height of the storage tank can be
determine as well as the type of pipe used, the flow rate in each pipe and the
diameter of the pipe so that the residual pressure head at the end meets the criteria.
Figure 4.1 shows the proposed rainwater harvesting system.
The system provides rainwater to two water cistern exist in the building and
the tank is situated on top of a concrete platform which is to be raised to the required
height according to the calculation. By raising the storage tank, it will enable gravity
to supply rainwater to the cistern tank. The reason is to create a sustainable
environment thus the usage of electricity and other energy is minimise. Besides that
the cost is also taken into consideration to achieve a less energy consumption and
relatively cheap system to construct. Gravity is used because it is naturally
occurrence and it is sufficient to provide the energy to transfer the rainwater from the
storage tank to the cistern tanks without the assistance of electrical equipments such
as pumps which is costly and high energy consumption
Figure 4.1: The Proposed rainwater harvesting system
30
4.2.1 Flow Rates, Q
The flow rates in each pipe is determined based on the demand at each fitting
fitted at the end of the pipe system. Figure 4.2 shows the schematic drawing for
piping system with numbering for calculation purposes. Table 4.3 can be used to
determine the flow rate, Q for each fitting in use.
Figure 4.2: Schematic drawing for piping system
Table 4.3: Design Flow Rates for Fittings (MWA, 2000)
Fittings Rate of Flow (litre/second)
WC flushing cistern 0.1
WC flush valve* 1.5
Wash basin tap 0.15
Bidet 0.15
Bath tap, 25mm 0.6
Shower head 0.2
Sink tap, 12mm** 0.2
Sink tap, 20mm 0.3
Sink tap, 25mm 0.6
Urinal flushing cistern 0.004 per bowl
* Discharge per flush shall not exceed 9 litre per WC and 4.5 litres per stall for bowl urinal
** Clothes and dishwashing machines in individual dwelling can normally be satisfied by a 12 mm
sink tap but manufacturers instruction should be checked.
Example of calculation
Referring to table 4.6, pipe 1-2 provides water to 2 WC
Flow rate, Q = 2 x 0.1litre/s
= 0.2 l/s or 0.0002m
3
/s
31
4.2.2 Hazen-Williams Coefficient, C
w
Table 4.4 provides the Hazen-Williams coefficient that is used for designing
the internal plumbing systems. The coefficient is used for the calculation of head loss
in pipe. The value chosen is 155 for uPVC pipe.
Table 4.4: Hazen-Williams coefficients
Type of Pipe Hazen-Williams C
w
Asbestos cement all ages 140
Cast iron new 130
(good condition) 10 years old 100
20 years old 90
Cast iron coated good condition old ages 135
Welded steel uncoated new 125
old 100
Galvanised iron new 130
Polyethene /ABS all ages 155
uPVC all ages 155
4.2.3 Effective Pipe Length, L
eff
The effective pipe length is the actual pipe length plus the equivalent pipe
length. The equivalent pipe length is the pipe length taking into consideration the
minor losses in pipe such as stop valve, elbow etc. The effective pipe length is used
in the design to consider the friction loss as well as the minor losses available in the
pipe run. The equivalent pipe length for minor losses can be obtained from table 4.5.
Table 4.5: Equivalent Pipe Lengths (MWA, 2000)
Nominal Diameter Elbow (m) Tee (m) Stop valve (m) Check Valve (m)
12 0.5 0.6 4 2.5
20 0.8 1 7 4.3
25 1 1.5 10 5.6
32 1.4 2 13 6
40 1.7 2.5 16 7.9
50 2.3 3.5 22 11.5
65 3 4.5 - -
73 3.4 5.8 34 -
100 4.5 8 - -
32
Example of calculation
By referring to figure 4.2, let pipe 1-2 diameter, d = 65mm
Actual pipe length, L = 2 m
Pipe 1-2 contains 2 elbows, L
equivalent
= 2 x 3
= 6 m
Therefore, effective length for Pipe 1-2, L
eff
= Actual length + L
equivalent
(4.1)
= 2 m + 6 m
= 8 m
4.2.4 Head Loss, h
L
The head loss will consider both friction loss and minor losses such as elbow,
tee, stop valve etc. The Hazen-Williams formula is sufficient to be used to
determine the head loss using this formula: =
.
