CLIMATIC EFFECTS ON GROWTH

Growth is a phenomenon of change in size, weight, shape, composition and structure. It is convenient to distinguish general aspects of growth, the one in which there is accretion of body substance as such is called as growth and the other in which there is alteration in form and function and is independent of size and weight, is called as development. A) Growth: Increase in body weight. It is basically thorough effect of climate on food intake, energy utilization and protein metabolism and the summation of these effects is reflected in the form of animals weight gain. Since, the major influence of environment is on energy exchange, it might be expected that the highest weight gain would be attained at the temperature at which energy retention is at its maximum. For animals given the same amount of feed, at different temperatures, this is true. When the food is available ad libitum, however, it is usual that more of it is consumed in cold and at least some of the extra proteins it contains may be used for tissue growth. 1 Kcal energy retained as fat gives a weight gain of 0.11 gm and as proteins, it results as a production of some 0.8 gm of tissue because of water retained with it. This difference gives overwhelming importance to proteins. How much of the extra proteins consumed in the cold is used for anabolic purposes, depends on dietary circumstances and on the magnitude of the increase of food intake in relation to the higher energy requirement. Table: Gains of protein, E and B.W. in chicks of 6 to 15 days of age in relation to environmental temperature. S.N. 1. 2. 3. Temperature (Co) Protein deposition (g / 24 hrs) Energy retention ( Kcal / 24 hrs) Body weight gain ( g / 24 hrs) 21 1.10 6.9 4.88 27 1.08 10.4 4.64 32 0.97 11.8 4.39 38 0.79 8.7 2.97 40 0.68 6.7 2.91

This table shows that energy retention at 21Co was only 58% of that at 32 Co , however, as a result of increased food intake, protein deposition and also growth rate reached maximum values at 21 Co. With meat producing animals, the relation between environmental temperature and growth rate is of considerable economic importance. Experiment: There is a clearly defined range of temperature within which pigs grew more rapidly. ### Younger pigs with ad libitum feed 20 to 25 Co Older pigs 12 to 20 Co

The temperature giving maximum growth is clearly lower and at the same there is higher overall growth rate of animal. This is same as that of previous assumption that There is a downward shift of the thermoneutral zone with increasing food intake. (Thermoneutral zone: It is the range of environmental temperature in which the animal regulates its body temperature without much alteration in its heat production. Upper critical temperature: The environmental temperature at which physical ways of heat loss (conduction, convection and dessipation) are not sufficient and heat is lost by sweating and panting. Lower critical temperature: The environmental temperature at which chemical means of heat production starts.) At temperatures above optimum temperature a decrease in growth rate of young pigs is evident, the effect with older pigs was not investigated. But in other experiments it has shown that the effect is more pronounced in older pigs. In general, fattening cattle of European beef breeds grow uniformly in minus 5 to 20 Co when they are protected from extremes of wind and precipitation. For younger growing animals a lower limit of 0 Co is considered preferable. Young calves required 10 to 25 Co. B )Development: Change in body form & function without any change in size & Weight. There are characteristic differences in appearance between animals which have grown up in different climates. Those in the cold, typically appear short and thickset, with rough coats while, those in warm are long, lean and sleek coated. Other visible changes involve the size of ears, tail & other appendages. Some of these differences are of measurable value to the animals in conserving or desipating heat & represent adaptive responses to an unfavorable environment. 1) Body composition: Lean and fat The changes in the rates of proteins and fat deposition which occur as a consequence of changes of environmental. temperature are naturally reflected in the body composition of the animal. It is the generalized statement that the deposition of the protein is proportionately less retarded by environmental stress than that of fat. Therefore, it is to be expected that the animals will be fattest in a thermoneutral environment and that the departure from the zone 0f thermoneutrality will result in leaner animals. One interesting point is that the body fat of a variety of animals living in cold climates has a lower melting point & contains a higher proportion of the liquid and unsaturated fatty acids. Exact mechanism is not known but probably, the thermoregulatory heat is largely produced by oxidation of body fat, it may be that the mobilization of triglycerides for this purpose is at least somewhat selective.

