The most important program that runs on a computer.

Every general-purpose computer must have an operating system to run other programs. Operating systems perform basic tasks, such as recognizing input from the keyboard, sending output to the display screen, keeping track of files and directories on the disk, and controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers. For large systems, the operating system has even greater responsibilities and powers. t is like a traffic cop -- it makes sure that different programs and users running at the same time do not interfere with each other. The operating system is also responsible for security, ensuring that unauthorized users do not access the system. Operating systems can be classified as follows! " multi-user ! #llows two or more users to run programs at the same time. $ome operating systems permit hundreds or even thousands of concurrent users. " multiprocessing ! $upports running a program on more than one %&'. " multitasking ! #llows more than one program to run concurrently. " multithreading ! #llows different parts of a single program to run concurrently. " real time! (esponds to input instantly. )eneral-purpose operating systems, such as *O$ and '+ ,, are not real-time. Operating systems provide a software platform on top of which other programs, called application programs, can run. The application programs must be written to run on top of a particular operating system. -our choice of operating system, therefore, determines to a great e.tent the applications you can run. For &%s, the most popular operating systems are *O$, O$/0, and 1indows, but others are available, such as 2inu.. #s a user, you normally interact with the operating system through a set of commands. For e.ample, the *O$ operating system contains commands such as %O&- and (E+#3E for copying files and changing the names of files, respectively. The commands are accepted and e.ecuted by a part of the operating system called the command processor or command line interpreter. )raphical user interfaces allow you to enter commands by pointing and clicking at ob4ects that appear on the screen.

#n operating system 5commonly abbreviated to either O$ or O/$6 is an interface between hardware and user. #n O$ is responsible for the management and coordination of activities and the sharing of the resources of the computer. The operating system acts as a host for computing applications run on the machine. #s a host, one of the purposes of an operating system is to handle the details of the operation of the hardware. This relieves application programs from having to manage these details and makes it easier to write applications. #lmost all computers 5including handheld computers, desktop computers, supercomputers, video game consoles6 as well as some robots, domestic appliances 5dishwashers, washing machines6, and portable media players use an operating system of some type.789 $ome of the oldest models may however use an embedded operating system, that may be contained on a compact disk or other data storage device. Operating systems offer a number of services to application programs and users. #pplications access these services through application programming interfaces 5#& s6 or system calls. :y invoking these interfaces, the application can re;uest a service from the operating system, pass parameters, and receive the results of the operation. 'sers may also interact with the operating system with some kind of software user interface 5' 6 like typing commands by using command line interface 5%2 6 or using a graphical user interface 5)' , commonly pronounced <gooey=6. For hand-held and desktop computers, the user interface is generally considered part of the operating system. On large multi-user systems like 'ni. and 'ni.-like systems, the user interface is generally implemented as an application program that runs outside the operating system.

51hether the user interface should be included as part of the operating system is a point of contention.6

Types of Operating $ystems 1ithin the broad family of operating systems, there are generally four types, categorized based on the types of computers they control and the sort of applications they support. The categories are! > (eal-time operating system 5(TO$6 - (eal-time operating systems are used to control machinery, scientific instruments and industrial systems. #n (TO$ typically has very little userinterface capability, and no end-user utilities, since the system will be a ?sealed bo.? when delivered for use. # very important part of an (TO$ is managing the resources of the computer so that a particular operation e.ecutes in precisely the same amount of time, every time it occurs. n a comple. machine, having a part move more ;uickly 4ust because system resources are available may be 4ust as catastrophic as having it not move at all because the system is busy. > $ingle-user, single task - #s the name implies, this operating system is designed to manage the computer so that one user can effectively do one thing at a time. The &alm O$ for &alm handheld computers is a good e.ample of a modern single-user, single-task operating system. > $ingle-user, multi-tasking - This is the type of operating system most people use on their desktop and laptop computers today. 3icrosoft@s 1indows and #pple@s 3acO$ platforms are both e.amples of operating systems that will let a single user have several programs in operation at the same time. For e.ample, it@s entirely possible for a 1indows user to be writing a note in a word processor while downloading a file from the nternet while printing the te.t of an e-mail message. > 3ulti-user - # multi-user operating system allows many different users to take advantage of the computer@s resources simultaneously. The operating system must make sure that the re;uirements of the various users are balanced, and that each of the programs they are using has sufficient and separate resources so that a problem with one user doesn@t affect the entire community of users. 'ni., A3$ and mainframe operating systems, such as 3A$, are e.amples of multi-user operating systems.

&hoto courtesy #pple 3ac O$ , &anther screen shot

t@s important to differentiate between multi-user operating systems and single-user operating systems that support networking. 1indows 0BBB and +ovell +etware can each support hundreds or thousands of networked users, but the operating systems themselves aren@t true multi-user operating systems. The system administrator is the only ?user? for 1indows 0BBB or +etware. The network support and all of the remote user logins the network enables are, in the overall plan of the operating system, a program being run by the administrative user. 1hen you turn on the power to a computer, the first program that runs is usually a set of instructions kept in the computer@s read-only memory 5(O36. This code e.amines the system hardware to make sure everything is functioning properly. This power-on self test 5&O$T6 checks the %&', memory, and basic input-output systems 5: O$6 for errors and stores the result in a special memory location. Once the &O$T has successfully completed, the software loaded in (O3 5sometimes called the : O$ or firmware6 will begin to activate the computer@s disk drives. n most modern computers, when the computer activates the hard disk drive, it finds the first piece

of the operating system! the bootstrap loader. The bootstrap loader is a small program that has a single function! t loads the operating system into memory and allows it to begin operation. n the most basic form, the bootstrap loader sets up the small driver programs that interface with and control the various hardware subsystems of the computer. t sets up the divisions of memory that hold the operating system, user information and applications. t establishes the data structures that will hold the myriad signals, flags and semaphores that are used to communicate within and between the subsystems and applications of the computer. Then it turns control of the computer over to the operating system. The operating system@s tasks, in the most general sense, fall into si. categories! > &rocessor management > 3emory management > *evice management > $torage management > #pplication interface > 'ser interface

# single process can have multiple threads that share global data and address space with other threads running in the same process, and therefore can operate on the same data set easily. &rocesses do not share address space and a different mechanism must be used if they are to share data. f we consider running a word processing program to be a process, then the auto-save and spell check features that occur in the background are different threads of that process which are all operating on the same data set 5your document6. process n computing, a process is an instance of a computer program that is being se;uentially e.ecuted789 by a computer system that has the ability to run several computer programs concurrently. Thread # single process may contain several e.ecutable programs 5threads6 that work together as a coherent whole. One thread might, for e.ample, handle error signals, another might send a message about the error to the user, while a third thread is e.ecuting the actual task of the...

+ET1O(C -----------------ntroduction The network allows computers to communicate with each other and share resources and information. The #dvanced (esearch &ro4ects #gency 5#(&#6 designed ?#dvanced (esearch &ro4ects #gency +etwork? 5#(&#+ET6 for the 'nited $tates *epartment of *efense. t was the first computer network in the world in late 8DEBs and early 8DFBs.789

7edit9 +etwork classification The following list presents categories used for classifying networks. 7edit9 %onnection method %omputer networks can also be classified according to the hardware and software technology that is used to interconnect the individual devices in the network, such as Optical fiber, Ethernet, 1ireless 2#+, Gome&+#, &ower line communication or ).hn. Ethernet uses physical wiring to connect devices. Fre;uently deployed devices include hubs, switches, bridges and/or routers. 1ireless 2#+ technology is designed to connect devices without wiring. These devices use radio waves or infrared signals as a transmission medium. T'-T ).hn technology uses e.isting home wiring 5coa.ial cable, phone lines and power lines6 to create a high-speed 5up to 8 )igabit/s6 local area network.

1ired Technologies Twisted-&air 1ire - This is the most widely used medium for telecommunication. Twisted-pair wires are ordinary telephone wires which consist of two insulated copper wires twisted into pairs and are used for both voice and data transmission. The use of two wires twisted together helps to reduce crosstalk and electromagnetic induction. The transmission speed range from 0 million bits per second to 8BB million bits per second.

%oa.ial %able H These cables are widely used for cable television systems, office buildings, and other worksites for local area networks. The cables consist of copper or aluminum wire wrapped with insulating layer typically of a fle.ible material with a high dielectric constant, all of which are surrounded by a conductive layer. The layers of insulation help minimize interference and distortion. Transmission speed range from 0BB million to more than IBB million bits per second.

Fiber Optics H These cables consist of one or more thin filaments of glass fiber wrapped in a protective layer. t transmits light which can travel over long distance and higher bandwidths. Fiber-optic cables are not affected by electromagnetic radiation. Transmission speed could go up to as high as trillions of bits per second. The speed of fiber optics is hundreds of times faster than coa.ial cables and thousands of times faster than twisted-pair wire.

1ireless Technologies Terrestrial 3icrowave H Terrestrial microwaves use Earth-based transmitter and receiver. The e;uipment look similar to satellite dishes. Terrestrial microwaves use low-gigahertz range, which limits all communications to line-of-sight. &ath between relay stations spaced appro.. JB miles apart. 3icrowave antennas are usually placed on top of buildings, towers, hills, and mountain peaks.

%ommunications $atellites H The satellites use microwave radio as their telecommunications

medium which are not deflected by the Earth@s atmosphere. The satellites are stationed in space, typically 00,BBB miles above the e;uator. These Earth-orbiting systems are capable of receiving and relaying voice, data, and TA signals.

%ellular and &%$ $ystems H 'se several radio communications technologies. The systems are divided to different geographic area. Each area has low-power transmitter or radio relay antenna device to relay calls from one area to the ne.t area.

1ireless 2#+s H 1ireless local area network use a high-fre;uency radio technology similar to digital cellular and a low-fre;uency radio technology. 1ireless 2#+$ use spread spectrum technology to enable communication between multiple devices in a limited area. E.ample of open-standard wireless radio-wave technology is EEE KB0.88b.

:luetooth H # short range wireless technology. Operate at appro.. 83bps with range from 8B to 8BB meters. :luetooth is an open wireless protocol for data e.change over short distances.

The 1ireless 1eb H The wireless web refers to the use of the 1orld 1ide 1eb through e;uipments like cellular phones, pagers, &*#s, and other portable communications devices. The wireless web service offers anytime/anywhere connection. 7edit9 $cale +etworks are often classified as 2ocal #rea +etwork 52#+6, 1ide #rea +etwork 51#+6, 3etropolitan #rea +etwork 53#+6, &ersonal #rea +etwork 5&#+6, Airtual &rivate +etwork 5A&+6, %ampus #rea +etwork 5%#+6, $torage #rea +etwork 5$#+6, etc. depending on their scale, scope and purpose. 'sage, trust levels and access rights often differ between these types of network for e.ample, 2#+s tend to be designed for internal use by an organization@s internal systems and employees in individual physical locations 5such as a building6, while 1#+s may connect physically separate parts of an organization to each other and may include connections to third parties. 7edit9 Functional relationship 5network architecture6 %omputer networks may be classified according to the functional relationships which e.ist among the elements of the network, e.g., #ctive +etworking, %lient-server and &eer-to-peer 5workgroup6 architecture. 7edit9 +etwork topology %omputer networks may be classified according to the network topology upon which the network is based, such as bus network, star network, ring network, mesh network, star-bus network, tree or hierarchical topology network. +etwork topology signifies the way in which devices in the network see their logical relations to one another. The use of the term ?logical? here is significant. That is, network topology is independent of the ?physical? layout of the network. Even if networked computers are physically placed in a linear arrangement, if they are connected via a hub, the network has a $tar topology, rather than a bus topology. n this regard the visual and operational characteristics of a network are distinctL the logical network topology is not necessarily the same as the physical layout. +etworks may be classified based on the method of data used to convey the data, these include digital and analog networks.

