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A cultural analysis of Japanese tourists: challenges for tourism marketers


Department of Marketing, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia, and Department of Applied Economics, Victoria University of Technology, Melbourne, Australia
Keywords Service providers, Australia, Japan, Cultural diversity, Tourism, Marketing strategy Abstract Presents the results of an empirical analysis of the cultural differences between Australian and Japanese populations in a tourism context. Argues that the challenge for tourism marketers lies in understanding the cultural make-up of the Japanese market, and developing culture-oriented marketing strategies. Identifies the major reasons for the decline in Japanese tourist arrivals to Australia. Compares the Japanese and Western cultural orientation. Describes and interprets the cultural dimensions identified by a principal components analysis. Determines the most critical cultural dimensions and their indicators by a LISREL analysis. The findings show that the key cultural factors influencing Japanese holiday experiences in Australia are culturally determined perceptions of service and interpersonal relations with hosts. Presents the impact of cultural traits on Japanese tourist perceptions of Australian service and interpersonal contact with hosts. Discusses the implications of these findings for tourism marketers.

A cultural analysis of Japanese tourists 1203


Received April 1997 Revised October 1997, February 1998

Yvette Reisinger

Lindsay Turner

Introduction Today's tourism business environment and multicultural diversity of international tourists points to the importance of developing a better understanding of the culturally different tourist. Cultural variations in value orientations and social behaviour have direct impacts on tourist holiday experiences. The hosts' ability to respond effectively to a culturally different tourist is an important element determining positive tourist holiday experiences and satisfaction. During the last decade the international tourism industry experienced an increase in Japanese outbound traffic. The tourism forecasts show that Japan will be the main source of international outbound tourism in the late 1990s and early 2000s. Currently, Japan is the largest and the most important single source of international tourists to Australia representing 21 per cent of all international visitors (BTR, 1996). This market has also increased its visitation to Queensland, the major tourist holiday destination in Australia. The percentage of Japanese tourists visiting Queensland has been the highest, reaching 77 per cent of total visitors in 1996 (BTR, 1996). In response to this vast influx of Japanese tourists, who are culturally different from Western populations, it is imperative that tourism marketers

European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 33 No. 11/12, 1999, pp. 1203-1227. # MCB University Press, 0309-0566

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understand the cultural characteristics of the Japanese tourist. Cultural traits lead to different holiday expectations and experiences and, consequently, a different degree of holiday satisfaction. Marketers should understand the way Japanese tourists select tourist destinations and evaluate them. Several models of buyer behaviour have been developed for marketing purposes. Although these models form the base for contemporary marketing, they cannot be easily adopted to explain the purchasing behaviour and satisfaction of the international tourist. These models ignore the influence of cultural variables on the purchase experiences of the culturally different buyer. A new marketing approach allowing for logical deductions about international tourist behaviour and providing a potential framework for the development of appropriate marketing strategies for international tourists is needed. Thus, this paper attempts to develop such an approach by exploring the influence of cultural variables on Japanese buyer behaviour in a tourism context. The traditional model of buyer behaviour consists of three stages: prepurchase, consumption and post-consumption. The first pre-purchase stage begins with problem or need recognition, and is followed by a search for information, arrival at a set of solutions and selection of the option. In the consumption stage buyers seek benefits which are delivered through an interactive process between themselves and service providers. At this stage buyers evaluate the services while interacting with the providers. At the postconsumption stage buyers evaluate services by comparing the service they perceived they had received with their expectations about what they should have received. At the pre-purchase stage of buyer behaviour Japanese tourists realise their need to travel overseas and consider the available holiday destinations. The main reason why the Japanese travel overseas is their desire to experience Western civilisation (Hendry, 1987; Leiper, 1985, 1987; Zimmerman, 1985). The main reason for their visitation to Australia is the concept of a safe and clean destination, with unique nature, beautiful beaches, warm climate, and modern facilities. The Japanese desire to visit Australia was recently greatly enhanced by heavy publicity and aggressive marketing of Australia as a tourist destination in Japan. In addition, a favourable exchange rate has made travel to Australia cheap for Japanese tourists. However, in today's competitive tourism marketplace Australia has to compete with other destinations for Japanese tourists. Many of these destinations offer similar products: luxury hotels, transportation and appealing tourist attractions. Unfortunately, Australia cannot compete with many of these destinations in the areas of culture, history and shopping. Presently, Australia's competing destinations for the Japanese market are the USA (including Hawaii and Guam) and the short-haul destinations in Asia such as Hong Kong. The growth rate of Japanese arrivals to Australia has been decreasing since 1988 when Japanese tourist arrivals grew at a rate of 63 per cent (BTR, 1988). In