.
. .
Example of calculation
By referring to figure 4.2, pipe 1-2, =
. ( )( . )
.
( )
.
( . )
.
(4.2)
= 6.56 x 10
4.2.5 Flow Velocity,
The flow velocity (m/s) in each pipe is determined by using equation
= =
p
The flow velocity in each pipe must not exceed 2.5 m/s (MWA, 2000).
Example of calculation
By referring to figure 4.2, For pipe 1-2, n =
( . )
p( . )
(4.3)
= 0.06 m/s
33
4.2.6 Residual Pressure Head
The residual pressure head at the downstream end of each pipe is determined
using Bernoullis equation.
Example
For pipe 1-2, + = + +
( )
(4.4)
0 + 2 = + 0 + 6.56 x 10
= 1.999 m
The value is the residual pressure head at the downstream end of pipe 1-2 that is
equal to the pressure head at node 2. This pressure head will become the pressure
head at the upstream end of pipe 2-3. The pressure head at each fitting must not be
less than 0.8m.
The height of the outlet and the diameter of the pipe can be adjusted to fit the
criteria but the cost of operation is needed to be taken into consideration as well. By
having a high elevated outlet will definitely yield enough pressure to the end pipe but
the cost of elevating the storage tank to that level will increase the cost of material
used to elevate the storage tank and the stability of the structure has to be considered
too. Besides that, the diameter of the pipe can be adjusted to suit the needs of the
residual end pipe. Increasing the pipe will give rise to the residual pressure head but
it also increases the cost as bigger pipe are more costly than smaller pipe. This is the
process of designing internal plumbing systems for the conveyance of harvested
rainwater to water closets.
Table 4.6 shows the computation of flow rates and 4.7 shows the overall
computations of the required parameters to determine sufficient pressure head to the
end pipe. From the calculations, few trials and errors are done on the height of the
outlet of the storage tank and the diameter of the pipe to ensure that the residual
pressure head meets the criteria.
34
Finally, the height of which the outlet of the tank should be elevated is 2m
above datum where the datum is which the lowest elevation of the pipe system and
the size of diameter are as shown in Appendix A.
Table 4.6: Computation of Flow Rates
Pipe WC Q (m
3
/s)
1-2 2 0.0002
2-3 1 0.0002
3-4 1 0.0001
4-5 1 0.0001
5-6 1 0.0001
4.2.7 Designing Water Storage Tank Capacity
The capacity of the water storage tank is important as it determine the
amount of rainwater that can be stored. The size of storage of rainwater is important
because the rainwater can be stored and used even when there is no rain but to have a
very big tank will indicate a large quantity of rainwater can be stored but with higher
cost of construction and taking up space. So the size of the tank as well as the cost
and space need to be taken into consideration to obtain an acceptable storage tank.
The average daily use of water for flushing is 30 litres (Shaaban and Appan,
2003). There are two water closets present in the building thus the total usage per
day is 60 litres or 0.06 m
3
. The number of days of storage is assumed to be 10 days.
This means that a full tank can supply enough water for flushing for 10 days without
rain. So the capacity of storage tank is 600 litres.
To store up 600 litres of rainwater, a taper tank model R6.8TD (2) is used
(refer to Appendix B). This model has the capacity of 680 litres. Its top diameter
measures 1395mm, bottom diameter is 1035mm and the height of 965mm as shown
in Figure 4.3.
35
Figure 4.3: The design of the rainwater storage tank for 600 litres
4.2.8 Designing Cistern Tank
In order to maximise the usage of rainwater, rainwater is prioritised to fill the
cistern tank. By doing so, it will substitute the usage of potable water for flushing.
Therefore, the pipe for rainwater from the storage tank has to be connected to the
existing cistern tank. Whenever the toilet is flushed, rainwater will replaced the
flushed water thus this is the reason of rainwater harvesting system for toilet
flushing.