7edit9 Types of networks :elow is a list of the most common types of computer networks in order of scale. 7edit9 &ersonal area network # personal area network 5&#+6 is a computer network used for communication among computer devices close to one person. $ome e.amples of devices that are used in a &#+ are printers, fa. machines, telephones, &*#s and scanners. The reach of a &#+ is typically about 0B-JB feet 5appro.imately E-D meters6, but this is e.pected to increase with technology improvements. 7edit9 2ocal area network # local area network 52#+6 is a computer network covering a small physical area, like a home, office, or small group of buildings, such as a school, or an airport. %urrent wired 2#+s are most likely to be based on Ethernet technology, although new standards like T'-T ).hn also provide a way to create a wired 2#+ using e.isting home wires 5coa.ial cables, phone lines and power lines6709. For e.ample, a library may have a wired or wireless 2#+ for users to interconnect local devices 5e.g., printers and servers6 and to connect to the internet. On a wired 2#+, &%s in the library are typically connected by category I 5%atI6 cable, running the EEE KB0.J protocol through a system of interconnected devices and eventually connect to the nternet. The cables to the servers are typically on %at Ie enhanced cable, which will support EEE KB0.J at 8 )bit/s. # wireless 2#+ may e.ist using a different EEE protocol, KB0.88b, KB0.88g or possibly KB0.88n. The staff computers 5bright green in the figure6 can get to the color printer, checkout records, and the academic network and the nternet. #ll user computers can get to the nternet and the card catalog. Each workgroup can get to its local printer. +ote that the printers are not accessible from outside their workgroup. Typical library network, in a branching tree topology and controlled access to resources #ll interconnected devices must understand the network layer 5layer J6, because they are handling multiple subnets 5the different colors6. Those inside the library, which have only 8B/8BB 3bit/s Ethernet connections to the user device and a )igabit Ethernet connection to the central router, could be called ?layer J switches? because they only have Ethernet interfaces and must understand &. t would be more correct to call them access routers, where the router at the top is a distribution router that connects to the nternet and academic networks@ customer access routers.

The defining characteristics of 2#+s, in contrast to 1#+s 5wide area networks6, include their higher data transfer rates, smaller geographic range, and lack of a need for leased telecommunication lines. %urrent Ethernet or other EEE KB0.J 2#+ technologies operate at speeds up to 8B )bit/s. This is the data transfer rate. EEE has pro4ects investigating the standardization of MB and 8BB )bit/s.7J9 7edit9 %ampus area network # campus area network 5%#+6 is a computer network made up of an interconnection of local area networks 52#+s6 within a limited geographical area. t can be considered one form of a metropolitan area network, specific to an academic setting.

n the case of a university campus-based campus area network, the network is likely to link a variety of campus buildings includingL academic departments, the university library and student residence halls. # campus area network is larger than a local area network but smaller than a wide area network 51#+6 5in some cases6. The main aim of a campus area network is to facilitate students accessing internet and university resources. This is a network that connects two or more 2#+s but that is limited to a specific and contiguous geographical area such as a college campus, industrial comple., office building, or a military base. # %#+ may be considered a type of 3#+ 5metropolitan area network6, but is generally limited to a smaller area than a typical 3#+. This term is most often used to discuss the implementation of networks for a contiguous area. This should not be confused with a %ontroller #rea +etwork. # 2#+ connects network devices over a relatively short distance. # networked office building, school, or home usually contains a single 2#+, though sometimes one building will contain a few small 2#+s 5perhaps one per room6, and occasionally a 2#+ will span a group of nearby buildings. 7edit9 3etropolitan area network # metropolitan area network 53#+6 is a network that connects two or more local area networks or campus area networks together but does not e.tend beyond the boundaries of the immediate town/city. (outers, switches and hubs are connected to create a metropolitan area network. 7edit9 1ide area network # wide area network 51#+6 is a computer network that covers a broad area 5i.e. any network whose communications links cross metropolitan, regional, or national boundaries 7896. 2ess formally, a 1#+ is a network that uses routers and public communications links %ontrast with personal area networks 5&#+s6, local area networks 52#+s6, campus area networks 5%#+s6, or metropolitan area networks 53#+s6, which are usually limited to a room, building, campus or specific metropolitan area 5e.g., a city6 respectively. The largest and most well-known e.ample of a 1#+ is the nternet. # 1#+ is a data communications network that covers a relatively broad geographic area 5i.e. one city to another and one country to another country6 and that often uses transmission facilities provided by common carriers, such as telephone companies. 1#+ technologies generally function at the lower three layers of the O$ reference model! the physical layer, the data link layer, and the network layer. 7edit9 )lobal area network # global area networks 5)#+6 5see also EEE KB0.0B6 specification is in development by several groups, and there is no common definition. n general, however, a )#+ is a model for supporting mobile communications across an arbitrary number of wireless 2#+s, satellite coverage areas, etc. The key challenge in mobile communications is ?handing off? the user communications from one local coverage area to the ne.t. n EEE &ro4ect KB0, this involves a succession of terrestrial 1 (E2E$$ local area networks 512#+6.7M9 7edit9 Airtual private network # virtual private network 5A&+6 is a computer network in which some of the links between nodes are carried by open connections or virtual circuits in some larger network 5e.g., the nternet6 instead of by physical wires. The data link layer protocols of the virtual network are said to be tunneled through the larger network when this is the case. One common application is secure communications through the public nternet, but a A&+ need not have e.plicit security features, such as authentication or content encryption. A&+s, for e.ample, can be used to separate the traffic of different user communities over an underlying network with strong security features.

# A&+ may have best-effort performance, or may have a defined service level agreement 5$2#6 between the A&+ customer and the A&+ service provider. )enerally, a A&+ has a topology more comple. than point-to-point. # A&+ allows computer users to appear to be editing from an & address location other than the one which connects the actual computer to the nternet. 7edit9 nternetwork #n nternetwork is the connection of two or more distinct computer networks or network segments via a common routing technology. The result is called an internetwork 5often shortened to internet6. Two or more networks or network segments connected using devices that operate at layer J 5the @network@ layer6 of the O$ :asic (eference 3odel, such as a router. #ny interconnection among or between public, private, commercial, industrial, or governmental networks may also be defined as an internetwork. n modern practice, interconnected networks use the nternet &rotocol. There are at least three variants of internetworks, depending on who administers and who participates in them! > ntranet > E.tranet > nternet ntranets and e.tranets may or may not have connections to the nternet. f connected to the nternet, the intranet or e.tranet is normally protected from being accessed from the nternet without proper authorization. The nternet is not considered to be a part of the intranet or e.tranet, although it may serve as a portal for access to portions of an e.tranet. 7edit9 ntranet #n intranet is a set of networks, using the nternet &rotocol and &-based tools such as web browsers and file transfer applications, that is under the control of a single administrative entity. That administrative entity closes the intranet to all but specific, authorized users. 3ost commonly, an intranet is the internal network of an organization. # large intranet will typically have at least one web server to provide users with organizational information. 7edit9 E.tranet #n e.tranet is a network or internetwork that is limited in scope to a single organization or entity but which also has limited connections to the networks of one or more other usually, but not necessarily, trusted organizations or entities 5e.g., a company@s customers may be given access to some part of its intranet creating in this way an e.tranet, while at the same time the customers may not be considered @trusted@ from a security standpoint6. Technically, an e.tranet may also be categorized as a %#+, 3#+, 1#+, or other type of network, although, by definition, an e.tranet cannot consist of a single 2#+L it must have at least one connection with an e.ternal network. 7edit9 nternet The nternet consists of a worldwide interconnection of governmental, academic, public, and private networks based upon the networking technologies of the nternet &rotocol $uite. t is the successor of the #dvanced (esearch &ro4ects #gency +etwork 5#(&#+ET6 developed by *#(&# of the '.$. *epartment of *efense. The nternet is also the communications backbone

underlying the 1orld 1ide 1eb 51116. The @ nternet@ is most commonly spelled with a capital @ @ as a proper noun, for historical reasons and to distinguish it from other generic internetworks. &articipants in the nternet use a diverse array of methods of several hundred documented, and often standardized, protocols compatible with the nternet &rotocol $uite and an addressing system 5 & #ddresses6 administered by the nternet #ssigned +umbers #uthority and address registries. $ervice providers and large enterprises e.change information about the reachability of their address spaces through the :order )ateway &rotocol 5:)&6, forming a redundant worldwide mesh of transmission paths. 7edit9 :asic hardware components #ll networks are made up of basic hardware building blocks to interconnect network nodes, such as +etwork nterface %ards 5+ %s6, :ridges, Gubs, $witches, and (outers. n addition, some method of connecting these building blocks is re;uired, usually in the form of galvanic cable 5most commonly %ategory I cable6. 2ess common are microwave links 5as in EEE KB0.806 or optical cable 5?optical fiber?6. #n ethernet card may also be re;uired. 7edit9 +etwork interface cards # network card, network adapter, or + % 5network interface card6 is a piece of computer hardware designed to allow computers to communicate over a computer network. t provides physical access to a networking medium and often provides a low-level addressing system through the use of 3#% addresses. 7edit9 (epeaters # repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal and retransmits it at a higher power level, or to the other side of an obstruction, so that the signal can cover longer distances without degradation. n most twisted pair Ethernet configurations, repeaters are re;uired for cable which runs longer than 8BB meters. 7edit9 Gubs # network hub contains multiple ports. 1hen a packet arrives at one port, it is copied unmodified to all ports of the hub for transmission. The destination address in the frame is not changed to a broadcast address.7I9 7edit9 :ridges # network bridge connects multiple network segments at the data link layer 5layer 06 of the O$ model. :ridges do not promiscuously copy traffic to all ports, as hubs do, but learn which 3#% addresses are reachable through specific ports. Once the bridge associates a port and an address, it will send traffic for that address only to that port. :ridges do send broadcasts to all ports e.cept the one on which the broadcast was received. :ridges learn the association of ports and addresses by e.amining the source address of frames that it sees on various ports. Once a frame arrives through a port, its source address is stored and the bridge assumes that 3#% address is associated with that port. The first time that a previously unknown destination address is seen, the bridge will forward the frame to all ports other than the one on which the frame arrived. :ridges come in three basic types!

8. 2ocal bridges! *irectly connect local area networks 52#+s6 0. (emote bridges! %an be used to create a wide area network 51#+6 link between 2#+s. (emote bridges, where the connecting link is slower than the end networks, largely have been replaced by routers. J. 1ireless bridges! %an be used to 4oin 2#+s or connect remote stations to 2#+s. 7edit9 $witches # network switch is a device that forwards and filters O$ layer 0 datagrams 5chunk of data communication6 between ports 5connected cables6 based on the 3#% addresses in the packets. 7E9 This is distinct from a hub in that it only forwards the packets to the ports involved in the communications rather than all ports connected. $trictly speaking, a switch is not capable of routing traffic based on & address 5O$ 2ayer J6 which is necessary for communicating between network segments or within a large or comple. 2#+. $ome switches are capable of routing based on & addresses but are still called switches as a marketing term. # switch normally has numerous ports, with the intention being that most or all of the network is connected directly to the switch, or another switch that is in turn connected to a switch.7F9 $witch is a marketing term that encompasses routers and bridges, as well as devices that may distribute traffic on load or by application content 5e.g., a 1eb '(2 identifier6. $witches may operate at one or more O$ model layers, including physical, data link, network, or transport 5i.e., end-to-end6. # device that operates simultaneously at more than one of these layers is called a multilayer switch. Overemphasizing the ill-defined term ?switch? often leads to confusion when first trying to understand networking. 3any e.perienced network designers and operators recommend starting with the logic of devices dealing with only one protocol level, not all of which are covered by O$ . 3ultilayer device selection is an advanced topic that may lead to selecting particular implementations, but multilayer switching is simply not a real-world design concept. 7edit9 (outers # router is a networking device that forwards packets between networks using information in protocol headers and forwarding tables to determine the best ne.t router for each packet. (outers work at the +etwork 2ayer of the O$ model and the nternet 2ayer of T%&/ &. $O O$ (eference 3odel # set of protocols is open if! > protocol details are publicly available > changes are managed by an organization whose membership and transactions are open to the public # system that implements open protocols is called an open system. nternational Organization for $tandards 5 $O6 prescribes a standard to connect open systems > open system interconnect 5O$ 6 Figure E! The 5O$ 6 $even 2ayer 3odel

&hysical 2ayer $pecification of voltage levels, cables, connectors, timing of bots, electrical access and maintenance of circuit 5i.e. corresponds to the basic hardware6. *ata 2ink 2ayer Transforms basic physical services to enable the transmission of units of data called frames. Frames carry data between two points on the same type of physical network, and maybe relayed if the network is e.tended. They normally contain low level addressing information and some error checking. This layer may be involved in arbitrating access to the physical network. The *ata 2ink layer detects, and possibly corrects errors in the physical layer +etwork %ontrols routing of data by providing an address domain, and in conse;uence the routing of messages. This addressing is separate from the hardware which implements the network connections. i.e. specifies how addresses are assigned and how packets are forwarded from one end of the network to another. Transport &rovides an interface for the upper layers to communications facilities. The presence of this layer obscures the underlying network hardware and topology from the applications. # very comple. set of protocols are re;uired for this layerN $ession The protocols for this layer specify how to establish a communication session with a remote $ystem 5e.g., Gow to login to a remote timesharing computer6. $pecifications for security details such as authentication using passwords are described in this layer. &resentation 2ayer E protocols specify how to represent data. $uch protocols are needed because different brands of computer use different internal representation for integer and characters. Thus layer E protocols are needed to translate from the representation on one computer to the representation on another. #pplication 2ayer This is where the application using the network resides. %ommon network applications include remote login, file transfer, e-mail, and web page browsing. *#T#:#$E ------------------# database is an integrated collection of logically related records or files which consolidates records into a common pool of data records that provides data for many applications. # database is a collection of information that is organized so that it can easily be accessed, managed, and updated. n one view, databases can be classified according to types of content! bibliographic, full-te.t, numeric, and images.