1996 the growth rate reached only 9 per cent (BTR, 1996) and it is predicted that A cultural it will drop to 4.1 per cent in the year 2004 (ATC, 1994). In addition, the level of analysis of repeat visitation from the Japanese market to Australia has declined to 25 per Japanese tourists cent (BTR, 1996). Also, the Gold Coast region, the major holiday destination for Japanese tourists, has begun to lose its appeal as a preferred tourist destination for Japanese honeymooners in favour of Hawaii. 1205 At the consumption stage of buyer behaviour Japanese tourists to Australia have experienced problems with Australian service provision. The Japanese complained about a lack of professional service in restaurants, poor organisation of tours, lack of sophisticated packaging, home-made products (McArthur, 1988), lack of good manners by service staff, poor command of Asian languages (Kennedy, 1988), slow service, communication problems (McGee, 1988), and the Australian pattern of weekend penalty hours (Ostrow, 1988). The Japanese began to return home retaining one third of the money they intended to spend in Australia, because shops were closed and they could not find the souvenirs they wanted (Harris, 1988). Although Japanese tourists perceived local providers positively on arrival to Australia (the average mean score was between 3 and 4 on a 5-point scale), their perceptions of Australian providers were significantly less favourable on departure. For instance, hotel and food establishment employees and shop assistants were perceived as significantly less concerned about tourist needs, less helpful and less informative; Australian tour guides were perceived as less knowledgeable of Australian history and culture; and all Australian providers were perceived as significantly less able to speak the Japanese language than tourists expected, prior to their arrival in Australia (Reisinger and Waryszak, 1994a; 1994b; 1994c; 1994d). The problems encountered in the area of service generated a quite high level of dissatisfaction among Japanese tourists since the service the Japanese tourists had received did not match their expectations. Approximately 22 per cent (1992) and 31 per cent (1995) of the Japanese tourists were dissatisfied with the times when shops were open, 6 per cent were not happy about the cost of goods in shops, 10 per cent were dissatisfied with the availability of service providers with language skills other than English, 9 per cent were dissatisfied with the availability of interpreters, 8 per cent were dissatisfied with the availability of foreign language signs, and 15 per cent were unhappy about the availability of handicapped facilities (BTR, 1992, 1995). There could have been several factors which generated problems in serving Japanese tourists at the consumption stage and their disappointment at the post-consumption stage of buyer behaviour such as technical elements of service provision or previous Australian holiday experiences. However, these factors seem to be irrelevant. The technical elements of service did not create dissatisfaction among other international tourist markets, and nearly three quarters of the Japanese tourists to Australia were first-time visitors with no previous experience of Australia.

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A major factor influencing Japanese evaluation of Australian service might be the cultural difference in values and expectations of Japanese customers. The extremely high expectations of service of the Japanese might also be one of the reasons for the decline in the growth rate of Japanese arrivals to Australia. According to Turcq and Usunier (1985), the Japanese are extremely keen on detail, aesthetics, quality and service. They are more demanding and have higher service expectations than other international tourists and are driven by a Japanese service philosophy determined by cultural beliefs about how service should be properly performed. Japanese cultural traits set very high standards for service, and Australian standards of service did not match this standard. Goodrich (1997) noted that Japanese tourists are unique and different from other tourists and that it is imperative to understand and adjust to their culture by tailoring services to distinctive Japanese characteristics. However, this paper does not argue that Western hosts should change their mode of service provision to suit the needs of the Japanese tourist market. This would be in conflict with the Japanese motivation to experience Western culture. However, this paper does argue that Western hosts should become more aware of the significant cultural variations in the expected standards of service between themselves and the Japanese market, as well as other culturally different tourist markets. The cultural differences in service determine expectations from service and its required standard. Tourism marketers and service providers should respond to the culturally accepted standards of the markets they serve. Current marketing strategies, which aim at various international tourist markets, are inadequate in emphasising the role of a tourist and a host culture for developing tourist positive perceptions of their holiday and, in particular, the level of service received. Japanese and Western cultural orientation A review of literature has revealed that much has been written on Japanese culture (Argyle, 1975; Befu, 1980; Benedict, 1946, 1974; Graburn, 1983; Hendry, 1987; Lebra, 1976; Moeran and Graburn, 1983; Morsbach, 1981; Nakane, 1973; Neustupny, 1987; Zimmerman, 1985). There is a consensus among writers that there are cultural differences between Japanese and Western societies. Perhaps, the most relevant literature on Japanese cultural orientation is Hofstede's (1980a) study which identified the four cultural dimensions of power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism and collectivism, and masculinity and femininity on which the Japanese and Western cultures could be compared. According to Hofstede (1980a), Japanese society belongs to a high power distance culture and believes in authority, supervision and hierarchy. The seniority system dictates respect for age, wisdom and subordination to those of higher social position. In contrast, Western societies believe that social hierarchy and inequality should be minimised. The Japanese appear to belong to the high uncertainty avoidance culture: they avoid conflict, competition and risk-taking to preserve social

harmony. On the other hand, Westerners belong to the lower uncertainty A cultural avoidance culture: they tolerate ambiguity, new ideas and different analysis of behaviours. The Japanese appear to be collectivist in nature: they foster the Japanese tourists development of strong cohesive groups and focus on group needs. Japanese individual preferences are sacrificed for the harmony of the family and the group. Decisions are based on group consensus to avoid conflict. By contrast, 1207 Westerners appear to be the opposite: concerned about individual needs and goals. Finally, although family and group are the major considerations of Japanese culture, Japanese society is a masculine society: the focus is on performance and growth. In contrast, although it appears that materialism, possession and financial status are of major importance in Western cultures, Western societies are less masculine oriented: they focus on quality of life and the welfare of others (see Table I). Other studies which support a notion of cultural differences between Japanese and Western populations are Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961), Hall (1976), Glenn (1981), Condon (1978), Samovar and Porter (1988), and Argyle et al. (1986). Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961) distinguished between three types of culture: individualistic, collateral and linear. According to Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961), the Japanese belong to a collectivistic culture because they focus on group needs and goals. They also belong to a collateral culture because they believe that the individual is part of a social order which results from extended relationships. They focus on group norms and consensus, and emphasise co-existence with the extended family. The Japanese also belong to a linear culture because they believe in social succession, hierarchy and submission to elders and superiors. Doi (1974) and Usunier (1993) reported what they considered to be a unique feature of Japanese society, that is, ``the anatomy of dependence'' passive love surrounding and supporting the individual in a group, whether family, neighbourhood or the world. Similarly, Shimaguchi (1978) reported close dependency and high expectations of others in a group. Nakane (1973) emphasised the role of amae in developing and maintaining group bonds. In contrast, Westerners belong to individualistic cultures because they focus on individual needs and well being. They do not focus on extended families and
Power distance 29 22 Uncertainty avoidance 27 4 Individualism/ collectivism 2 22 Masculinity/ femininity 14 1