However, the storage tank is designed to store 10 days of water supply. In
case of long days of no rain which exceed 10 days, it will cause the storage tank to
be empty thus no supply of rainwater to the cistern tank. To ensure hygiene is kept,
water has to be continuously flow into the cistern tank. And for that reason, potable
water will assume the role of replenish the cistern tank.
The switching of roles between rainwater and potable water has to automatic
so that water will always be available for flushing. So, an extra cistern tank is
connected to the existing cistern tank as shown in Figure 4.4.
36
Figure 4.4: Automation system for switching between rainwater and potable
water
The extra cistern tank has to be sufficient to accommodate the size of the
flotation device that controls the valve. Rainwater pipe from the storage tank will be
connected to the existing cistern tank with the flotation device connected to the valve
that controls the flow of rainwater. On the other hand, the potable water pipe will be
connected to the extra cistern tank and also controlled by a valve that is connected to
a flotation device. For the potable water pipe, the flotation device will be adjusted so
that when the water level drops beyond the minimum level, the valve will be opened
and potable water will starts to fill up the cistern tank.
The assumption to this automation system is that the rainwater will replenish
the lost water due to flushing before it reaches the minimum level thus only
rainwater will fills the cistern tank. When the storage tank is empty, potable water
will assume its role until the next rainy day. The reason for this is to make sure that
the system is sustainable whereby no additional usage of energy is required to
perform this task such as the usage of electric to operate a machine that controls the
switching. However, further study and field tests need to be done to obtain the best
size for both cistern tanks, the minimum volume of water needed for flushing to
obtain the minimum level and to evaluate the efficiency of this automation system so
that necessary modification will be done if required.
37
4.3 Cost
Rainwater harvesting system consists of 3 major components, namely the
collection area which is the roof, conveyance system which is the piping and the
storage tank. All of this has to be taken into consideration into calculating the cost of
installing the system. The cost of materials mostly referred to Schedules of rates
2005 by Public Works Department of Malaysia. Besides that, the worker pays as
well as other materials that are needed to construct this system are considered.
4.3.1 Collection Area
According to the test result conducted on the quality of rainwater collected, it
can be said that the water is in good quality and it is also save to say that the roof is
clean and safe to use as the collection area for the rainwater. Therefore, no further
changes are done to the roof and will be used as it is now.
Nevertheless, to direct all the rainwater collected to the storage tank, a gutter
system has to be installed around the perimeter of the roof to allow the rainwater
flows directly into the storage tank.
At the entrance of the downpipe leading towards the storage tank, a coarse
strainer is installed to block big objects and debris such as leaves from entering the
storage tank which can pollute the quality of the rainwater and cause blockage in the
system. Next before the rainwater enters the storage tank, another fine strainer is
installed to capture the smaller objects and debris.
The dimension of the roof of the building is shown in Figure 4.4. The
perimeter of the roof is 92.73m. Only the middle section of the building is high
enough to transfer rainwater into the storage tank. Therefore, the estimated length
needed for the gutter system is the addition of 10.2 with14.18 and 10.82 and 10.86
yields 46m.
38
Dimension in metre
Figure 4.5: The dimension of the rooftop
According to the catalogue in Appendix C, 6m of F300 Gutter cost RM93.
Therefore, 8 of 6m are needed to construct the required gutter system for the
collection of water. Besides that, for the overall construction of the gutter, 4 Mitre
Joint In is needed for the connection at the bend section, one Spouthead Fin for the
downpipe, joiner at every 1m span that only include the span of 24 metre and Debris
Trap before rainwater enters the downpipe. The overall cost for the installation of
gutter is shown in Table 4.8.
Table 4.7: Calculation of cost for installation of gutter
Description Quantity Rates (RM) Total (RM)
Gutter F300 6 93 558
Mitre Joint In 4 20 80
Spouthead Fin (4 ) 1 15 15
Joiner 25 5 125
Debris Trap (4 ) 1 15 15
Total 793
4.3.2 Conveyance System
The type of pipe use for this system is Unplasticised Polyvinyl Chloride
(uPVC). The pipe will be installed from the storage tank to the cistern and first flush
in order to convey the rainwater to the intended destination. The quantity is rounded
39
up to ensure that sufficient pipe is available for the system. The costing is as shown
in Table 4.8.