The data in a database is organized according to a database model. The model that is most commonly used today is the relational model. Other models such as the hierarchical model and the network model use a more e.plicit representation of relationships. database is a collection of information that is organized so that it can easily be accessed, managed, and updated. n one view, databases can be classified according to types of content! bibliographic, full-te.t, numeric, and images. #sk your database ;uestions at TCnowledgeE.change.com n computing, databases are sometimes classified according to their organizational approach. The most prevalent approach is the relational database, a tabular database in which data is defined so that it can be reorganized and accessed in a number of different ways. # distributed database is one that can be dispersed or replicated among different points in a network. #n ob4ect-oriented programming database is one that is congruent with the data defined in ob4ect classes and subclasses.

a "minicomputer" is a powerful computer that can support many users at once. A "mainframe" is a large, high-powered computer that can perform billions of calculations from multiple sources at one time. Finally, a "supercomputer" is a machine that can process billions of instructions a second and is used to calculate extremely complex calculations. A programmable machine. The two principal characteristics of a computer are: It responds to a specific set of instructions in a well-defined manner. It can execute a prerecorded list of instructions !a program". #odern computers are electronic and digital. The actual machinery -- wires, transistors, and circuits -- is called hardware$ the instructions and data are called software. All general-purpose computers re%uire the following hardware components: memory : &nables a computer to store, at least temporarily, data and programs. mass storage device : Allows a computer to permanently retain large amounts of data. 'ommon mass storage de(ices include dis) dri(es and tape dri(es. input device : *sually a )eyboard and mouse, the input de(ice is the conduit through which data and instructions enter a computer. output device : A display screen, printer, or other de(ice that lets you see what the computer has accomplished. central processing unit (CPU): The heart of the computer, this is the component that actually executes instructions. In addition to these components, many others ma)e it possible for the basic components to wor) together efficiently. For example, e(ery computer re%uires a bus that transmits data from one part of the computer to another. 'omputers can be generally classified by si+e and power as follows, though there is considerable o(erlap: personal computer : A small, single-user computer based on a microprocessor. In addition to the microprocessor, a personal computer has a )eyboard for

entering data, a monitor for displaying information, and a storage de(ice for sa(ing data. workstation : A powerful, single-user computer. A wor)station is li)e a personal computer, but it has a more powerful microprocessor and a higher%uality monitor. minicomputer : A multi-user computer capable of supporting from ,- to hundreds of users simultaneously. mainframe : A powerful multi-user computer capable of supporting many hundreds or thousands of users simultaneously. supercomputer : An extremely fast computer that can perform hundreds of millions of instructions per second.

O#A#

.efore you can de(elop an application written in the /a(a programming language, you will need the /a(a 0latform 1tandard &dition !/a(a 1&" de(elopment )it. It has the necessary /a(a 2irtual #achine, !/2#", core Application 0rogramming Interfaces !A0I"s, and the compiler you3ll need for most and perhaps all of your de(elopment. Note: #ac users should go to Apple3s #ac 41 5 /a(a 6untime &n(ironment. Then return for /a(a programming information and tutorials. If you are used to wor)ing in an Integrated 7e(elopment &n(ironment !I7&" or want to learn, you can download /a(a 1& with the 8et.eans I7&. For some pro9ects, you3ll want additional bundles. 1ome of the more popular downloads are listed below. If you3re not certain what you need, start with /a(a 1&. :ou3ll disco(er other tools as you become familiar with the /a(a platform. /a(a 1&: This )it is necessary for de(eloping all applications, except those designed for consumer de(ices !1ee the #icro &dition". /a(a 1& comes bundled with the compiler, a runtime en(ironment, and core A0I. /a(a 0latform &nterprise &dition !/a(a &&": This pac)ages includes an application ser(er, web ser(er, /;&& A0Is, support for &nterprise /a(a.eans, /a(a 1er(lets A0I, and /a(a1er(er 0ages !/10" technology. *se /;&& with the /a(a 1&. /a(a 0latform #icro &dition !/a(a #&": If you are interested in de(eloping programs for 0alm 0ilots, screen phones, and other consumer de(ices, this )it pro(ides tools for compiling, deployment and de(ice configuration, and A0Is that are speciali+ed for each type of de(ice. /a(aF5 1cript Technology is a highly producti(e scripting language that enables content de(elopers to create rich media and content for deployment on /a(a en(ironments. The de(elopment )its abo(e include the A0Is necessary to whate(er type of applications you de(elop in the /a(a programming language. The A0Is and compiler are explained briefly below.

/a(a A0Is are libraries of compiled code let you add ready-made and customi+able functionality to your programs to sa(e coding time. /a(a programs are executed within a program called the /2#. 6ather than running directly on the nati(e operating system, the program is interpreted by the /2# for the nati(e operating system. This is )ey to ma)ing your programs portable from one platform to another. In other words, you can de(elop your programs on a 1olaris, <inux, #acintosh, or =indows, then run it on another ser(er or platform. 4nce you ha(e the de(elopment )its you need, you are ready to begin writing code in the /a(a programming language. 0rograms are written in three basic fla(ors: applets, applications, and ser(lets>/10 pages. Applets run in the /2# built into a web browser$ applications run in the /2# installed on a computer system$ and ser(lets>/10 run in the /2# installed on a web ser(er. =hile applets and applications usually ha(e some )ind of user interface coupled to bac)end functionality, ser(lets pro(ide bac)end functionality only. The user interface for a ser(let is usually an ?T#< form in a browser that in(o)es the ser(let, but any applet or application that opens a hypertext transfer protocol !?TT0" re%uest can call a ser(let. /10, on the other hand, combines the ser(let and ?T#< into a single component. Instead of using an ?T#< page with a separate ser(let, you use an ?T#< page with regular ?T#< tags in combination with scriptlets, short bits of code. The entire page is then processed into a ser(let when it3s accessed or submitted and the results return to the same ?T#< page that contains the code. :ou can also program using a simple text editor, and compile and run from the command line. #any text editors now come with the ability to run and compile /a(a files, but you may need to tell the program where javac.exe and java.exe reside on your computer. *se the =indows Find command, if you are unsure where these files were installed. 4nce, your I7& or text editor is set up, you can begin programming. 8ext, copy and paste the following programs, and in(o)e the compiler and interpreter either at the command line or within the I7& you3re using. The following three examples use the javac and java commands and illustrate how to compile and run an application, applet, and ser(let. =hen compiling and running from the command line, be sure to cd into the directory where you sa(ed your .java file.

Application
'ompile the ExampleProgram.java application with the javac command and run it with the java command.
//A Very Simple Example class ExampleProgram { public static void main(String[ args!{

& &

System.out.println("#$m a Simple Program"!%

'ompile and then run with the following commands:

javac ExampleProgram.java java ExampleProgram

Applet
'opy the SimpleApplet.java applet code, and compile with the javac command:
import java.applet.Applet% import java.a't.(rap)ics% import java.a't.*olor% public class SimpleApplet extends Applet{ String text + "#$m a simple applet"% public void init(! { text + "#$m a simple applet"% set,ac-ground(*olor.cyan!% & public void start(! { System.out.println("starting..."!% & public void stop(! { System.out.println("stopping..."!% & public void destroy(! { System.out.println("preparing to unload..."!% & public void paint((rap)ics g!{ System.out.println("Paint"!% g.set*olor(*olor.blue!% g.dra'.ect(/0 /0 getSi1e(!.'idt) 230 getSi1e(!.)eig)t 23!% g.set*olor(*olor.red!% g.dra'String(text0 340 54!% & &

'ompile:
javac SimpleApplet.java

:ou can run the applet in applet(iewer !a /a(a platform tool for running applets independently of the browser" or in the browser. &ither way you need an ?T#< file for the applet.

?ere is the ?T#< file:

6789:; 6,<=>; 6APP:E8 *<=E+SimpleApplet.class ?#=87+5// 7E#(78+3//; 6/APP:E8; 6/,<=>; 6/789:;

To run the applet in the browser, you load the ?T#< file. To run the applet in applet(iewer with an ?T#< file named simple.)tml, type this in an #1-741 window on =indows, or in a terminal window on 1olaris:
appletvie'er simple.)tml

Servlet
As mentioned abo(e, to compile and run a ser(let, you need to use either 8et.eans or 1un /a(a 1tudio 'reator. Then compile with the javac command.
import java.io.@% import javax.servlet.@% import javax.servlet.)ttp.@% public class ExampServlet extends 7ttpServlet { public void doPost(7ttpServlet.eAuest reAuest0 7ttpServlet.esponse response! t)ro's ServletException0 #<Exception response.set*ontent8ype("text/)tml"!% Print?riter out + response.get?riter(!% out.println("6title;Example6/title;" B "6body bgcolor+CCCCCC;"!% out.println("6)5;,utton *lic-ed6/)5;"!% String =A8A + reAuest.getParameter("=A8A"!% iD(=A8A E+ null!{ out.println(=A8A!% & else { out.println("Fo text entered."!% & out.println("6P;.eturn to 6A 7.EC+../simple789:.)tml;Corm6/A;"!% out.close(!% & &

To compile:
javac ExampServlet.java

1er(lets can be called directly by typing their uniform resource locator !*6<" into a browser3s location window after you3(e started the ser(er. 1er(lets can also be in(o)ed from an ?T#< form by specifying their *6< in the definition for a Submit button, for example. 1er(lets can be called by any program that can open an hypertext transfer protocol !?TT0" re%uest.

/a(a1er(er 0ages, /7.', 6#I, /7@--/a(a technology names and acronyms can be confusing for newcomers and experienced de(elopers. This article defines the most common /a(a terminology in easy-to-scan, alphabetical order, and pro(ides lin)s for more information and downloads. This list is not a complete list of 1un3s products for the /a(a platform, and is sub9ect to change and updates.. Java Terminology A#stract $indow Toolkit (A$T) efinition A=T is a pac)age of classes for creating components such as buttons, menus, and scrollbars for applets and standalone applications. An applet is a /a(a program that runs within the web browser. Applets use a graphical user interface and may ha(e text, images, buttons, scrollbars, and sound. 4n platforms typically used for client applications, the /7@ comes with a 2# implementation called the /a(a ?ot1pot 'lient 2# !client 2#". The client 2# is tuned for reducing start-up time and memory footprint. It can be in(o)ed by using the 2client command-line option when launching an application. The /7@ also comes with an implementation of the /a(a (irtual machine called the /a(a ?ot1pot 1er(er 2# !ser(er 2#". The ser(er 2# is designed for !ore "nformation A=T Fundamentals 0ac)age java.a't 7escription A=T Forums .uilding Applets Trail: =riting Applets 0ac)age java.applet 'lass /Applet 0erformance 7ocumentation for the /a(a ?ot1pot 2# /a(a ?ot1pot 2# FAA

Applet

%otSpot &!

maximum program execution speed. It can be in(o)ed by using the 2server command-line option when launching an application. Java Advanced "maging (JA") AP" The /AI A0I pro(ides a set of ob9ect-oriented interfaces that support a simple, high-le(el programming model which lets you manipulate images easily, and /AI broadens the reach of the /a(a platform to allow sophisticated, high performance image processing functionality to be incorporated into /a(a applets and applications. The /a(a Application 0rogramming Interface !A0I" is prewritten code, organi+ed into pac)ages of similar topics. For instance, the Applet and A=T pac)ages include classes for creating fonts, menus, and buttons. The full /a(a A0I is included in the /a(a ; 1tandard &dition download. /A50 enables applications to parse (alidate and transform 5#< documents. The latest release is /A50 ,.D, which is part of /;1& C.-. An implementation that wor)s for earlier (ersions of /;1& is also a(ailable. /AA1 is a set of A0Is that enable ser(ices to authenticate and enforce access controls upon users. It implements a /a(a technology (ersion of the standard 0luggable Authentication #odule !0A#" framewor), and supports userbased authori+ation. The /a(a 'ommunications A0I can be used to write platformindependent communications applications for technologies such =hat is /a(a Ad(anced ImagingB /a(a Ad(anced Imaging A0I FAA /a(a Ad(anced Imaging A0I 'ollateral