Country Japan Australia

Note: A low ranking (e.g. 3) indicates a high rating on that dimension. Maximum ranking is 40 Source: Hofstede (1980a, p. 315)

Table I. Ranking of Japan and Australia on Hofstede's four cultural dimensions

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dependent relationships to the degree of the Japanese, and they believe more in democracy, equality and advancement through their own work and achievements rather than co-existence with others. According to Hall (1976), the Japanese appear to belong to a high context culture where the meaning of information received is implied through nonverbal cues, and depends on the situation and personal relationships. Westerners belong to a low context culture and transmit their messages in spoken or written words. Similarly, Glenn (1981) noted the importance of associative communication in Japan with a focus on situation and context, and abstractive communication in Western cultures with a focus on arguments and facts. Condon (1978) reported that in Japanese culture, which focuses on indirect and implicit communication, silence is regarded as a symbol of power and strength. In Western cultures, which focus on direct and explicit communication, silence is regarded as a symbol of weakness. According to Samovar and Porter (1988), in a formal culture such as Japan, people behave according to strict social rules. In informal Western cultures little attention is paid to formal rules. A review of the tourism literature has revealed that many studies have been focussed on the cultural characteristics of the Japanese tourist behaviour (Ahmed and Krohn, 1992; Dace, 1995; Keown, 1989; Lang et al., 1993; Lebra, 1976; Sheldon and Fox, 1988). Ahmed and Krohn (1992) examined the unique cultural characteristics of the behaviour of Japanese tourists visiting the USA. They cited ten major elements in Japanese culture which influence their consumer behaviour: (1) belongingness (travelling in groups and seeking comfort in togetherness); (2) family influence (purchasing gifts for close friends and family members and reciprocating); (3) empathy (projecting the feelings of others and not expressing true personal feelings, including displeasure); (4) dependency (being loyal and devoted in exchange for security and protection); (5) hierarchical acknowledgement (behaving in accordance to social status); (6) propensity to save (accumulating funds for an emergency and saving for a home to overcome feelings of insecurity); (7) the concept of kinen (collecting evidence of travel to prestigious tourist destinations); (8) tourist photography (importance of photography); (9) passivity (avoidance of participating in physical activities); and (10) risk avoidance (avoidance of adventurous leisure pursuits).

It was reported that Japanese regard complaining or expressing dissatisfaction A cultural as inappropriate. Ahmed and Krohn (1992, p. 81) argued that ``Japanese tourists analysis of rarely display displeasure even if they are not pleased with a tourism service or Japanese tourists product''. Keown (1989), who tried to evaluate the Japanese tourists' perceptions of Hawaiian stores versus Japanese stores, noted that the very polite Japanese tourists refrained from criticising Hawaiian stores. Ahmed and Krohn (1992, p. 1209 81) noted that Japanese tourists ``save all complaints until they return home. They believe that expression of the personal feelings would be disruptive''. Lebra (1976) discussed the concept of enryo as self-restraint exercised to avoid causing displeasure for others. Similarly, Dace (1995) described the concepts of wa (harmony with surroundings) and enryo (group harmony through selfrestraint). Reisinger and Waryszak (1994d, p. 36) reported that ``the cultural background of Japanese tourists could indicate the necessity of saving face and not embarrassing the Australian tourism industry officials by expressing negative opinions''. It was noted that in order to influence Japanese arrivals in Canada attention should be focused on the habit persistence variable rather than on exchange rate and income since the effect of the former was more consistent and significant (Hui and Chi-Ching, 1996). The importance of developing and maintaining good personal relationships with the Japanese, and differing cultural and behavioural communication norms was identified as one of the major issues in the relationships between Japanese wholesalers and Australian suppliers (March, 1997). Cultural background strongly influences Japanese tourist consumer behaviour. For instance, a Japanese tourist selects a holiday destination differently to a domestic tourist in Australia. A major consideration in choosing a tourist destination is the effect of the destination choice on the family members. All members of Japanese families participate in choosing a holiday destination. The chosen destination should be preferred by everyone to preserve group harmony. In order to maximise the benefits of their holidays, Japanese also carefully pre-plan their travel arrangements. They examine all alternative destinations, their pros and cons, and consider various pricing policies to save additional funds. As a result, in the prepurchase stage of consumer behaviour Japanese spend a lot of time on decision making. Consequently, the process of their decision making is longer when compared to Western consumers. On the other hand, the purchase stage itself is speedier than in Western countries because Japanese try to avoid offending and disturbing the harmony of the group (Ziff-Levine, 1990). In the evaluation stage, Japanese assess the product and services consumed depending on the situation and personal relationships. This assessment is expressed implicitly through non-verbal meanings, and its interpretation must be done with caution. The Japanese holiday satisfaction level should always be weighted against the degree of the Japanese reluctance to express negative emotions. In contrast, the process of decision making of an average Australian tourist is shorter in the pre-purchased