Table 4.8: Estimation of cost for the piping system
Description Quantity Rate (RM) per quantity Total (RM)
65mm class D 2 18.10 36.20
32mm class D 2.4 7.10 17.04
25mm class E 3.5 7.90 27.65
Elbow 65mm 2 16.20 32.40
Elbow 25mm 2 2.20 4.40
Tee 25mm 2 4.90 9.80
Elbow 32mm 3 3.10 9.30
Tee 32mm 3 6.70 20.10
Stop valve 32mm 2 8.00 16.00
Total 172.89
4.3.3 Storage Tank
The storage tank that will be used is a taper tank model R6.8TD (2)
(Appendix B). This model is manufactured by Weida Water Sdn. Bhd. with the
brand name Polystor. The material used is polyethylene tank with a 10 years
warranty. The price of this product is RM160.
4.3.4 Concrete Platform
The water tank has to be elevated as high as 2m above datum to achieve the
sufficient pressure at the end of the pipe. A concrete platform is casted to give the
structure strength to carry the burden exerted by the storage tank. Size of column use
is 300 x 300 mm where as the slab for the storage tank is 1.1m x 1.1m x 0.2m.
Besides that, the structure must be laid on a firm ground. Since the structure
will be build on soil, a concrete foundation will be casted to avoid settlement and
give a stable foundation to the structure. The size of the foundation will be 1.1m x
1.1 m x 0.5m.
40
The concrete Grade 30 will be mixed in the ratio of 1:3:6. Cement cost
RM202/tonne and 1m
3
of cement is 1.44 tonne. Sand cost RM7/tonne and 1m
3
of
sand is 1.53 tonne. Aggregate cost RM20/tonne and 1m
3
of aggregate is 1.68 tonne.
Calculation
1m
3
cement @ 1.44 tonne @ RM202/tonne = RM 290.88
3m
3
sand @ 1.52 tonne @ RM7/tonne = RM 31.92
6m
3
aggregate @ 1.60 tonne @ RM20/tonne= RM 192.00
= RM 514.80
Shrinkage 40% = RM 205.92
10m
3
= RM 720.72
The required volume is 1.027 m
3
as shown in Table 4.9. So the cost for concrete
materials for the foundation is
.
1.027 = RM 74.
Table 4.9: Total volume of concrete in m
3
Components Dimension (m) Total Volume (m
3
)
Slab 1.1 x 1.1 x 0.2 0.242
4 Columns 0.3 x 0.3 x 2 0.18
Footing 1.1 x 1.1 x 0.5 0.605
Total 1.027
To construct this system, workers are needed to accomplish this task. Table
4.10 shows the daywork labour rates per day. The number of workers is estimated to
be 5 people. There will be 2 general labours, Concrete leveller, Carpenter and
Plumber. Table 4.11 shows the number of days each worker works and their pays.
Minimum of 3 days is estimated for the completion of construction of this rainwater
harvesting system.
Table 4.10: Daywork Labour Rates (JKR, 2005)
Description Unit Rate (RM)
General Labour Day 45.00
Concrete Leveller/Screeder Day 65.00
Carpenter and Joiner Day 65.00
Plumber Day 70.00
41
Table 4.11: Workers pay (JKR, 2005)
Workers Days Rate (RM) Pay (RM)
2 General Labours 2 45.00 180.00
Concrete Leveller/Screeder 1 65.00 65.00
Carpenter and Joiner 2 65.00 130.00
Plumber 2 70.00 140.00
Total 515.00
As the material is made available, the concrete leveller will start with mixing
the concrete to its ratio and lay at the designated position. Before concreting, the
ground is to be compacted to give an even surface for concreting the foundation.
Carpenter can work on building the platform for the storage tank and plumber on the
piping. The next day, the platform can be raise to its intended height once the
concrete has harden and fasten the column to the concrete to give extra support to the
structure. The plumber will finish the piping system once platform structure has been
erected. The general workers will be helping in placing the storage tank to its placed,
fixing the gutters and clear up the working area.