Java AP"

7ownload /a(a ; 0latform 1tandard &dition C.A0I 7ocumentation 4nline Training and Tutorials Technical Articles .uilding an Application /a(a A0I for 5#< 0rocessing Tutorial /A50 - FAA The /;&& ,.E Tutorial

Java AP" for '!( Processing (JA'P)

Java Aut)entication and Aut)ori*ation Services (JAAS)

/a(a Authentication and Authori+ation 1er(ice !/AA1"in /a(a ;, 1tandard &dition !/;1&" ,.E 4(er(iew /a(a 'ommunications A0I FAA /a(a 'ommunications A0I *sers Fuide

Java Communicatio ns AP"

as (oice mail, fax, and smart cards. Java Cryptograp)y +,tension (JC+) /'& is a set of pac)ages that pro(ides a framewor) and implementations for encryption, )ey generation and )ey agreement, and #essage Authentication 'ode !#A'" algorithms. 1upport for encryption includes symmetric, asymmetric, bloc), and stream ciphers. The software also supports secure streams and sealed ob9ects. /F' are a set of F*I components and other ser(ices simplifying the de(elopment and deployment of des)top and Internet>Intranet applications. The /F' are a superset that contains A=T. /F' extends A=T by adding many components and ser(ices. /F' consists of 1wing, /a(a ;7, A=T, Accessibility, and the 7rag-and7rop A0Is. /#F enables audio, (ideo and other time-based media to be added to applications and applets built on /a(a technology. This optional pac)age, which can capture, playbac), stream, and transcode multiple media formats, extends the /a(a platform for multimedia de(elopers by pro(iding a powerful tool)it to de(elop scalable, cross-platform technology. /8I is the nati(e programming interface for /a(a that is part of the /7@. The /8I allows /a(a code to operate with applications and libraries written in other languages, such as ', 'GG, and assembly. 6ecommended only for ad(anced programmers. The /;&& platform pro(ides a

/a(a 'ommunications 7ownloads /a(a 'ommunications A0I FAA /a(a 'ryptography &xtension !/'&" ?ow to Implement a 0ro(ider for the /a(a 'ryptography &xtension ,.;.; /F'>1wing /a(a Foundation 'lasses FAA Technical Articles 0ro9ect 1wing Forum Accessibility Forum

Java -oundation Classes (J-C)

Java !edia -rame$ork (J!-)

/#F ;.,., - 1upported Formats /a(a #edia Frame=or) FAA

Java .ative "nterface (J.")

Trail: /a(a 8ati(e Interface 'hapter C: /8I Technology /a(a 8ati(e Interface 1pecification /a(a ; 0latform,

Java /

Platform0 +nterprise +dition (J/++)

component-based approach to the design, de(elopment, assembly, and deployment of enterprise applications. The /;&& platform gi(es you a multitiered distributed application model, the ability to reuse components, a unified security model, and flexible transaction control.

&nterprise &dition /;&& Tutorial 7ownloads /a(a .lue0rints &nterprise /a(a.eans!&/." Technology Fundamentals /a(a 0rogramming Forums

Java / Platform0 !icro +dition (J/!+)

Java / Platform0 Standard +dition (J/S+)

/;#& is targeted for the consumer and embedded mar)et. The A0I specifications are based on /;1&, but modified to meet the uni%ue re%uirements of each product. /;#& ma)es it possible to write /a(a applications for cell phones, smart cards, pagers, and other consumer de(ices. /;1& includes the essential compiler, tools, runtimes, and A0Is for writing, deploying, and running applets and applications in the /a(a programming language.

/a(a ; 0latform #icro &dition !/;#&" Technology =ireless 7e(eloper /a(a =ireless Technology 7iscussions

/a(a ; 0latform, 1tandard &dition !/;1&" 4nline 7ocumentation Introducing the /a(a 0latform Fetting 1tarted

Java 1 AP"

Java &irtual !ac)ine2 (J&!)

The /a(a D7 A0I pro(ides a set of ob9ect-oriented interfaces that support a simple, high-le(el programming model you can use to build, render, and control the beha(ior of D7 ob9ects and (isual en(ironments. =ith the /a(a D7 A0I, you can incorporate high%uality, scalable, platformindependent D7 graphics into applications and applets based on /a(a technology. The /2# executes instructions that a /a(a compiler generates. This runtime en(ironment, or /2#, is embedded in (arious products,

/a(a D7 A0I /a(a D7 ,.D., A0I Features

The /a(a 2irtual #achine 1pecification &rgonomics in the C.-

such as web browsers, ser(ers, and operating systems.

/a(a 2irtual #achine /a(a 2irtual #achine Forums /a(a =eb 1tart FAA /a(a =eb 1tart Architecture 6eference 7ocumentation

Java $e# Start

Java3eans

*sing /a(a =eb 1tart technology, standalone /a(a software applications can be deployed with a single clic) o(er the networ). /a(a =eb 1tart ensures the most current (ersion of the application will be deployed, as well as the correct (ersion of the /a(a 6untime &n(ironment !/6&". /a(a.eans architecture pro(ides a way of designing reusable software components, that can be (isually manipulated in builder tools. /a(a.eans can be simple li)e buttons, or more complex li)e a tool to access databases. The /a(adoc tool is used to generate A0I documentation in ?T#< format from doc comments in source code. It can be downloaded only as part of the /7@ download.

/a(a.eans Technology /a(a.eans Technology: *nloc)ing The .ean'ontext A0I /a(a.eans Forums /a(a.eans FAA 1ee documentation generated by the /a(adoc tool /a(adoc Tool FAA ?ow to =rite 7oc 'omments for the /a(adoc Tool /a(a?elp 1ystem /a(a?elp 1ystem *ser3s Fuide

Javadoc Tool

Java%elp System

JavaServer -aces Tec)nology

/a(a?elp software is a fullfeatured, platform-independent, extensible help system that enables you to incorporate online help in applets, components, applications, operating systems, and de(ices. Authors can also use the /a(a?elp software to deli(er online documentation for the =eb and corporate intranet. /a(a1er(er Faces technology simplifies building user interfaces for /a(a1er(er applications. 7e(elopers of (arious s)ill le(els can %uic)ly build web applications by assembling reusable *I

/a(a1er(er Faces Technology 4(er(iew /a(a1er(er Faces FAA 7e(eloping =eb Applications with

JavaServer Pages (JSP)

components in a page, connecting these components to an application data source, and wiring clientgenerated e(ents to ser(er-side e(ent handlers. 'reate dynamic web pages with /10 pages by embedding scriptlets !/a(a programming language code" with ?T#<. /10 pages process forms, perform calculations, or do anything else that can be written with the /a(a programming language. To de(elop and test /10 pages, download 8et.eans, or 1un /a(a 1tudio 'reator. /7.' is a /a(a A0I for executing 1A< statements. .y using the /7.' A0I, you can access almost any data source, from relational databases to spreadsheets to flat files. /;1& includes the /7.' A0I.

/a(a1er(er Faces 1un /a(a 1tudio 'reator

/a(a1er(er 0ages 7ocumentation /a(a1er(er 0ages: A 7e(eloper3s 0erspecti(e /a(a1er(er 0ages .oo) &xcerpts /a(a1er(er 0ages Forums 1un /a(a 1tudio 'reator /7.' Technology <esson: <earn /7.' .asics /7.' A0I Tutorial and 6eference, Third &dition /7.' 4(er(iew /7.' Forums

J 3C

J 4

J"."

/7@ is the short-cut name for the set of /a(a de(elopment tools, consisting of the A0I classes, a /a(a compiler, and the /a(a (irtual machine interpreter, regardless of which (ersion. The /7@ is used to compile /a(a applications and applets. The most current (ersion is the /;1&., the preferred term these days. If you use /;1& ,.; and later to de(elop applications, you are using what3s )nown as the /a(a ; 0latform. The /ini networ) technology enables any ser(ice--from enterprise systems to )itchen appliances--to networ) smoothly and simply. The /ini architecture lets each ser(ice !de(ice or

7ownload /7@ C.4nline 7ocumentation Introducing the /a(a 0latform Fetting 1tarted

/ini 8etwor) Technology 7istributed &(ents in /ini Technology

software" tell others how to tal) to it, without any administrator settings.

?ow to Attach a *ser Interface to a /ini 1er(ice 'ore /ini

Pro5ect Swing

The javax.s'ing pac)age of classes is used to create F*I components for applets and applications. 0ro9ect 1wing classes enable programmers to specify a different loo) and feel for each platform, or a uniform loo) across all platforms. Swing is the pro9ect code name for the lightweight F*I components in /a(a Foundation 'lasses !/F'".

/a(a Foundation 'lasses Fundamentals of /F'>1wing: 0art I Fundamentals of /F'>1wing: 0art II 'reating F*I with /F'>1wing 0ro9ect 1wing: .uilding a *ser Interface 0ro9ect 1wing Forums

6!"

Servlets

6#I lets /a(a applications communicate across a networ). The communicating applications can be running on different computers on opposite sides of the planet. This higher-le(el and method-based approach to networ) communications allows access to a remote ob9ect as easily as a local ob9ect. A ser(let is an extension to a ser(er that enhances the ser(er3s functionality. 1er(lets are most commonly used to process forms, handle redirects or authenticate user names and passwords, and create dynamic content. To de(elop and test ser(lets, download 8et.eans, or 1un /a(a 1tudio 'reator.

/a(a 6emote In(ocation !6#I" Fundamentals of 6#I 1hort 'ourse 6#I-II40 7ocumentation <esson H: 6emote #ethod In(ocation /a(a 1er(let Technology The /a(a 1er(let A0I =hite 0aper <esson C: =riting 1er(lets 1tory of a 1er(let: An Instant Tutorial Fundamentals of /a(a 1er(lets /a(a 1er(let Technology Forum

' is a programming language originally de(eloped for de(eloping the *nix operating system. It is a low-le(el and powerful language, but it lac)s many modern and useful constructs. 'GG is a newer language, based on ', that adds many more modern programming language features that ma)e it easier to program than '. .asically, 'GG maintains all aspects of the ' language, while pro(iding new features to programmers that ma)e it easier to write useful and sophisticated programs. For example, 'GG ma)es it easier to manage memory and adds se(eral features to allow "ob9ect-oriented" programming and "generic" programming. .asically, it ma)es it easier for programmers to stop thin)ing about the nitty-gritty details of how the machine wor)s and thin) about the problems they are trying to sol(e.

So, what is C++ used for?

'GG is a powerful general-purpose programming language. It can be used to create small programs or large applications. It can be used to ma)e 'FI scripts or console-only 741 programs. 'GG allows you to create programs to do almost anything you need to do. The creator of 'GG, .9arne 1troustrup, has put together a partial list of applications written in 'GG.Your continued donations keep Wikipedia running!