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stage. Australians do not spend much time on deciding about their holiday destinations. Their holidays are often unplanned, worry-free and relaxed. They are also designed around the individual's needs. However, the purchase stage is longer because Australian tourists often shop around to get the best deal in various travel agencies. In the evaluation stage, Australians express their holiday dis/satisfaction openly and directly, they often argue and refer to facts. The above studies show that there are cultural differences in consumer behaviour between the Japanese and Western nationalities. The major reasons for these differences were found to be related to various religious beliefs. The Japanese have been indoctrinated on Buddhist, Shintoist and Confucian thought, whereas Western cultures have Greco-Roman and Judeo-Christian cultural backgrounds. Consequently, these differences should be analysed and accommodated to prevent cultural misunderstanding. Purpose of the study The major purposes of this study are to: . determine the dimensions of the cultural differences between the Japanese and Australian populations in a tourism context; . investigate their key indicators in the framework of structural equation modelling; and . determine which cultural themes should be emphasised in tourism promotional strategies aiming at the Japanese tourist market. In particular, the study aims to identify the effect of the cultural differences on the interpersonal elements of service delivery, that is, social interaction between Japanese tourists and Australian service providers, as representative of Western culture. It is hypothesised that there are significant cultural differences between the Japanese and Australian populations in a tourism context. These differences can be presented in several cultural dimensions which are correlated with the dimension of social interaction. Japanese and Australian culture is analysed in this article from the broad national perspective rather than the regional or an individual perspective. Culture in this article refers to ``everything that people have in common'' (Hofstede, 1980b). Most individuals from the same nation share a dominant cultural character which is difficult to change. On the other hand, the regional culture or the culture of individuals can be influenced by an individual's demographic, socio-economic or psychographic characteristics. Interestingly, from the national perspective, Japan is the most homogeneous in the world with respect to its socio-cultural characteristics. According to Ahmed and Krohn (1992), all Japanese speak the same language, practice the same religion, and share the same socio-cultural values, when compared to Western nationals, which often are aggregates of the world's various cultures. It has been argued that Japan tends to be seen ``as one whole, and the Japanese

as all of the same kind''. In fact, Japan is as diverse as any other country. To A cultural speak of it as of a single and indivisible entity is unrealistic'' (Neustupny, 1987, analysis of p. 27). Japanese tourists The Japanese travel outbound market is heterogeneous and one must also take into account demographic characteristics, different propensities for physical activity, different ways of experiencing culture and nature, since these 1211 define specific market segments (Iverson, 1997). These segments share the same dominant cultural character. Therefore, it is important to understand the national cultural character of the total Japanese market when analysing Japanese tourist behaviour and motivation. This paper analyses a national dominant cultural character of most Japanese which distinguishes them from Westerners and, in particular, Australians as presented in the paper. Research methodology Sample The study reported in the paper formed part of a larger research project on the cultural differences between Asian and Australian populations in a tourism context. The total population investigated in that study consisted of 618 Asian tourists visiting the Gold Coast region, Queensland, the major tourist destination in Australia. The total population of Asian tourists was divided into mutually exclusive and exhaustive strata (Asian language groups), of which one was the Japanese tourist market. A sample of 108 Japanese tourists comprised the Japanese strata. Japanese tourists were approached in places of their most frequent visitation such as theme parks, restaurants, hotels and shops. In addition, 250 Australian tourism providers were chosen randomly from a variety of sectors of the tourism and hospitality industry such as accommodation, transportation, food and beverage, retail, entertainment and customs. In these sectors the Japanese tourists came into direct contact with local providers. Measuring instrument and its design A structured interview questionnaire was used to collect the data. The questionnaire was divided into six parts: the first part measured cultural values. The Rokeach (1973) Values Survey was chosen as the most appropriate for measuring human values. The second part measured rules of social behaviour and the items were adapted from Argyle et al.'s (1986) study on cross-cultural variations in relationship rules. However, the original instrument was modified so that rules of conforming to social etiquette, having a sense of shame, avoiding embarrassment and many other questions were included to make the instrument more applicable to the Japanese culture. The third part of the questionnaire measured perceptions of service. Many items were adapted from Parasuraman et al.'s (1986) study on service quality dimensions as they covered the most important criteria of service quality. However, additional variables such as knowledge of Japanese culture and customs, knowledge of

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Australian history and culture, and ability to speak the Japanese and English languages were added to the questionnaire. These variables had been found to be useful in measuring Japanese tourist perceptions of Australian service providers' attributes (Reisinger and Waryszak, 1994a; 1994b; 1994c; 1994d). The fourth part of the questionnaire measured tourist-host social interaction. The measuring items were adapted from the direct and indirect measures of social contact identified by Feather (1980) and Kamal and Maruyama (1990). The fifth part of the questionnaire measured seven components of satisfaction with tourist-host contact. Additional socio-demographic information was also collected. All questions were identical for both the Australian and Japanese samples to permit comparison of answers. The tourist questionnaire was translated into the Japanese language and back translated from Japanese into English to achieve equivalence of concepts. The questionnaire was pretested twice on a sample of 30 Japanese tourists and 20 Australian providers. The questionnaire was administered by a professionally trained interviewer speaking the English and Japanese languages. Operationalization of measures All measuring items were rated on a 6-point scale according to their importance; 1 was assigned to an item rated as the least important and 6 was assigned to an item rated as the most important. Analysis The data were analysed using a Mann-Whitney U Test to identify the significant cultural differences between both populations. A principal components analysis with orthogonal varimax rotation was used to determine the major cultural dimensions and their key indicators on which the Japanese and Australian cultures differed. Orthogonal rotation was chosen to reduce a total number of 117 variables to a smaller set of individual factors regardless of their meanings. The varimax approach was used to: . maximise the variance of factor loadings across variables and make high loadings higher and low loadings lower, for each factor; . achieve a clearer separation of the factors; and . identify the variables most representative of these factors (with the highest loadings). Further, a LISREL 7.20 computer program (Joreskog and Sorbom, 1989) Submodel 1 was used to: examine a series of interrelated relationships between the identified cultural dimensions and the multiple variables which represented these dimensions; and assess the relationships between the dimensions, and their statistical significance. The LISREL was not performed on all identified latent dimensions as one group. The sample size was too small in relation to the number of variables analysed to run a single overall LISREL analysis. If such analysis were done, measurement error would increase, and the statistical