4.3.5 Summary
Table 4.12 shows the overall cost needed for the installation of rainwater
harvesting system on M41. The total cost of construction is RM 1714.89. These
include the gutter, piping, storage tank, concrete and workers pays. This value does
not depict the actual cost as it is only estimation but can be use as reference.
Table 4.12: The overall estimation cost for the installation of rainwater
harvesting
Components Amount (RM)
Gutter 793.00
Piping 172.89
Storage Tank 160.00
Concrete materials 74.00
Workers pays 515.00
Total 1714.89
42
4.3.6 Cost Saving
One of the advantages of installing rainwater harvesting system is the cost
saving from using clean water by substituting with free rainwater. Every state has
its own water tariffs. In Johor, the cost for every cubic of water used is shown in
table 4.13. Price is taken from Syarikat Air Johor (SAJ).
Table 4.13: The price per m
3
of water in RM
Usage category Rate (m
3
) Price per m
3
(RM) Minimum payment (RM)
Domestic 0 - 15
16-30
31-45
46-100
>100
0.38
1.31
1.82
2.20
2.23
4.00
Industrial 0-20
21-40
>40
2.22
2.96
2.96
18.48
Government and hospital Average rate 2.13 9.24
Shipping Average rate 5.20 -
Estate Average rate 1.14 -
Apartment Average rate 1.18 4.00
For the study site, there are 2 cistern tanks thus the total volume of water
used is 60 litres. Assuming 30 days in a month, the total volume of water used per
month is 1800 litres which is equivalent to 1.8 m
3
. According to the water tariff,
under the category government, the monthly water bill for flushing is RM9.24. The
calculated payback period is as the following:
Water usage for flushing = 60 L/d
Water usage for a month (30 days) = 30 x 60 = 1800 L/d
Monthly water bill for flushing = 1.8 x RM 2.13 = RM 3.83
Minimum payment = RM 9.24
Yearly water bill =RM 9.24 x 12 = RM 110.88
Cost of construction = RM 1715
Payback period = RM 1715 / 110.88
= 15.5 years
43
Nevertheless, if the total volume of rainwater is harvested, the calculation is
as such with the assumption that the rainfall pattern in Johor is consistent as shown
in Table 2.2, the average rainfall is (188 + 168 + 156 + 264) mm/4 = 194 mm.
Area of site, A = 373.98 m
2
V = CAR/1000 = 0.8 x 373.98 x 194/1000 = 58 m
3
Amount of rainwater per month = 58 m
3
@ RM 123.54
Water bill saved per year = RM 1482.48
Assuming the cost of construction increases by 20%, the calculated payback period
is:
Payback period = RM 2058 / (1482.48)
Payback period = 1.4 years
From the estimation, if the rainwater harvesting system is installed to supply
only for flushing, which is supplying for 2 cistern tanks, the payback period for the
system is 15.5 years. This shows that after 15.5 years, every year onwards will save
around RM 110.88. If the rainwater harvesting system is build to harvest all the
rainwater that falls per year, it is estimated that the payback period for the system is
1.4 years. After that the yearly water bill saving is RM 1482.48. The increase in 20%
of the construction cost include gutter system that might need to be modify, increase
in number of cistern tanks which required extra piping system.
From Office of Asset and Development (UTM), the water utilisation for 2009
is 300000 m
3
per month @ 3.6x10
6
m
3
per year. The total built areas including
buildings and paved roads, covers only about 2.7km
2
of the total campus area (Ayob
Katimon and Amat Sairin Demun, 2004). In theoretical perspective, the total
rainwater that can be harvested in campus is:
A = 2.7 km
2
= 7.29 x 10
6
m
2
V = CAR/1000
V = 0.8 x 7.29x10
6
x 194/1000
V = 1.13x10
6
m
3
/month > 3.0x10
5
m
3
Monthly saving = RM 1.77 million or RM21.24 million / year
44
As calculated, when the whole catchment area in campus is installed with
rainwater harvesting system, the monthly saving of water after deduction from the
water demand of 300000m3, is RM 1.77 million. Furthermore, if the usage and
harvested rainwater is consistent throughout the year, the total water savings per year
is RM 21.25 million.