Oracle Database
-rom $ikipedia0 t)e free encyclopedia
/ump to: na(igation, search

7racle ata#ase
eveloper(s) Sta#le release $ritten in 7perating system Availa#le in Type (icense $e#site 4racle 'orporation ,,g 6; > ;--I--I--,$ ; months ago ' 'ross-platform #ultiple languages 67.#1 0roprietary http:>>www.oracle.com>

The 7racle ata#ase !commonly referred to as 7racle 6 3!S or simply 7racle" is a relational database management system !67.#1" produced and mar)eted by 4racle 'orporation. As of ;--I, 4racle remains a ma9or presence in database computing.J,K

<arry &llison and his friends and former co-wor)ers .ob #iner and &d 4ates started the consultancy 1oftware 7e(elopment <aboratories !17<" in ,ILL. 17< de(eloped the original (ersion of the 4racle software. The name Oracle comes from the code-name of a 'IA-funded pro9ect &llison had wor)ed on while pre(iously employed by Ampex.J;K

Contents
JhideK , 0hysical and logical structures o ,., 1torage ,.,., 7is) files ,.,.,., 7ata files ,.,.,.; 'ontrol files o o ,.; 7atabase schema ,.D #emory architecture ,.D., 1ystem Flobal Area ,.D.; <ibrary cache ,.D.D 7ata dictionary cache ,.D.E 0rogram Flobal Area o ,.E 0rocess architectures ,.E., 4racle processes ,.E.; *ser processes, connections and sessions o o ,.C 'oncurrency and loc)ing ,.M 'onfiguration

; Internationali+ation D ?istory o o o D., 'orporate>technical timeline D.; 2ersion numbering D.D <ist of claimed firsts

E &ditions C ?ost platforms M 6elated software o o o M., 7atabase options M.; 1uites M.D 7atabase "features"

o o

M.E 1tandalone tools M.C 4ther databases mar)eted by 4racle 'orporation L., 4fficial support L.; 7atabase-related guidelines L.D 4racle 'ertification 0rogram L.E *ser groups H., 'ompetition H.; 0ricing

L *sing 4racle 7atabase software o o o o o o

H #ar)et position

I 1ee also ,- 6eferences ,, .ibliography ,; &xternal lin)s

[edit] Physical and logical structures

An 4racle database system N identified by an alphanumeric system identifier or 1I7JDK N comprises at least one instance of the application, along with data storage. An instance N identified persistently by an instantiation number !or acti(ation id: 1:1.2OP7ATA.A1&.A'TI2ATI48Q" N comprises a set of operating-system processes and memory-structures that interact with the storage. Typical processes include 0#48 !the process monitor" and 1#48 !the system monitor". *sers of the 4racle databases refer to the ser(er-side memory-structure as the 1FA !1ystem Flobal Area". The 1FA typically holds cache information such as data-buffers, 1A< commands, and user information. In addition to storage, the database consists of online redo logs !or logs", which hold transactional history. 0rocesses can in turn archi(e the online redo logs into archi(e logs !offline redo logs", which pro(ide the basis !if necessary" for data reco(ery and for some forms of data replication. If the 4racle database administrator has implemented 4racle 6A' !6eal Application 'lusters", then multiple instances, usually on different ser(ers, attach to a central storage array. This scenario offers ad(antages such as better performance, scalability and redundancy. ?owe(er, support becomes more complex, and many sites do not use 6A'. In (ersion ,-g, grid computing introduced shared resources where an instance can use !for example" '0* resources from another node !computer" in the grid. The 4racle 7.#1 can store and execute stored procedures and functions within itself. 0<>1A< !4racle 'orporation3s proprietary procedural extension to 1A<", or the ob9ectoriented language /a(a can in(o)e such code ob9ects and>or pro(ide the programming structures for writing them.

8edit9 Storage
The 4racle 67.#1 stores data logically in the form of tablespaces and physically in the form of data files. Tablespaces can contain (arious types of memory segments, such as 7ata 1egments, Index 1egments, etc. 1egments in turn comprise one or more extents. &xtents comprise groups of contiguous data bloc)s. 7ata bloc)s form the basic units of data storage. 4racle database management trac)s its computer data storage with the help of information stored in the S>S8E9 tablespace. The S>S8E9 tablespace contains the data dictionary N and often !by default" indexes and clusters. A data dictionary consists of a special collection of tables that contains information about all user-ob9ects in the database. 1ince (ersion Hi, the 4racle 67.#1 also supports "locally managed" tablespaces which can store space management information in bitmaps in their own headers rather than in the S>S8E9 tablespace !as happens with the default "dictionarymanaged" tablespaces".

8edit9 isk files

This section re%uires expansion.

[edit] Data files

At the physical le(el, datafiles comprise one or more data bloc)s, where the bloc) si+e can (ary between datafiles. 7atafiles can occupy pre-allocated space in the file system of a computer ser(er, utili+e raw dis) directly, or exist within A1# logical (olumes.JEK

[edit] Control files

4ne !or multiple multiplexed" control files !also )nown as "controlfiles"" store o(erall system information and statuses.JCK

8edit9 ata#ase sc)ema

4racle database con(entions refer to defined groups of ob9ect ownership !generally associated with a "username"" as schemas. #ost 4racle database installations traditionally came with a default schema called S*<88. After the installation process has set up the sample tables, the user can log into the database with the username scott and the password tiger. The name of the S*<88 schema originated with .ruce 1cott, one of the first employees at 4racle !then 1oftware 7e(elopment <aboratories", who had a cat named Tiger.JMK 4racle 'orporation has de-emphasi+ed the use of the S*<88 schema, as it uses few of the features of the more recent releases of 4racle. #ost recent examples supplied by 4racle 'orporation reference the default ?6 or 4& schemas. 4ther default schemasJLK include:
S>S

!essential core database structures and utilities"

S>S8E9 <G8:F

!additional core database structures and utilities, and pri(ileged account"

!utili+ed to store metadata for stored outlines for stable %uery-optimi+er execution plans.JHK and S7 !expanded sample schemasJIK containing more data and structures than the older S*<88 schema".
,#, #H, 7., <E, P9,

8edit9 !emory arc)itecture

8edit9 System :lo#al Area

#ain article: 1ystem Flobal Area &ach 4racle instance uses a 1ystem Flobal Area or 1FA N a shared-memory area N to store its data and control-information.J,-K &ach 4racle instance allocates itself an 1FA when it starts and de-allocates it at shutdown time. The information in the 1FA consists of the following elements, each of which has a fixed si+e, established at instance startup: the database buffer cache: this stores the most recently-used data bloc)s. These bloc)s can contain modified data not yet written to dis) !sometimes )nown as "dirty bloc)s"", unmodified bloc)s, or bloc)s written to dis) since modification !sometimes )nown as clean bloc)s". .ecause the buffer cache )eeps bloc)s based on a most-recently-used algorithm, the most acti(e buffers stay in memory to reduce I>4 and to impro(e performance. the redo log buffer: this stores redo entries N a log of changes made to the database. The instance writes redo log buffers to the redo log as %uic)ly and efficiently as possible. The redo log aids in instance reco(ery in the e(ent of a system failure. the shared pool: this area of the 1FA stores shared-memory structures such as shared 1A< areas in the library cache and internal information in the data dictionary. An insufficient amount of memory allocated to the shared pool can cause performance degradation.

8edit9 (i#rary cac)e

The library cacheJ,,K stores shared 1A<, caching the parse tree and the execution plan for e(ery uni%ue 1A< statement. If multiple applications issue the same 1A< statement, each application can access the shared 1A< area. This reduces the amount of memory needed and reduces the processingtime used for parsing and execution planning.

8edit9 ata dictionary cac)e

The data dictionary comprises a set of tables and (iews that map the structure of the database. 4racle databases store information here about the logical and physical structure of the database. The data dictionary contains information such as:

user information, such as user pri(ileges integrity constraints defined for tables in the database names and datatypes of all columns in database tables information on space allocated and used for schema ob9ects The 4racle instance fre%uently accesses the data dictionary in order to parse 1A< statements. The operation of 4racle depends on ready access to the data dictionary: performance bottlenec)s in the data dictionary affect all 4racle users. .ecause of this, database administrators should ma)e sure that the data dictionary cacheJ,;K has sufficient capacity to cache this data. =ithout enough memory for the data-dictionary cache, users see a se(ere performance degradation. Allocating sufficient memory to the shared pool where the data dictionary cache resides precludes these particular performance problems.

8edit9 Program :lo#al Area

The 0rogram Flobal AreaJ,DKJ,EK or 0FA memory-area of an 4racle instance contains data and control-information for 4racle3s ser(er-processes. The si+e and content of the 0FA depends on the 4racle-ser(er options installed. This area consists of the following components: stac)-space: the memory that holds the session3s (ariables, arrays, and so on. session-information: unless using the multithreaded ser(er, the instance stores its session-information in the 0FA. !In a multithreaded ser(er, the sessioninformation goes in the 1FA." pri(ate 1A<-area: an area in the 0FA which holds information such as bind(ariables and runtime-buffers. sorting area: an area in the 0FA which holds information on sorts, hash-9oins, etc.

8edit9 Process arc)itectures

8edit9 7racle processes

The 4racle 67.#1 typically relies on a group of processes running simultaneously in the bac)ground and interacting to monitor and expedite database operations. Typical operating groups might include some of the following indi(idual processes N !shown along with their abbre(iated nomenclature":J,CK archi(er processes !A6'n" chec)point process !'@0T" R6&A*I6&7R coordinator-of-9ob-%ueues process !'/An": dynamically spawns sla(e processes for 9ob-%ueues database writer processes !7.=n" R6&A*I6&7R dispatcher processes !7nnn": multiplex ser(er-processes on behalf of users memory-manager process !##A8": used for internal database tas)s such as Automatic 1hared #emory #anagement

log-writer process !<F=6" R6&A*I6&7R log-write networ)-ser(er !<81n": transmits redo logs in 7ata Fuard en(ironments logical standby coordinator process !<10-": controls 7ata Fuard log-application media-reco(ery process !#60": detached reco(ery-ser(er process memory-monitor process !##48": process for automatic problem-detection, self-tuning and statistics-gatheringJ,MK memory-monitor light process !##8<": gathers and stores Automatic =or)load 6epository !A=6" data mmon sla(es !#nnnn N #----, #---,, etc": bac)ground sla(es of the ##48 processJ,LK process-monitor process !0#48" R6&A*I6&7R process-spawner !010-": spawns 4racle processes %ueue-monitor processes !A#8n" reco(erer process !6&'4" remote file-ser(er process !6F1" shared ser(er processes !1nnn": ser(e client-re%uests system monitor process !1#48" R6&A*I6&7R

8edit9 User processes0 connections and sessions

4racle 7atabase terminology distinguishes different computer-science terms in describing how end-users interact with the database: user processes in(ol(e the in(ocation of application softwareJ,HK a connection refers to the pathway lin)ing a user process to an 4racle instanceJ,IK sessions consist of specific connections to an 4racle instance.J;-K &ach session within an instance has a session identifier or "1I7"J;,K !distinct from the systemidentifier 1I7".

8edit9 Concurrency and locking

4racle databases control simultaneous access to data resources with loc)s !alternati(ely documented as "en%ueues"J;;K ". The databases also utili+e "latches" -- low-le(el seriali+ation mechanisms to protect shared data structures in the 1ystem Flobal Area.J;DK

8edit9 Configuration
7atabase administrators control many of the tunable (ariations in an 4racle instance by means of (alues in a parameter file.J;EK This file in its A1'II default form !"pfile"" normally has a name of the format init6S#=2name;.ora. The default binary e%ui(alent ser(er paramater file !"spfile"" !dynamically reconfigurable to some extent"J;CK defaults to the format spDile6S#=2name;.ora. =ithin an 1A<-based en(ironment, the (iews VIPA.A9E8E.J;MK and VISPPA.A9E8E.J;LK gi(e access to reading parameter (alues.

[edit] Internationalization
4racle 7atabase software comes in MD language-(ersions !including regional (ariations such as American &nglish and .ritish &nglish". 2ariations between (ersions co(er the names of days and months, abbre(iations, time-symbols such as A.#. and A.7., and sorting.J;HK 4racle 'orporation has translated 4racle 7atabase error-messages into Arabic, 'atalan, 'hinese, '+ech, 7anish, 7utch, &nglish, Finnish, French, Ferman, Free), ?ebrew, ?ungarian, Italian, /apanese, @orean, 8orwegian, 0olish, 0ortuguese, 6omanian, 6ussian, 1lo(a), 1panish, 1wedish, Thai and Tur)ish.J;IK 4racle 'orporation pro(ides database de(elopers with tools and mechanisms for producing internationali+ed database applications: referred to internally as "Flobali+ation".JD-K

[edit] History 8edit9 Corporate;tec)nical timeline

This article is in a list format t)at may #e #etter presented using prose< :ou can help by con(erting this article to prose, if appropriate. &diting help is a(ailable. (September 2009) ,ILL: <arry &llison and friends founded 1oftware 7e(elopment <aboratories. ,ILI: 17< changed its company-name to "6elational 1oftware, Inc." !61I" and introduced its product 4racle 2; as an early commercially-a(ailable relational database system. The (ersion did not support transactions, but implemented the basic 1A< functionality of %ueries and 9oins. !61I ne(er released a (ersion , instead calling the first (ersion ersion 2 as a mar)eting gimmic)."JD,K ,IH;: 61I in its turn changed its name, becoming )nown as "4racle 'orporation", JD;K to align itself more closely with its flagship product. ,IHD: The company released 4racle (ersion D, which it had re-written using the ' programming language and which supported *<99#8 and .<::,A*J functionality for transactions. 2ersion D extended platform support from the existing 7igital 2A5>2#1 systems to include *nix en(ironments.JD;K ,IHE: 4racle 'orporation released 4racle (ersion E, which supported readconsistency. ,IHC: 4racle 'orporation released 4racle (ersion C, which supported the clientser(er model N a sign of networ)s becoming more widely a(ailable in the mid,IH-s. ,IHM: 4racle (ersion C., started supporting distributed %ueries. ,IHH: 4racle 67.#1 (ersion M came out with support for 0<>1A< embedded within 4racle Forms (D !(ersion M could not store 0<>1A< in the database proper", row-le(el loc)ing and hot bac)ups.JDDK