rigour of the results would decrease. Therefore, the LISREL analysis was A cultural performed in parts. analysis of Since the aim was to find out which dimensions and which indicators were Japanese tourists the most critical in determining social interaction between tourists and hosts, each latent dimension was separately paired with the interaction dimension. The strength of the relationships between the paired dimensions was 1213 measured. These relationships are presented as one diagram in order to clearly see the total set of interrelationships. As such Figure 1 is only misleading to the degree that each of the sets of separate analyses have been amalgamated together, whereas the analysis was actually done in parts. Hence, the interaction dimension has as many listings of the variable loadings as there are pairs of dimensions. Only sets with the best goodness of fit index (GFI), adjusted goodness of fit index (AGFI) and the highest total coefficient of determination (TCD) were included in Figure 1. Study results Respondents' profile The Japanese sample tended to be older than the sample of Australian providers with more than 56 per cent of the former being 25-38 years of age compared with nearly 31 per cent of the latter. The Japanese sample had a very high proportion with a university degree (52 per cent) compared with only 13 per cent in the Australian sample. The largest sub-groups of the Japanese tourists were professionals (22 per cent), followed by salespeople and clerks, while the largest sub-groups of the Australian providers were food and beverage staff (approximately 20 per cent) followed by front office and housekeeping. Nearly 90 per cent of the Japanese tourists came to Australia for the purpose of holiday, 86 per cent were on inclusive package tours and had been exposed to an intensive contact with local providers such as front office employees, waitresses, shop keepers, salespeople, bus drivers or custom officers. The majority of the Japanese tourists (75 per cent) had been served by more than ten providers during their stay in Australia. About one quarter of the Japanese tourists did not develop any relationship with local hosts and the same proportion made close friends of one host only. The majority of the Japanese tourists (55 per cent) believed that it was very difficult to interact with Australian providers. Approximately 64 per cent did not speak any English at all, or spoke very little. More than 80 per cent preferred a high degree of interaction with Australian hosts. Cultural dimensions Out of 117 areas of measurement, 83 showed significant differences in all five groups of cultural indicators, that is, cultural values, rules of social behaviour, perceptions of service, preferred forms of social interaction and satisfaction with interaction. A principal components analysis reduced the number of significant differences to a set of five cultural dimensions on which the Japanese and Australian cultures differed. Factor loadings from a varimax

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Figure 1. Model of the cultural differences between Japanese tourists and Australian hosts

rotated solution greater than 0.6 were considered significant. The five A cultural dimensions, which differed between Japanese tourists and Australian hosts, analysis of were defined as courtesy and responsiveness, competence, interaction, idealism Japanese tourists and communication. The Cronbach's Alpha of each of the five dimensions ranged from 0.75 to 0.95 and indicated that the five-factor solution was highly reliable. The pattern of loadings and factor structure is shown in Table II. The 1215 five cultural dimensions identified in Table II were summarised as follows: (1) Courtesy and responsiveness consisted of variables that described the providers' ability to respond to tourists' needs such as being helpful, accurate, prompt, respectful, trustworthy, confident and polite. It included the providers' ability to solve problems, perform the service required, answer all questions and behave in a way which indicates that tourists are treated as guests. (2) Competence consisted of variables that described the cues associated with accomplishment such as being logical, intellectual, independent, cheerful and self-respected, and implies the providers' ability to think and behave in a professional manner. (3) Interaction described the preference for forms of social interaction such as having a personal relationship, sharing a meal, playing sport together, inviting home and exchanging gifts. (4) Idealism related to the need for peace, happiness and beauty. (5) Communication reflected the need for adequate communication between providers and tourists, that is, the providers' ability to keep tourists informed, provide adequate explanations, listen to tourists and be concerned about the tourists' well-being. The LISREL model for the Japanese tourist market showed, first, that out of five cultural dimensions identified by a principal components analysis, only three were the most critical to the Japanese market. These were courtesy and responsiveness, competence and interaction. The dimension of courtesy and responsiveness represented perceptions of service, the dimension of competence represented cultural values, and the dimension of interaction represented preferred forms of interaction. Second, the LISREL analysis did not identify dimensions which represented rules of social behaviour and satisfaction. Third, the most critical indicators of the courtesy and responsiveness dimension were: being helpful, able to provide accurate information and prompt service, being respectful, trustworthy, responsive to tourists' needs, confident, polite, and able to solve problems. The most critical indicator of the competence dimension was being intellectual. The most critical indicators of the interaction dimension were having a personal relationship and sharing a meal (see Figure 1). Fourth, the correlations between the interaction dimension and the other two dimensions, that is, the dimension of courtesy and responsiveness and the

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Variable F1. Courtesy/responsiveness Helpful Provide accurate information Prompt service Respectful Trustworthy Responsive to tourists' needs Confident Treat as guests Polite Solve problems Perform service required Answer questions Reliability Cronbach's Alpha F2. Competence Logical Intellectual Independent Cheerful Self-respect Reliability Cronbach's Alpha F3. Interaction Have personal relationship Share a meal Play sport Invite home Exchange gifts Reliability Cronbach's Alpha F4. Idealism World of peace Happiness World of beauty Reliability Cronbach's Alpha F5. Communication Give adequate explanations Keep informed Listen to tourists Concerned about tourists' welfare Reliability Cronbach's Alpha

Significant factor loading

0.84543 0.82831 0.82359 0.81244 0.80590 0.79710 0.78180 0.77825 0.77713 0.76961 0.69388 0.68158 0.9493 0.82227 0.74677 0.72062 0.64293 0.62906 0.8373 0.85514 0.79028 0.76709 0.72695 0.71184 0.8621 0.83749 0.71278 0.65220 0.7467 0.69634 0.68321 0.63054 0.61324 0.8932