2) Weights of organs: Generally, it is said that visceral organs are enlarged as a result of cold exposure. Hypertrophy of lungs, heart, liver and kidney has been noted in many species. These changes may be of adaptive significance. A chronically elevated metabolic rate means more work for the organs of respiration and circulation. The effect on heart, lungs and spleen may be explained as a form of work hypertrophy, the organs growing to meet the demands made of it. Furthermore, since the food intake is normally increased by cold exposure, the increased sizes of liver and kidneys may be similarly viewed. This is because, there is evidence for the adjustments of the sizes of these organs in response to the load put on them. All such changes are difficult to describe, since it is highly difficult to decide which reference base should be used to compare the sizes of the organs. In some degree, organ size can be expected to be related allometrically to the size of the body as a whole. The effect of temperature can hen be measured as a deviation from a allometric growth (This is the assumption made in covariance analysis).However, its use for organs like muscles is questionable. Thus these assumptions of allometry can be checked by comparing the components of reference base. Eg. Muscle: Bone ratio, Muscles: Bone: Gut ratio and so on.

EFFECT OF ENVIRONMENT ON VARIOUS FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR GROWTH As we have studied earlier that effect of climate on growth especially includes effect of environment on food intake, energy utilization and protein metabolism, the details of which are as follows. Appetite and food intake: Animals react to change in their climatic environment most importantly by adjusting their voluntary intake of food.

As heat production increased directly with amount of food consumed, it is clear that this behavior greatly modify the relation between animals environment, its energy metabolism and growth. Adverse effect of low temperature on growth is to some extent mitigated by increased food intake. It is also helpful in part, for compensating increased energy expenditure incurred in cold environment. Growth rate is thus less impaired by cold weather when the animals have ad libitum food than when they are provided with restricted food. Food consumption increases initially (below critical temperature lower limit of thermoneutral zone ) at a constant rate with falling temperature. But in extreme cold it is up to a limit set by the animals inherent capacity to ingest and digest the food. Above thermoneutral zone food intake declines steeply with rising temperature and may fall to zero (Food intake- Nil) in animals subjected to thermal stress.

Available evidences suggest that slight cooling of the environment may elicit overcompensation for the extra heat produced at lower temperature. However, the rate of increase of caloric intake with falling temperature seems always to be less than that of heat production. Energy utilization: The energy which an animal receives in its food can follow one of the three courses. 1. Lost in excreta (Less). 2. Emitted as heat. 3. Retained in the form of body substance.( 1 Kcal energy retained as fat gives a weight gain of 0.11 gm and as proteins, gives a weight gain of about 0.8 gm.) Environment affects both food intake and energy production and hence energy retention. Energy losses through excreta are by comparison very less. A fall of digestibility of about 0.1% units/ oc fall of temperature has commonly observed. (In certain cases there is no influence on digestibility). Energy losses in urine may be slightly increased in cold, particularly in cases where more urea is excreted in urine. Thermoregulatory heat is produced by combustion of fat rather than that of carbohydrates and proteins. In animals kept at two different temperatures, but provided with same amount of food, the amount of energy retention is inversely proportional to heat production. When food is given ad libitum the decline in energy retention with fall in temperature is less severe. The net energy i.e. increase in the energy retention corresponding to unit increment of food energy supplied is more with fall in temperature. As temperature falls heat production becomes independent of feed intake; there is no heat increment and net energy is equal to metabolizable energy. At high temperature heat production increases most rapidly at the high feeding level and gives a reduced net energy. Protein utilization: Growth is synonymous to synthesis of proteins. If protein is derived from synthetic process to provide heat for thermoregulation then the growth will be impaired. It is proved that thermoregulatory heat can be produced without incurring protein catabolism. In adults, synthesis of tissue proteins proceeds at slower rate, which is sufficient to meet inevitable losses from skin and hair and endogenous losses in digestive tract. Thus, environmental cold has correspondingly little effect on protein utilization. In growing animals, there is high rate of tissue protein synthesis. Utilization of dietary proteins can be improved, when extra dietary energy is supplied. This is called Protein sparing action of dietary energy. This is probably due to1. The more non protein calories are supplied, the smaller is the contribution of proteins to total energy supply. 2. Certain amount of energy in the form of ATP is required to activate the amino acids and to form the peptide bonds which link them together in the protein molecule. Energy is also required for synthesis of non essential amino acids from simpler molecules. Although, these requirements are low, approximately about 1 to 2 Kcal/gm of protein formed, they may give rise to some dependence of protein synthesis on E supply. 3. Since, CHO promotes nitrogen retention superiorly than fat, it is suggested that the carbohydrate effect is mediated by insulin, which also stimulate protein synthesis.