,IHI: 4racle 'orporation entered the application products mar)et and de(eloped its &60 product, !later to become part of the 4racle &-.usiness 1uite", based on the 4racle relational database. ,II-: the release of 4racle Applications release HJD;K ,II;: 4racle (ersion L appeared with support for referential integrity, stored procedures and triggers. ,IIL: 4racle 'orporation released (ersion H, which supported ob9ect-oriented de(elopment and multimedia applications. ,III: The release of 4racleHi aimed to pro(ide a database inter-operating better with the Internet !the i in the name stands for "Internet"". The 4racle Hi database incorporated a nati(e /a(a (irtual machine !4racle /2#". ;---: 4racle &-.usiness 1uite ,,i pioneers integrated enterprise application softwareJD;K ;--,: 4racleIi went into release with E-- new features, including the ability to read and write 5#< documents. Ii also pro(ided an option for 4racle 6A', or "6eal Application 'lusters", a computer-cluster database, as a replacement for the 4racle 0arallel 1er(er !401" option. ;--D: 4racle 'orporation released 4racle 7atabase ,-g. !The g stands for "grid"$ emphasi+ing a mar)eting thrust of presenting ,-g as "grid-computing ready"." ;--C: 4racle 7atabase ,-.;.-., N also )nown as 4racle 7atabase ,-g 6elease ; !,-g6;" N appeared. ;--M: 4racle 'orporation announces *nbrea)able <inuxJD;K ;--L: 4racle 7atabase ,-g release ; sets a new world record T0'-? D--- F. benchmar) resultJDEK ;--L: 4racle 'orporation released 4racle 7atabase ,,g for <inux and for #icrosoft =indows. ;--H: 4racle 'orporation ac%uires .&A 1ystems. ;--I: 4racle 'orporation ac%uires 1un #icrosystems. 8ote: as of 4ctober ;--I the ac%uisition awaits appro(al from the &uropean 'ouncilJcitation neededK.

8edit9 &ersion num#ering

4racle products ha(e historically followed their own release-numbering and naming con(entions. =ith the 4racle 67.#1 ,-g release, 4racle 'orporation started standardi+ing all current (ersions of its ma9or products using the ",-g" label, although some sources continued to refer to 4racle Applications 6elease ,,i as Oracle !!i. #a9or database-related products and some of their (ersions include: 4racle Application 1er(er ,-g !also )nown as "4racle A1 ,-g"": a middleware product$ 4racle Applications 6elease ,,i !a)a 4racle e-.usiness 1uite, 4racle Financials or 4racle ,,i": a suite of business applications$ 4racle 7e(eloper 1uite ,-g !I.-.E"$

4racle /7e(eloper ,-g: a /a(a integrated de(elopment en(ironment$ 1ince (ersion C, 4racle3s 67.#1 release numbering has used the following codes: 4racleC 4racleM 4racleL: L.-.,M N L.D.E 4racleH 7atabase: H.-.D N H.-.M 4racleHi 7atabase 6elease ,: H.,.C.- N H.,.C., 4racleHi 7atabase 6elease ;: H.,.M.- N H.,.M.D 4racleHi 7atabase 6elease D: H.,.L.- N H.,.L.E 4racleIi 7atabase 6elease ,: I.-.,.- N I.-.,.C !patchset as of 7ecember ;--D" 4racleIi 7atabase 6elease ;: I.;.-., N I.;.-.H !patchset as of April ;--L" 4racle 7atabase ,-g 6elease ,: ,-.,.-.; N ,-.,.-.C !patchset as of February ;--M" 4racle 7atabase ,-g 6elease ;: ,-.;.-., N ,-.;.-.E !patchset as of April ;--H" 4racle 7atabase ,,g 6elease ,: ,,.,.-.M N ,,.,.-.L !patchset as of 1eptember ;--H" 4racle 7atabase ,,g 6elease ;: ,,.;.-., !released ;--I--I--," The (ersion-numbering syntax within each release follows the pattern: ma9or.maintenance.application-ser(er.component-specific.platform-specific. For example, ",-.;.-., for ME-bit 1olaris" means: ,-th ma9or (ersion of 4racle, maintenance le(el ;, 4racle Application 1er(er !4racleA1" -, le(el , for 1olaris ME-bit. The Oracle "dministrator#s $uide offers further information on 4racle release numbers. 4racle 'orporation pro(ides a tableJDCK showing the latest patch-set releases by ma9or release, operating-system, and hardware-architecture.

8edit9 (ist of claimed firsts

This article needs additional citations for verification<
0lease help impro(e this article by adding reliable references. *nsourced material may be challenged and remo(ed. (%ecember 200&)

4racle 'orporation claims to ha(e pro(ided: the first commercially-a(ailable 1A<-based database !,ILI"JDMK the first database to support symmetric multiprocessing !1#0" !,IHD" the first distributed database !,IHM" the first database product tested to comply with the A81I 1A< standard !,IID"JDMK the first ME-bit database !,IIC" the first database to incorporate a nati(e /6& !,IIH" the first proprietary 67.#1 to become a(ailable on <inux !,IIH"JDLK the first database to support 5#< !,III"

[edit] Editions
4(er and abo(e the different (ersions of the 4racle database management software, 4racle 'orporation subdi(ides its product into (arying "editions" - apparently for mar)eting and license-trac)ing reasons. In approximate order of decreasing scale, we find: &nterprise &ditionJDHK !&&" includes more features than the 31tandard &dition3, especially in the areas of performance and security. 4racle 'orporation licenses this product on the basis of users or of processors, typically for ser(ers running E or more '0*s. && has no memory limits, and can utili+e clustering using 4racle 6A' software. 1tandard &ditionJDIK !1&" contains base database functionality. 4racle 'orporation licenses this product on the basis of users or of processors, typically for ser(ers running from one to four '0*s. If the number of '0*s exceeds E '0*s, the user must con(ert to an &nterprise license. 1& has no memory limits, and can utili+e clustering with 4racle 6A' at no additional charge. 1tandard &dition 4ne,JE-K introduced with 4racle ,-g, has some additional featurerestrictions. 4racle 'orporation mar)ets it for use on systems with one or two '0*s. It has no memory limitations. &xpress &ditionJE,K !34racle 7atabase 5&3", introduced in ;--C, offers 4racle ,-g free to distribute on =indows and <inux platforms. It has a footprint of only ,C#. and is restrictedJb' whom(K to the use of a single '0*, a maximum of E F. of user data. Although it can install on a ser(er with any amount of memory, it uses a maximum of , F..JE;K 1upport for this (ersion comes exclusi(ely through on-line forums and not through 4racle support. 4racle 7atabase <ite,JEDK intended for running on mobile de(ices. The database located on the mobile de(ice can synchroni+e with a ser(er-based installation.

[edit] Host platfor s

0rior to releasing 4racleIi in ;--,, 4racle 'orporation ported its database product to a wide (ariety of platforms. #ore recently 4racle 'orporation has consolidated on a smaller range of operating-system platforms. As of 4ctober ;--M, 4racle 'orporation supported the following operating systems and hardware platforms for 4racle 7atabase ,-g: Apple #ac 41 5 1er(er: 0ower0' ?0 ?0-*5: 0A-6I1', Itanium ?0 TruME *8I5: Alpha ?0 4pen2#1: Alpha, Itanium I.# AI5C<: I.# 04=&6 I.# +>41: +1eries <inux: xHM, xHM-ME, 0ower0', +1eries, Itanium

#icrosoft =indows: xHM, xHM-ME, Itanium 1un 1olaris: 10A6', xHM, xHM-ME

[edit] !elated software

For lin)s to some of 4racle 'orporation3s software which integrates with 4racle databases, see the 4racle 'orporation category and the 4racle software category pages.

8edit9 ata#ase options

4racle 'orporation refers to some extensions to the core functionality of the 4racle database as "database options".JEEK As of ;--H such options include: Acti(e 7ata Fuard !extends 4racle 7ata Fuard physical standby functionality in ,,g" Ad(anced 1ecurity !adds data encryption methods" 'ontent database !pro(ides a centrali+ed repository for unstructured information" 7atabase 2ault !enforces extra security on data access" 7ata #ining !47#" !mines for patterns in existing data" In-#emory 7atabase 'ache !utili+es TimesTen technology" <abel 1ecurity !enforces row-le(el security" #anagement 0ac)s !(arious" 4racle Answers !for ad)hoc analysis and reporting" 4racle 4<A0 !adds analytical processing" 4racle 0rogrammer !pro(ides programmatic access to 4racle databases (ia precompilers, interfaces and bindings"JECK 0artitioning !granulari+es tables and indexes for efficiency" 6eal Application 'lusters !6A'" !coordinates multiple database ser(ers, together accessing the same database" 4racle 6eal Application Testing !new at (ersion ,,g" N including 7atabase 6eplay !for testing wor)loads" and 1A< 0erformance Analy+er !10A" !for preser(ing 1A< efficiency in changing en(ironments"JEMK 6ecords database !a records management application" 4racle 1patial !integrates relational data with geographic information systems !FI1"" Transparent Fateway for connecting to non-4racle systems. 4ffers optimi+ed solution, with more functionality and better performance than 4racle Feneric 'onnecti(ity. Total 6ecall !optimi+es long-term storage of historical data" 4racle =arehouse .uilder !in (arious forms and sub-options" *his list is incomplete+ 'ou can help b' e,panding it.

In most cases, using these options entails extra licensing costs.JELK

8edit9 Suites
In addition to its 67.#1, 4racle 'orporation has released se(eral related suites of tools and applications relating to implementations of 4racle databases. For example: 4racle Application 1er(er, a /;&&-based application ser(er, aids in de(eloping and deploying applications which utilise Internet technologies and a browser. 4racle 'ollaboration 1uite contains messaging, groupware and collaboration applications. 4racle 7e(eloper 1uite contains software de(elopment tools, including /7e(eloper. 4racle &-.usiness 1uite collects together applications for enterprise resource planning !including 4racle Financials", customer relationship management and human resources management !4racle ?6". 4racle &nterprise #anager !4&#" used by database administrators !7.As" to manage the 7.#1, and recently in (ersion ,-g, a web-based rewrite of 4&# called "4racle &nterprise #anager 7atabase 'ontrol". 4racle 'orporation has dubbed the super-&nterprise-#anager used to manage a grid of multiple 7.#1 and Application 1er(ers "4racle &nterprise #anager Frid 'ontrol". 4racle 0rogrammer>;---, a bundling of interfaces for DF< programming languages, mar)eted with 4racleL and 4racleH.JEHKJEIK

8edit9 ata#ase =features=

Apart from the clearly-defined database options, 4racle databases may include many semi-autonomous software sub-systems, which 4racle 'orporation sometimes refers to as "features" in a sense subtly different from the normal usage of the word.JC-K 1uch "features" may include !for example": Acti(e 1ession ?istory !A1?", the collection of data for immediate monitoring of (ery recent database acti(ity.JC,K Automatic =or)load 6epository !A=6", pro(iding monitoring ser(ices to 4racle database installations from 4racle (ersion ,-. 0rior to the release of 4racle (ersion ,-, the 1tatspac) facility pro(ided similar functionality. 'lusterware 7ata Aggregation and 'onsolidation 7ata Fuard for high a(ailability Feneric 'onnecti(ity for connecting to non-4racle systems. 7ata 0ump utilities, which aid in importing and exporting data and metadata between databasesJC;K 7atabase 6esource #anager !76#", which controls the use of computing resources.JCDK

Fine-grained auditing !FFA" !in 4racle &nterprise &ditionJCEK" supplements standard security-auditing featuresJCCK Flashbac) for selecti(e data reco(ery and reconstructionJCMK i1A<R0lus, a web-browser-based graphical user interface !F*I" for 4racle database data-manipulation !compare 1A<R0lus" 4racle 7ata Access 'omponents !47A'", tools which consist of:JCLK o o o o o o o 4racle 7ata 0ro(ider for .8&T !470.8&T"JCHK 4racle 7e(eloper Tools !47T" for 2isual 1tudio 4racle 0ro(iders for A10.8&T 4racle 7atabase &xtensions for .8&T 4racle 0ro(ider for 4<& 7. 4racle 4b9ects for 4<& 4racle 1er(ices for #icrosoft Transaction 1er(er

4racle-managed files !4#F" -- a feature allowing automated naming, creation and deletion of datafiles at the operating-system le(el. 6eco(ery #anager !rman" for database bac)up, restoration and reco(ery 1A<R0lus, a program that allows users to interact with 4racle database!s" (ia 1A< and 0<>1A< commands on a command-line. 'ompare i1A<R0lus. *his list is incomplete+ 'ou can help b' e,panding it.