Table II. Results of the varimax rotated factor matrix in the Japanese sample for the variables which differed between Australian hosts and Japanese tourists (significant factor loadings only)

dimension of competence, were extremely weak (0.252, t 2:404 between A cultural interaction and competence) and non-existent (0.185, t 1:804 between analysis of interaction and courtesy and responsiveness). Obviously, the interaction Japanese tourists dimension was not correlated with the dimension of courtesy and responsiveness, and the dimension of competence (see Figure 1). The LISREL model of the cultural differences between Japanese tourists and 1217 Australian hosts is displayed in Figure 1. The measures of absolute fit for the LISREL analysis are presented in Table III. Marketing implications The LISREL model identified three key cultural dimensions of the differences between Japanese and Australian populations in a tourism context, that is, courtesy and responsiveness, competence and interaction. The variables which significantly loaded on these dimensions represent the key cultural differences between Japanese tourists' and Australian providers' behaviour. These variables should draw attention of tourism marketers as they indicate the key cultural characteristics of the Japanese tourists which determine their holiday expectations and experiences. Australian tourism marketers should learn to appreciate these characteristics and develop products and services that appeal to Japanese tourists. Marketers should adopt strategies which would utilise these cultural characteristics to meet the expectations and needs of the Japanese visitors and promote Australia to the Japanese market in a more effective and efficient way. The important reason for learning the cultural behaviour of Japanese tourists is to develop better marketing strategies and increase the rate of Japanese repeat visitation to Australia. Dimension of courtesy and responsiveness Accurate information. As members of a high uncertainty avoidance culture Japanese tourists have a strong need to avoid any possible risk associated with their travel. Given that Australians belong to a low uncertainty avoidance culture and are not concerned with travel risk to such a degree as the Japanese, efforts should be made to reduce travel risk for the Japanese tourist. The predominant strategy should involve the provision of adequate and reliable information about the Australian tourism product. However, the type of information and its source should depend on what type of risk tourists might experience and which types of risk particular tourism products create for travellers.
Values-interaction Goodness of fit index (GFI) Adjusted goodness of fit index (AGFI) Total coefficient of determination (TCD) Root mean square residuals (RMSR) 0.829 0.797 0.983 0.080 Perceptions-interaction 0.644 0.563 0.995 0.084 Table III. LISREL model fit estimates for Japanese cultural model

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The Japanese tourists can perceive several types of risks when travelling overseas: performance risk, the risk that the product and services will not perform as expected; financial risk, the risk that the product will not be worth its cost in money, either because it will be too expensive or will not be of high quality; time risk, the risk that it would be a waste of time to travel to Australia; physical risk, the risk that the tourism product will cause safety problems and be harmful; psychosocial risk, a combination of social and psychological risk, the risk that a poor product choice may result in embarrassment before others or harm the tourist's ego; and cultural risk, the risk of culture shock if the destination's culture is too dissimilar from what the traveller was expecting. The above risks should be reduced by a number of possible risk reduction strategies. Tourism marketers should use various information sources. The sources, which would be treated by the Japanese tourists as the most credible and trustworthy, are personal experiences from family members, friends, and neighbours. Their impact on the Japanese travellers' information search behaviour would be the most effective. Capella and Greco (1987) found that families and friends greatly influenced destination choice. Therefore, the goodwill of past Japanese visitors should be fostered as they give favourable impressions about their visits and make recommendations to their families and acquaintances. Also, commercial (advertising, salespeople) and public (mass media, travel organisations, travel shows, travel literature and brochures) sources should be utilised. For instance, signs and informative posters should be placed in hotel lobbies with information on travel itineraries, flight schedules or trading hours. Promotional brochures should be distributed to tourists on arrival and include details on all places of tourist visitation, activities and services available. Personal sources of information should be used when financial risk is a consideration (Houston, 1979). When tourists are concerned about time risk, the travel agent and other non-personal sources of information should be consulted. When tourists are concerned about high cultural risk, the marketer should suggest a travel consultant as a source of information. Marketers should also use word of mouth to provide information to travellers about dealing with cultural risk. Moutinho (1987) acknowledged that the primary source of communication for tourists was word of mouth. In addition, references from public celebrities and leaders, who are well known as having good knowledge and experience with the Australian tourism product and whose judgement the Japanese tourists trust, would also greatly reduce uncertainty and could be even more effective than TV and radio advertising. Marketers should reduce the effort required by tourists to search for extra information by directing tourists to only knowledgeable and credible sources. The more adequate and knowledgeable the information provided to tourists, the fewer the number of information sources tourists will consult for opposing information which might lead to the discovery of other risks, which in turn might increase total risk, rather than reduce it. Provision of accurate

and adequate information and, thus, reducing the number of sources A cultural consulted by tourists would provide marketers with a competitive advantage. analysis of In order to achieve this marketers should motivate travel agents to increase Japanese tourists their level of knowledge about the product marketed to Japanese tourists and aim to be perceived as trustworthy and well-known suppliers of information. If the credibility of the information becomes a concern for tourists, marketers 1219 should institute a change in their distribution (the choice of intermediaries), as well as promotion decisions (e.g. advertising, brochures). In addition, the tour products should be designed with the awareness that an increasing number of Japanese tourists are repeat visitors who do not want to have the same or similar experiences in subsequent visits. New markets and new marketing channels should be established to inform repeat visitors about new tourism products. Also, marketers should show how Japanese tourists themselves could reduce their uncertainty. For example, marketers should direct Japanese tourists to government travel reports, encourage repeat visits and to purchase the more expensive product, not overpromise to lower tourist expectations, offer high quality service guarantees, and refer to the friends and families of tourists for recommendations. Marketers should also attempt to develop a destination loyalty strategy by ensuring the Japanese tourist is satisfied with any high-risk purchase such as an adventure product, and make the tourist unwilling to experience a different product at a different destination. Prompt service. Although the Japanese tend to resist pressures on deadlines, they are punctual. Punctuality is regarded by the Japanese masculine society not only as a sign of good manners and respect to others but also as a measure of professionalism and performance. Being in a more feminine society, with a focus on casual life style and lack of promptness, Australian providers should not delay services for the Japanese tourist, as this would be an indication of the providers' inability to deliver quality and a sign of incompetence. If service delays are anticipated, providers should make waiting entertaining. Japanese tourists need to be occupied, for example, given menus to look at while waiting in a restaurant or a travel journal to read while waiting in a hotel lobby or at an airport. Entertainment is required, preferably related to the upcoming service to make tourists perceive that the service has started and they are no longer actively waiting. For instance, watching a videotape of Australia could at the same time educate the Japanese tourist and reduce perceptions of waiting. Offering Japanese tourists something to do will also reduce their anxiety. Additionally, Japanese tourists should also be told how long they will have to wait to reduce their uncertainty about the wait and be given reasons for the cause of the waiting. If a delay is unavoidable waiting should be organised in groups. As collectivists the Japanese would feel more comfortable to wait with other members of a group rather than alone. Also, the distractions provided by other members of a group and opportunities to share the waiting experience will make waiting more