Although the calculation and the value is mostly estimation, the actual saving
may never reach the calculated value. Moreover, other factors are not included such
as cost of rainwater harvesting, number of rainwater harvesting system installed,
total catchment area that can be installed with rainwater harvesting system, non-
potable water usage and so forth. The water demand is included both potable and
non-potable water usage by the residents of the campus. Nevertheless, these values
show us that harvested rainwater can save a significant amount of money which will
help the campus in terms of financial for the water bills. Therefore, rainwater
harvesting should not be taken lightly and the benefits are obvious both
economically and environmentally.
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Conclusions
From the research, it is promising if rainwater harvesting is practices in
campus. It serves as a substitution for non-potable water usage for domestic activities
such as flushing and irrigation and supplying freshwater in the face of increasing
water scarcity and escalating demand (Sazakli et al., 2007). The amount of rainwater
that can be collected in campus is 1.13x10
6
m
3
per month. This value shows that the
amount is sufficient to cater the demand of non-potable water by the residents in
campus as the monthly usage is 300000 m
3
consist of both potable and non-potable
water usage. In terms of monetary value, the estimated saving per month is RM 1.77
million. This amount of money can help reduce the expenditure by campus on water
bills which can be allocated for other means.
The payback period for the rainwater harvesting system are 15.5 years when
the system is constructed for flushing only and 1.4 years when the system in
constructed to fully collect the rainwater. Although the amount of rainwater collected
58 m
3
per month, rainwater is strictly for the usage of non-potable water activities
such as irrigation and toilet flushing, and not for human consumption.
By using rainwater, many benefits can be seen economically and
environmentally where water bills can be saved and can overcome the flash floods
phenomenon respectively. It is urged that campus would take rainwater harvesting
46
system seriously in realizing its objectives to become a green campus that creates an
environmental friendly surroundings and the same time save the environment and
minimize the energy usage
5.2 Recommendation
Rainwater harvesting has existed even since the water crisis in 1998 but was
not widespread. As UTM moves forward in becoming a green campus, there are few
challenges that must be tackled. One of the challenges is saving water. Water is
precious and therefore should be appreciated. Apart from educating, other methods
have to be applied in order to save the water. One of the methods is rainwater
harvesting.
Rainwater harvesting is a good start in saving water resources and creates a
sustainable living. By clearly separating the needs for potable water and non-potable
water, harvested rainwater will be used to supply the demand for non-potable water
fully thus eliminating the wastage of potable water for the usage of non-potable
water activities.
Potable water can be supplied via tap for drinking and cooking purposes and
shower for body cleaning purposes. As for non-potable water usage, for flushing, the
water can be supplied by harvested rainwater at the storage tank, for general washing
such as cleaning of toilets or washing of vehicles and irrigation, a special tap can be
installed. With the cooperation of everyone, water can be saved tremendously.
Before installing rainwater harvesting system in whole campus, M41 which is
the building for Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) office situated at Kolej Tun
Dr. Ismail (KTDI) need to be further investigate to determine the efficiency of the
system. Followed by installing these systems at strategic places where flushing of
toilets are the most, namely faculties. Again, studies and data collection can be
collected on site to check on the efficiency of the system and lastly to install this
system throughout campus as a final step towards water saving.
47
After installing rainwater harvesting system, maintenance will be done
annually to check for any defects in the system. Rainwater is usually free from
physical and chemical contaminants such as pesticides, lead and arsenic, color and
suspended materials and it is low in salt and hardness (WHO, 1993). Regular
maintenance assists in gaining good quality water from rainwater tanks. The storage
tank should be cleaned periodically, inner walls and floor should be scrubbed and
then cleaning of the cistern using chlorine, followed by a thorough rinsing. Cracks
should be patched with a non-toxic material avoid poisoning and contaminating the
rainwater collected.
48
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APPENDIX A 51
Computations of Residual Pressure Head at the End of each Pipe
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APPENDIX B 52
APPENDIX C 53
Price Catalogue for Gutter