8edit9 Standalone tools

*sers can de(elop applications in /a(a and 0<>1A< using tools such as 4racle /7e(eloper, 4racle Forms, or 4racle 6eports. 4racle 'orporation has startedJclarification neededK a dri(e toward 3wi+ard3-dri(en en(ironments with a (iew to enabling non-programmers to produce simple data-dri(en applications. 4racle 1A< 7e(eloper, a free graphical tool for database de(elopment, allows de(elopers to browse database ob9ects, run 1A< statements and 1A< scripts, and edit and debug 0<>1A< statements. It incorporates standard and customi+ed reporting.

8edit9 7t)er data#ases marketed #y 7racle Corporation

.y ac%uiring other technology in the database field, 4racle 'orporation has ta)en o(er: TimesTen, a memory-resident database that can cache transactions and synchroni+e data with a centrali+ed 4racle database ser(er. It functions as a realtime infrastructure software product intended for the management of low-latency, high-(olume data, of e(ents and of transactions. .er)eley7., a simple, high-performance, embedded database 4racle 6db, a legacy relational database for the 4pen2#1 operating system #y1A< a relational database purchased as part of its immediate pre(ious owner, 1un #icrosystems

[edit] "sing #racle $ata%ase software

*sers of 4racle databases may access the online documentation, the 4racle Technology 8etwor) site, and the comp.databases.oracle *senet discussion group. The 4racle Technet site offers downloads of full-featured e(aluation software. *sers can also chec) the 4racle FAA site before posting %uestions to forums, mailing lists, etc. They can also log on to http:>>as)tom.oracle.com> to post %uestions to and get answers from Tom @yte, a 2ice-0resident of 4racle 'orporation and the author of se(eral 4racle boo)s including -,pert One)On)One Oracle !I1.8 ,-CI-CI-C;C-E". The 4racle 67.#1 has had a reputation among no(ice users as difficult to install on <inux systems.Jcitation neededK 4racle 'orporation has pac)aged recent (ersions for se(eral popular <inux distributions in an attempt to minimi+e installation challenges beyond the le(el of technical expertise re%uired to install a database ser(er.Jcitation neededK

8edit9 7fficial support

*sers who ha(e 4racle support contracts should turn to 4racle3s !eta(ink web site !password re%uired". #eta<in) pro(ides users of 4racle 'orporation products with a repository of reported problems, diagnostic scripts and solutions. It also integrates with the pro(ision of support tools, patches and upgrades. The 6emote iagnostic Agent or 6 AJCIK can operate as a command-line diagnostic tool executing a script. The data captured pro(ides an o(er(iew of the 4racle 7atabase en(ironment intended for diagnostic and trouble-shooting. =ithin 67A, the %C&+ !?ealth 'hec) 2alidation &ngine"JM-K can (erify and isolate host system en(ironmental issues that may affect the performance of 4racle software.

8edit9 ata#ase>related guidelines

4racle 'orporation also endorses certain practices and con(entions as enhancing the use of its database products. These include: 4racle #aximum A(ailability Architecture !#AA", guidelines on de(eloping high-a(ailability systems 4ptimal Flexible Architecture !4FA", blueprints for mapping 4racle-database ob9ects to file-systems

8edit9 7racle Certification Program

#ain article: 4racle 'ertification 0rogram The 4racle 'ertification 0rogram, a professional certification program, includes the administration of 4racle 7atabases as one of its main certification paths. It contains three le(els: ,. ;. D. 4racle 'ertified Associate !4'A" 4racle 'ertified 0rofessional !4'0" 4racle 'ertified #aster !4'#"

8edit9 User groups

A (ariety of official !4racle-sponsored"JM,K and unofficial user groups has grown up of users and de(elopers of 4racle databases. They include:

4racle Technology 8etwor) Independent 4racle *sers Froup Feographical>regional user groups 0roduct-centric user groups Industry-centric user groups The 4a) Table 8etwor) *senet comp.databases.oracle groups

[edit] &ar'et position 8edit9 Competition

In the mar)et for relational databases, 4racle 7atabase competes against commercial products such as I.#3s 7.; *7. and #icrosoft 1A< 1er(er. 4racle and I.# tend to battle for the mid-range database mar)et on *8I5 and <inux platforms, while #icrosoft dominates the mid-range database mar)et on #icrosoft =indows platforms. ?owe(er, since they share many of the same customers, 4racle and I.# tend to support each other3s products in many middleware and application categories !for example: =eb1phere, 0eople1oft, and 1iebel 1ystems '6#", and I.#3s hardware di(isions wor) closely with 4racle on performance-optimi+ing ser(er-technologies !for example, <inux on +1eries". The two companies ha(e a relationship perhaps best described as "coopetition". 8iche commercial competitors include Teradata !in data warehousing and business intelligence", 1oftware AF3s A7A.A1, 1ybase, and I.#3s Informix, among many others. Increasingly, the 4racle database products compete against open-source relational database systems, particularly 0ostgre1A<, Firebird, and #y1A<. 4racle ac%uired Innobase, supplier of the Inno7. codebase to #y1A<, in part to compete better in the open source mar)et. 7atabase products de(eloped on the basis of the open-source model generally cost significantly less to ac%uire than 4racle systems. In ;--L, competition with 1A0 AF occasioned litigation from 4racle 'orporation.JM;K

8edit9 Pricing
4racle 'orporation offers term licensing for all 4racle products. It bases the list price for a term-license on a specific percentage of the perpetual license price.JMDK &nterprise &dition As of #arch ;--M, the database that costs the most per machine-processor among 4racle database editions. 1tandard &dition 'heaper: it can run on up to four processors but has fewer features than &nterprise &ditionNit lac)s proper paralleli+ation,JMEK etc$ but remains %uite suitable for running medium-si+ed applications. 1tandard 48& 1ells e(en more cheaply, but remains limited to two '0*s. 1tandard &dition 48& sells on a per-seat basis with a fi(e-user minimum. 4racle 'orporation usually

sells the licenses with an extra ;;S cost for support and upgrades !access to #eta<in) - 4racle 'orporation3s support site" which customers need to renew annually. 4racle &xpress &dition !4racle 5&" An addition to the 4racle database product family !beta (ersion released in ;--C, production (ersion released in February ;--M", offers a free (ersion of the 4racle 67.#1, but one limited to E F. of user data and to , F. of 6A# !1FAG0FA". 5& will use no more than one '0* and lac)s an internal /2#. 5& runs only on =indows and on <inux, not on AI5, 1olaris, ?0-*5 and the other operating systems a(ailable for other editions. As computers running 4racle often ha(e eight or more processors, the software price can rise into the hundreds of thousands of dollars. The total cost of ownership often exceeds this, as large 4racle installations usually re%uire experienced and trained database administrators to do the set-up properly. .ecause of the product3s large installed base and a(ailable training courses, 4racle specialists in some areas ha(e become a more abundant resource than those for more exotic databases. 4racle fre%uently pro(ides special training offers for database-administrators. 4n <inux, 4racle3s certified configurations include mostly commercial <inux distributions !6ed ?at &nterprise <inux D and E, 1u1& 1<&1H and I, Asianux" which can cost in a range from a few hundred to a few thousand *17 per year !depending on processor architecture and the support pac)age purchased". The 4racle database system can also install and run on freely-a(ailable <inux distributions such as the 6ed ?at-based 'entos,JMCK or 7ebian-based systems.JMMK

[edit] See also

=i)iboo)s has a boo) on the topic of Oracle database <ist of relational database management systems <ist of ob9ect-relational database management systems 'omparison of relational database management systems 'omparison of ob9ect-relational database management systems 4racle 6db for 4pen2#1 <ist of &60 software pac)ages 6un .oo) Automation

[edit] !eferences
,. ;. D. ? I7': 4racle #aintains <ead in 7atabase #ar)et ? =elcome to <arryland ? .ha)tha(atsalam, 8amrata !August ;--H". "Flossary". Oracle %atabase .lient /nstallation $uide !!g 0elease ! (!!1!) for "/2 3ased S'stems 4art 5umber

3620&&)06. 4racle. http:>>download.oracle.com>docs>cd>.;HDCIO-,>install.,,,>bD;-LL>glossary.htmB typeTpopupQ.A.&./AF. 6etrie(ed ;--H-,,-,L. "The 1I7 automatically defaults to the database name portion of the global database name !sales in the example sales.us.example.com" until you reach eight characters or enter a period. :ou can accept or change the default (alue." E. ? =at)ins, .ob !;--L--,-D-". "<oo) inside A1# dis) groups with 4racle ,-g6;3s A1#'#7". techrepublic1com. U78et. http:>>articles.techrepublic.com.com>C,---,-HLHO,,-M,CE;M;.html. 6etrie(ed ;--I--L-D-. "In ,-g, 4racle introduced a new )ind of storage for its database product. Automatic 1torage #anagement !A1#" is a logical (olume manager that ta)es physical dis) partitions and manages their contents J...K *ntil A1#, there were only two choices: file system storage and raw dis) storage." ? 8yffenegger, 6enV. "'ontrol files J4racleK". 0en7 5'ffenegger#s collection of things on the web. http:>>www.adp-gmbh.ch>ora>concepts>controlfiles.html. 6etrie(ed ;--I--L-D-. "The control files of a database store the status of the physical structure of the database." ? 4racle FAA ? @nown schemas in 4racle ? 4ptimi+er plan stability definition ? 4racle3s sample schemas ? 4racle Architecture, 1ystem Flobal Area ? 4racle architecture, the library cache section ? 4racle Architecture, data dictionary cache ? 4racle architecture, 0rogram Flobal Area section ? 0FA 7efinition, 4racle 7atabase #aster Flossary ? 4racle 0rocess architecture concepts ? http:>>my.safariboo)sonline.com>ILH--L;;MD-CD>newObac)groundOprocessesOinO ,- 8iemiec, 6ichard !;--L--M-;C" ",.D-. 8ew .ac)ground 0rocesses in ,-g" Oracle %atabase !0g 4erformance *uning8 *ips 9 *echni:ues4racle 0ressp. IMLI1.8 ILH----L;;-MD-C-D http:>>my.safariboo)sonline.com>ILH--L;;MD-CD>newObac)groundOprocessesOinO ,-. 6etrie(ed ;--I--H-,; "##48 #emory #onitor process is associated with the Automatic =or)load 6epository new features used for automatic problem detection and self-tuning. ##48 writes out the re%uired statistics for A=6 on a scheduled basis." ? http:>>my.safariboo)sonline.com>ILH--L;;MD-CD>newObac)groundOprocessesOinO ,- 8iemiec, 6ichard !;--L--M-;C" ",.D-. 8ew .ac)ground 0rocesses in ,-g" Oracle %atabase !0g 4erformance *uning8 *ips 9 *echni:ues4racle

C.

M. L. H. I. ,-. ,,. ,;. ,D. ,E. ,C. ,M.

,L.