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tolerable. Further, marketers should conform to the apologetic behaviour of the Japanese with small apology gifts given to tourists if a delay is unavoidable. Words of apology from senior management would also be appropriate. Respect. In a high power distance culture such as Japan where a society values authority and hierarchical structure (Isomura et al., 1987) various degrees of respect are shown to people in different social positions and in different age groups. Australian marketers, who are members of a low power distance culture valuing equality, should differentiate their Japanese customers by segmenting them on the basis of social stratification and developing distinct promotional messages to the individual segments. Careful attention should be paid to showing respect to the tourist's social position and age. Local providers should determine the order in which tourists should be served. Also, providers should wear work uniforms with badges which indicate their own social and employment status. As Turcq and Usunier (1985) reported the Japanese are very concerned about aesthetics and detail. Thus, the physical appearance of service providers must also be marketed. Trustworthiness. In a high context culture such as Japan, the concepts of truth and sincerity are relative and depend upon the social situation and time. Truthfulness and sincerity in Japan are shown by maintaining harmony in social relations, being concerned about the consequences of one's own behaviour for other people, fulfilling social obligations, not revealing negative thoughts, avoiding negative answers and offence. By contrast, in a low context culture such as Australia, sincerity means straightforwardness and directness. Consequently, cultural differences in understanding the concept of truth can create difficulties in communication between Japanese and Australians, interpretation of their intentions, and understanding as to what is truly important. Thus, Australian marketers should adopt various communication strategies when dealing with the Japanese tourist. Firstly, any communication with the Japanese should be carried out in an ill-defined context so as to preclude personal interpretation of the spoken words. Secondly, tourism marketers should utilise their knowledge of cross-cultural differences on the interpretation of messages and use professional interpreters for dealings and negotiated agreements, deciding communication channels, and developing advertising messages. They should also manage tourist expectations through an appropriate form of communication. Thirdly, only front office employees who are familiar with the cultural nuances of the Japanese communication style should be hired. However, since this strategy may do little to remove the cultural barrier, training courses in communication style and understanding the meanings of Japanese words and expressions should be organised. Such training would show how to differentiate between words spoken and their true meanings, and how to understand the real intentions of the Japanese. Responsiveness. As a collectivistic society, which subordinates individual interests and needs to group goals (Moeran, 1984) and stresses group loyalty (Mouer and Sugimoto, 1979), the Japanese may perceive individualistic

Australians as not being responsive to Japanese tourist needs. In order to A cultural respond to the group needs of the Japanese tourist Australian tourism analysis of marketers should promote group oriented activities such as group dining, Japanese tourists sightseeing, entertainment or shopping. Confidence. In a Japanese high context culture, which focuses on implicit communication and silence, confidence is regarded with suspicion and even as 1221 rude behaviour. Humility, an apologetic attitude and consideration to the effects of one's own behaviour on others (Ziff-Levine, 1990) is an essential element of Japanese behaviour. In contrast, Australians, who are members of a low uncertainty avoidance culture and who value freedom and directness, regard confidence as a sign of strength. Consequently, the promotional messages to the Japanese market should not emphasise the providers' confidence in service provision. Rather attention should be drawn to the providers' consideration for Japanese feelings, controlling emotions, suppressing feelings (Argyle et al., 1986), avoiding conflict (Lebra, 1976), being peaceful and able to live in harmony with others. Politeness. The ideological side of Japanese formal culture emphasises being polite, courteous and adhering to rules of social etiquette. In Japan politeness is an expression of good manners rather than kindness or respect as it is in Australia. The rules of politeness are designed to prevent conflict, damage of reputation, and to preserve social harmony in a high uncertainty avoidance culture such as Japan. For Australians, to whom manners play a lesser role in their life, real intentions and feelings are more important. Thus, emphasis in promotional messages to the Japanese should be on social etiquette. Politeness could be portrayed in TV advertisements showing providers inquiring about the Japanese tourists' trip, family and health. Problem solving. Being able to solve problems also seems to be a very important element of polite and responsive service as seen by the Japanese. For example, in Australia, the Japanese can feel threatened by their inability to speak the English language, talk to culturally different people and behave according to Western standards. Thus, acquiring some basic principles of the Japanese language and not making the Japanese dependent upon the services of the Japanese tour operators and interpreters, whose knowledge of the Australian tourism product and lifestyle can be patchy, would be a great help to the Japanese tourist, gain the Australian hosts' respect, and create a perception of them as being polite, informative and responsive to tourist needs. Dimension of competence Intellectualism. In the masculine Japanese culture intellectual achievements and the professional competence of an individual are extremely important. Japanese society values training and education, which are manifested in the quality of their work. Rather than being a sport hero and having financial wealth, as is the case in Australia, the Japanese appreciate education which is seen as a preparation for life. Consequently, Australian marketers should show respect to