0ressp. IMLI1.8 ILH----L;;-MD-C-D http:>>my.safariboo)sonline.com>ILH--L;;MD-CD>newObac)groundOprocessesOinO ,-. 6etrie(ed ;--I--H-,; "#--- These are ##48 bac)ground sla(e !m---" processes." ,H. ? 'yran, #ichele$ 0aul <ane !;--C". "0rocess Architecture". Oracle %atabase .oncepts. 4racle 'orporation. http:>>download.oracle.com>docs>cd>.,ID-MO-,>ser(er.,-;>b,E;;->process.htmQs thref,EH,. 6etrie(ed ;--H--H-,D. "=hen a user runs an application program !such as a 0roR' program" or an 4racle tool !such as &nterprise #anager or 1A<R0lus", 4racle creates a user process to run the user3s application." ? 'yran, #ichele$ 0aul <ane !;--C". "0rocess Architecture". Oracle %atabase .oncepts. 4racle 'orporation. http:>>download.oracle.com>docs>cd>.,ID-MO-,>ser(er.,-;>b,E;;->process.htmQs thref,EH,. 6etrie(ed ;--H--H-,D. "A connection is a communication pathway between a user process and an 4racle instance." ? 'yran, #ichele$ 0aul <ane !;--C". "0rocess Architecture". Oracle %atabase .oncepts. 4racle 'orporation. http:>>download.oracle.com>docs>cd>.,ID-MO-,>ser(er.,-;>b,E;;->process.htmQs thref,EH,. 6etrie(ed ;--H--H-,D. "A session is a specific connection of a user to an 4racle instance through a user process" ? #orales, Tony !;--H". "2P1&11I48". Oracle %atabase 0eference !!g 0elease !(!!1!). 4racle. http:>>download.oracle.com>docs>cd>.;HDCIO-,>ser(er.,,,>b;HD;->dyn(iewsOD,M.htm. 6etrie(ed ;--H-,,-,L. ? 'han, Immanuel !/uly ;--H". "Flossary". Oracle %atabase 4erformance *uning $uide !!g 0elease ! (!!1!). 4racle 'orporation. http:>>download.oracle.com>docs>cd>.;HDCIO-,>ser(er.,,,>b;H;LE>glossary.htmB typeTpopupQsthref,MEI. 6etrie(ed ;--I--E-;I. "en%ueueJ:K This is another term for a loc)." ? "4racle 7atabase #aster Flossary: ,,g 6elease , !,,.,"". 4racle 'orporation. http:>>download.oracle.com>docs>cd>.;HDCIO-,>mix.,,,>b,EDHH>gloss-l.htm. 6etrie(ed ;--I--E-;E. "latchJ:K A simple, low-le(el seriali+ation mechanism to protect shared data structures in the 1ystem Flobal Area." ? 1trohm, 6ichard$ et al. !4ctober ;--H". "0arameter Files". Oracle %atabase .oncepts !!g 0elease ! (!!1!). 4racle 'orporation. http:>>download.oracle.com>docs>cd>.;HDCIO-,>ser(er.,,,>b;HD,H>intro.htmQsthr ef;D. 6etrie(ed ;--I--L-,E. "0arameter files contain a list of configuration parameters for that instance and database." ? 1trohm, 6ichard$ et al. !4ctober ;--H". "Initiali+ation 0arameter Files and 1er(er 0arameter Files". Oracle %atabase .oncepts !!g 0elease ! (!!1!). 4racle 'orporation. http:>>download.oracle.com>docs>cd>.;HDCIO-,>ser(er.,,,>b;HD,H>startup.htmQiI MDD. 6etrie(ed ;--I--L-,E.

,I.

;-.

;,.

;;.

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;E.

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;M.

? #orales, Tony$ et al. !April ;--I". "2P0A6A#&T&6". Oracle %atabase 0eference !!g 0elease ! (!!1!). 4racle 'orporation. http:>>download.oracle.com>docs>cd>.;HDCIO-,>ser(er.,,,>b;HD;->dyn(iewsO;.h tmQinsertedI7HC. 6etrie(ed ;--I--L-,E. "2P0A6A#&T&6 displays information about the initiali+ation parameters that are currently in effect for the session." ? #orales, Tony$ et al. !April ;--I". "2P100A6A#&T&6". Oracle %atabase 0eference !!g 0elease ! (!!1!). 4racle 'orporation. http:>>download.oracle.com>docs>cd>.;HDCIO-,>ser(er.,,,>b;HD;->dyn(iewsOD.h tmQinsertedI7E,. 6etrie(ed ;--I--L-,E. "2P100A6A#&T&6 displays information about the contents of the ser(er parameter file." ? "<ocale <anguages". http:>>download.oracle.com>docs>cd>.,ID-MO-,>ser(er.,-;>b,E;;C>applocaledata. htmQiMDEE;H. 6etrie(ed ;--H--;-;M. ? "&rror #essage languagues". http:>>download.oracle.com>docs>cd>.,ID-MO-,>ser(er.,-;>b,E;;C>applocaledata. htmQiMDEMLD. 6etrie(ed ;--H--;-;M. ? 1hea, 'athy$ et al1 !1eptember ;--L". "4(er(iew of Flobali+ation 1upport". Oracle %atabase $lobali;ation Support $uide !!g 0elease ! (!!1!). 4racle 'orporation. http:>>download.oracle.com>docs>cd>.;HDCIO-,>ser(er.,,,>b;H;IH>ch,o(er(iew. htmQsthrefH. 6etrie(ed ;--I--;-,M. "In the past, 4racle referred to globali+ation support capabilities as 8ational <anguage 1upport !8<1" features. 8<1 is actually a subset of globali+ation support. 8<1 is the ability to choose a national language and store data in a specific character set. Flobali+ation support enables you to de(elop multilingual applications and software products that can be accessed and run from anywhere in the world simultaneously." ? As <arry &llison said in an 4racle 4pen=orld )eynote presentation on ;--L,,-,,: "=ho3d buy a (ersion ,.- from four guys in 'aliforniaB" W a b c d e http:>>www.oracle.com>oramag>profit>-L-may>p;Lanni(Otimeline.pdf ? 'ompare http:>>www.oracle.com>oramag>profit>-L-may>p;Lanni(Otimeline.pdf ? "4racle 7atabase ,-g 1ets 8ew 6ecord for T0'-? Three T. .enchmar)". http:>>www.itmanagement.com>press-releases>oracle-tpc-h-record--M-H-M>. 6etrie(ed ;--H--,-D,. ? 4racle 7atabase 0atch 1ets W a b Freenwald, 6., 1tac)owia) 6., X 1tern, /. !;--,". 4racle &ssentials: 4racleIi, 4racleHi X 4racleH !;nd edition". 'ambridge, #A: 436eilly. ? http:>>www.oracle.com>technologies>open-source>docs>oracle-opensourceds.pdf$ but compare Informix3s claim to priority: http:>>www.linux9ournal.com>article>D,,-, retrie(ed ;--H--;-,D and that of 0olyhedra ? &nterprise &dition ? 1tandard &dition

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? 1tandard &dition 4ne ? &xpress &dition ? FAA on &xpress &dition ? "4racle 7atabase <ite ,-g". oracle1com. 4racle 'orporation. http:>>www.oracle.com>database>liteOedition.html. 6etrie(ed ;--I--M-;D. "J...K for de(eloping, deploying and managing applications for mobile and embedded en(ironments." ? 4racle database options ? 1ee download.oracle.com>docs>cd>.;HDCIO-,>license.,,,>b;H;HL>options.htmQ'I?. 7FA7 ? ""6eal Application Testing 4(er(iew"". 4racle 'orporation. August ;--L. http:>>www.oracle.com>technology>products>manageability>database>pdf>wp-L>ow pOrealOapplicationOtestingO,,g.pdf. 6etrie(ed ;--H--C-,I. ? 1ee "Term licenses" at http:>>oraclestore.oracle.com> for (arious mar)ets>countries. ? "4racle 0rogrammer>;---" !07F". 4racle 'orporation. http:>>www.alise.l(>A<I1&>mr)tinfo.nsf>M-;;aEDdb,-MDLIMc;;CMMde--DI;,D->E ;-e-DHIfHML;DHMc;;CMECe--DEEecb>PFI<&>4racleS;-0rogrammer S;-;---S;-dataS;-sheetS;-FebIL.pdf. 6etrie(ed ;--I--;-;C. "4racle 0rogrammer>;--- is a suite of programmatic interfaces that allows you to access and manipulate 4racleL data and schemas. 0rogrammer>;--- pro(ides a rich set of interfaces and supports many programming languages, allowing the programmer to use the programming language and the programming paradigm of choice." ? "4ther =ays of =or)ing with 4racle". 4racle 'orporation. http:>>download.oracle.com>docs>cd>ACHM,LO-,>ser(er.H-E>aCDL,L>ch,.htmQinde x--,C. 6etrie(ed ;--I--;-;C. "0rogrammer>;---J:K a set of DF< programming language interfaces" ? For example, 4racle 7ata Fuard counts officially as a "feature", but the command-stac) within 1A<R0lus, though a usability feature, does not appear in the list of "features" in http:>>download.oracle.com>docs>cd>.,ID-MO-,>license.,-;>b,E,II>editions.htm Q'/A'F?&. ? Alapati, 1am 6. !;--C" -,pert Oracle database !0g administrationApressp. HECI1.8 ILH,CI-CIEC,D http:>>boo)s.google.co.n+>boo)sB idTxxx-@Aw:OU#'XpgT0AHECXlpgT0AHECXd%TA1?G GActi(eG1essionG?istoryXsourceTblXotsTE7mm(Fm*L(XsigT(p4t-)(4id/oi1'-&/O)6Ty7AIXhlTenXeiTb&U1oD%.I1I)A5@oy)XsaT5XoiTboo)OresultXctTresultXresnumTHQ00AHEC,

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#,. 6etrie(ed ;--I--C-;C "... A1? records (ery recent session acti(ity !within the last fi(e or ten minutes"." C;. CD. ? 4(er(iew of 4racle 7ata 0ump ? Freenwald, 6ic)$ 6obert 1tac)owia), /onathan 1tern !8o(ember ;--L". Oracle -ssentials8 Oracle %atabase !!g. 436eilly. p. ,HE. I1.8 ILH--CIMC,ECEI. "The 7atabase 6esource #anager !76#" was first introduced in 4racleHi J...K to place limits on the amount of computer resources that can be used J...K" ? "Feature A(ailability by &dition". Oracle %atabase <icensing /nformation !!g 0elease ! (!!1!) 4art 5umber 32=2=&)0=. 4racle 'orporation. #ay ;--H. http:>>download.oracle.com>docs>cd>.;HDCIO-,>license.,,,>b;H;HL>editions.htm Q'/A'F?&.. 6etrie(ed ;--H--H-,I. ? 8anda, Arup. "Auditing Tells All". Oracle %atabase !0g8 *he *op 20 >eatures for %3"s. 4racle 'orporation. http:>>www.oracle.com>technology>pub>articles>,-gdba>wee),-O,-gdba.html. 6etrie(ed ;--H--H-,I. "...the standard audit !a(ailable in all (ersions" and the fine-grained audit !a(ailable in 4racleIi and up ..." ? http:>>www.oracle.com>technology>deploy>a(ailability>htdocs>Flashbac)O4(er(ie w.htm ? "4racle 0roduct Accessibility 1tatus: 7atabase 1er(er &nterprise &dition". 4racle 'orporation. ;--H--M--;. http:>>www.oracle.com>accessibility>templates>t,;HM.html. 6etrie(ed ;--I--E-,E. ? "4racle 7ata 0ro(ider for .8&T". 4racle 'orporation. http:>>www.oracle.com>technology>tech>windows>odpnet>index.html. 6etrie(ed ;--I--C--L. "The 4racle 7ata 0ro(ider for .8&T !470.8&T" features optimi+ed A74.8&T data access to the 4racle database." ? http:>>www.oracle.com>global>tr>support>-C,--MOA72A8'&7#&TA<I8@O'*1 T4#&6.pdf page ,-. 6etrie(ed ;--H--C--H. ? 6ea, 1tephen !;--H--I-,M". "*pgrading 4racle I.;.-.M to ,-.;.-.D on AI5 C.;". *ni(ersity of Ar)ansas. http:>>www.uaex.edu>srea>,-g6;Oupgrade.txt. 6etrie(ed ;--I--H-,,. "6un the 0reInstall chec)list for 4racle ,-.;.- !#etalin) 8ote ;C-;M;.,: 67A E - ?ealth 'hec) > 2alidation &ngine Fuide": The ?ealth 'hec) 2alidation &ngine !?'2&" rule set for 4racle 7atabase ,-g 6; !,-.;.-" 0reInstall !AI5" is described in: https:>>metalin).oracle.com>metalin)>pls%l>docs>?'2&OA;-,7.,-6;Oaix.htm" ? 1ee 4racle *ser Froup ? About the case in ?ungarian ? 1ee the published price list. ? 4racle 7atabase <icensing Information 7atabase &ditions ? Installation centos$ official 4racle =i)i

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[edit] (i%liography
<oney, @e(in !7ecember ,L, ;--H", Oracle %atabase !!g *he .omplete 0eference !,st ed.", #cFraw-?ill, p. ,DMH, I1.8 --L,CIHLCH, http:>>www.mhprofessional.com>product.phpBisbnT--L,CIHLCH, retrie(ed ;--I-I--C

[edit] E)ternal lin's

4racle 7atabase, a (iew pro(ided by 4racle 'orporation 4racle 7atabase 7ocumentation 8)ide9
(YdYe

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