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Japanese intellectuals and develop specific promotional messages which would highlight and admire the intellectual achievements of the Japanese people. Dimension of interaction Personal relationships. The collectivist Japanese society, which emphasises collateral extended relationships, lineal succession, submission to group decision, consensus and avoidance of conflict, demands the Australian host to create opportunities for developing human relations with the Japanese which are based on closeness and co-operation. Ziff-Levine (1990) stressed the importance of trust in relationship building. This means that relationships between Japanese tourists and their hosts should be personalised ones, even when members belong to different cultures. Preferences for individual needs, well-being, comfort and independence, characteristic for Australian society, should be de-emphasised as they are seen by the Japanese as selfish, resulting in friction, and disharmony. As a result, group activities such as group sightseeing, shopping or dining, which give the Japanese opportunities for socialising, should be promoted and be the focus of the travel itineraries for the Japanese tourist. Frequent meetings of hosts with tourists are required for maintaining close human relationships. Similarly, visits of Australian suppliers (producers and/or tour wholesalers) to their Japanese retailers are necessary for developing human relationships in the distribution channels and fostering the quality of the services offered to the potential tourists. Sharing a meal. Since the Japanese belong to a high uncertainty culture, avoid threatening situations in which they have to deal with strangers and are characterised by a high degree of anticonformity (Frager, 1970) marketers should utilise the Japanese techniques of developing successful social relations to promote satisfying relations between tourists and local hosts. Some of these techniques include performing acts of politeness. Others refer to obligation, indebtedness and duty (Lebra, 1976). Sharing a meal or spending time with Japanese guests to develop relations built on trust could also be examples of successful relationship building. Morsbach (1977) reported the importance of gift giving. Although, in Australia gift giving often seems to be inappropriate and the donor can be suspected of a bribe, the Japanese would be pleased seeing Australian hosts follow their custom. Small greeting and thank-you gifts such as a box of golf balls or small koala toys would be appropriate for Japanese tourists and a great marketing tool for Australian souvenir products. In addition, the techniques of a formal introduction in personal relations with Japanese tourists should be promoted. For instance, the use of name-cards, translated into the Japanese language, to help the Japanese to determine the social positions of the introduced person, and the way they should respond to this person; bowing instead of handshaking, favoured by many Australians; and referring to the Japanese by their second names, official titles or functions instead of first names, would be most appreciated by the Japanese tourist and a great marketing tool to promote the local providers' politeness, competence and willingness to adjust and treat the Japanese tourists according to their cultural standards.

Conclusion A cultural The results of the study do support the notion that there are cultural differences analysis of between Japanese tourists and Australian hosts. Three cultural dimensions have Japanese tourists been identified as critical to the Japanese tourist market, that is, courtesy and responsiveness, competence and interaction. The variables, which significantly loaded on these three dimensions, are the key indicators of the cultural 1223 differences between Japanese tourists and Australian hosts. Tourism marketers should capitalise on these variables when promoting the Australian tourism product to the Japanese market. Since the biggest number of critical cultural differences between Japanese and Australian populations were found to be represented by the dimension of courtesy and responsiveness marketers should draw specific attention to this dimension. This dimension indicates the Japanese tourist expectations of service providers and implies potential difficulties the Japanese tourists could experience with Western standards of service. Australia should position itself in the Japanese tourist market by offering services tailored to Japanese cultural characteristics. The focus should be on delivering a significantly higher level of service quality and adopting the mentality of Japanese tourists. The emphasis should be on service punctuality, professional competence and apologetic attitude by service providers, social etiquette, customer differentiation based on social status and age, sense of order, politeness and respect, accuracy and adequacy of information, concern about the collectivistic needs of the Japanese tourists, and binding personal relations. The image of the Australian tourism product projected by the Australian marketers should correspond to the image and character of the product desired by Japanese tourists. Capitalising on Japanese cultural traits when delivering services to the Japanese tourist would also help marketers anticipate the Japanese tourists' future behavioural reactions and develop strategies that would reduce potential for their dissatisfaction. Thus, the challenge is to incorporate the cultural behaviour of Japanese into marketing strategies. Also, contrary to expectations, the results did not show significant paths between the three dimensions. This might suggest that other dimensions represented by demographic or socio-economic factors need to be taken into account when determining Japanese holiday preferences. Limitations and recommendations In interpreting the results several limitations of the study should be noted. The first limitation is related to the concept of culture and its complexity. There is no universally accepted definition of culture, and there are no transcultural variables by which the cultures could be completely distinguished and successfully compared. These difficulties create methodological problems in the analysis of culture such as cultural bias inherent to the questionnaire data collection, levels of analysis or interpretation of findings. A second limitation is that there is no universal scale to measure cultural differences. The measurement items for the presented study were adapted from

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other studies. Even though internal reliabilities of factors were found acceptable, future research should improve a measurement scale by adding items or deleting some items according to the cultures analysed. A third limitation pertains to the small sample size. However, it is important to note that the study was exploratory in nature. While recognising that generalisations of results to the whole spectrum of Japanese tourists is not possible due to the small sample size, it is felt that specific differences attributable to Japanese and Australian culture did emerge, and it is these differences that are important to discuss. It is possible that the same cultural differences might emerge and be even more apparent if a bigger sample of Japanese tourists was used. Finally, the purpose of the study was not to identify new cultural differences, which the literature does not mention, and present the tourists' interpretation of these differences. Rather the purpose was to empirically show the existence of these differences and to suggest possible steps which should be adopted to better appeal to the Japanese tourist market. Also, the aim was to open up to possible avenues for future research in what has been a very under-researched area, that is, cross-cultural tourism marketing.
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