Exposure to cold environment, by increasing energy expenditure, reduces the amount of energy available to provide protein sparing effect. In many cases a low temperature, reduces the nitrogen retention of growing animals. How much it is reduced in a given environment depends on amount of food being given. At extremes, of maintenance ration and ad libitum diet, all to nil will be the catabolism of proteins. Second factor affecting utilization of dietary protein in cold is protein content of the diet. In general, the higher the protein content of the diet, the more is the dependence of nitrogen retention on energy supply and the more severely it is impaired in an adverse environment.

Physical regulation in adaptation to the climatic environment It is assumed that for any given animal there is a climatic environment for which that animal is physiologically best suited. Thus, there are some specific changes for the adaptation of individuals to climatic environment. Three basic kind of adaptation for the animals living in adverse climate are: 1. Physical regulation 2. Chemical regulation 3. Applicable only for cold weather in which animal may increase its food intake, so that inspite of an increase energy expenditure, growth may be unimpaired, which we have already discussed. 1. PHYSICAL REGULATION: The insulation provided by the coat increases with its depth, so that one possible adaptation lies in growing more or less hairs, fur or wool, according to the climatic circumstances. The coats of many large animals have been observed to thicken as winter approaches. Prolonged exposure to cold can lead to the toleration of lower skin temperature and thereby enhanced tissue insulation. Here the role is of cutaneous blood flow. At the temperature above thermoneutral zone problem of heat dissipation arise. In some cases full vasodilatation may not completely short circuit the insulation of s/c tissues. There is little advantage to lean animals in which s/c fat is less. Insulative adaptations: Also called tropic adaptations. Heat tolerance can be improved by reduction in insulation of coat but such adaptation is very less. Vaporization is most important form of physical regulation of heat which is thought to be applicable efficiently to man rather than any domestic/ farm animals, when exposed to prolonged heat.

Pigs grew larger ears in hot environment. Calves reared at 260c have higher surface area of ear and tail than those reared at 150c.

Such experiments indicate that the regional body cooling plays important role in such adaptation. Body coat is not of uniform thickness allover, it is thickest on dorsal trunk and thinnest on lower legs, tail, face and ears. Hence, in hot heat loss is disproportionate, from these areas. If such animals are kept chronically in hot, these thin areas become larger than those when kept in cool or neutral conditions. Such adaptations are called as tropic adaptations. Metabolic adaptations: Heat stress is aggrivated by high resting metabolic rate. Thus decrease in BMR is an aid to thermal stability in heat as a result of decreased food intake. Thus, reduction in food intake in hot is a form of metabolic acclimatization associated with lowering of thyroid activity.( Certain changes that takes place in the body of the animal when it is exposed to adverse climatic conditions for a period of few weeks ( called acclimation); for a period of few months ( called acclimatization) and for a period of few years ( called adaptations). This metabolic adaptation is major in small animals, whereas, insulative adaptation is major in large domestic animals.

Nonshivering Thermogenesis: In unacclimatized animals exposed to cold, thermoregulatory heat is provided by shivering. As this exposure to cold is continued, shivering generally disappears, but the elevation of the metabolism persists. This is Nonshivering Thermogenesis. OR When animals are chronically exposed to cold, they develop an ability to increase heat production without shivering. Increased metabolism is mediated through, increased thyroxin secretion and calorogenic effects of catecholamines on lipids. It has advantage over shivering thermogenesis that it avoids increase in convective heat loss associated with movement of the skin in shivering. Nonshivering Thermogenesis in newborn of several species is associated with particular kind of fatty tissue (brown adipose tissue/ brown fat). Brown fat is specialized vascular, mitochondria rich fat found between the scapulae of smaller mammals. Catecholamines increase metabolism of all fats but particularly of brown fat. The heat is thought to be produced by esterification and hydrolysis of triglycerides. This brown fat is also a source of heat production in all hibernators when they are in the state of hibernation. 2. CHEMICAL REGULATION:

It refers to (a) Thermoregulatory heat production

(b) Various hormonal controls It starts particularly when environmental temperature is below the lower critical temperature and the heat is produced for environmental demand . it is brought about by the increased metabolism . The hormonal effect leads to vasoconstriction or vasodilation in cutaneous area. However, effect of hormone is common to physical, chemical and nutritional

regulation. Therefore in such condition, metabolism is the only and complete regulatory mechanism in major and where the evaporative loss is minimum. But the heat loss is increases with fall in environmental temperature (reason thermal gradient) The summit of metabolism is the highest rate at which the animal produces heat of its maximal capability, beyond which fall in temperature of the environment becomes intolerable and may lead to death. When the environmental temperature is more than the body temperature, environmental looses its heat to the body to which the animal responds by evaporation. In such cases evaporation prevents rise in body temperature. The rate of evaporation increases with rise in environmental temperature and attains its maximum rate of evaporation. Any further rise in environmental temperature produces increase in metabolism by Vant Hoffs Law adding further heat production and leading to aggravation of condition which may culminate in to death . [Vant Hoffs Law For every 100c rise in environmental temperature, there will be an increase in the metabolism by about 50%]

EFFECT OF CLIMATE ON GROWTH (Abstract) IMP

Body growth is affected by 1. Temperature Effects are mediated through 1. Amount of food and water intake. 2. Availability of potential energy in ingested forage. 3. The animals heat production system. 4. The net energy available for productivity. 5. The body composition of growing animals. Effect of heat: The optimal ambient temperature range of 170 to 400C is the one Where, in general, growth rate is greatest. Growth of the animals after weaning is stunted due to high environmental temperatures. The degree varies with the breed, age, fatness, plane of nutrition and R.H. e.g. In European cattle growth is depressed at 240C, the effect increases with rise in temperature and weight gain ceases at 290C to 320C whereas, the cattle in tropics (Brahman cattle) have lower ate of metabolism so rate of weight gain is faster. They can make efficient use of food ingested. Mechanisms of effect of temperature Effect on prenatal growth: e.g. Miniature calves are born to European cattle not adapted to tropics. Young ones born are feeble, unable to suckle. Birth weight of animals in temperate zone varies due to seasonality in caloric intake of dam during pregnancy.e.g. Pregnant ewes 2. Humidity 3. Air movement 4. Radiation.

(breed dependant) exposed to high environmental temperature gives miniature lambs. Effects may be due to placental defects, reduced blood supply, pituitary insufficiency or excess corticoids. Body composition: Environmental temperature influences the chemical composition of the animal.(Animal will be fattest in thermoneutral environment and leaner animals if they are reared in an environment away from thermoneutrality, protein will be less affected). E.g. weight gain in chicken at 210C is more than that of 320C, largely due to retention of proteins along with water. Cold environment is effective lipotropic agent. E.g. adipose tissue in growing rat reared at 210C is more than that at 270C. In lactating animals such reserves are depleted; more in summer. Quality of carcass is better at constant optimal temperature and R.H. e.g. swine grown at 240C & 90% R.H. had low quality carcass than those at 230C & 50% R.H. Weight of organs: Cold exposure causes hypertrophy of lungs, heart, liver and kidneys. Elevated metabolic rate means more work for organs of respiration and circulation. Food intake is increased in cold, therefore liver and kidney are affected to cope up with the load. Nutritional and metabolic mechanisms: Nutritional requirements of animal are dependent on environmental temperature. At higher temperature reduction or cessation of body growth is due to 1) Reduction in voluntary food intake. 2) Increase respiration for increase heat dissipation resulting in increase energy expenditure. 3) Decrease in nitrogen, fat and water. 4) Changes in differential growth of body organs. 5) Metabolic changes as reflected in blood glucose, plasma sodium, potassium and nitrogen, nitrogen retention, water intake, urine excretion, liver glycogen etc. 6) Higher the temperature, thyroidal activity, glutathione enzyme in cells, redox potential of cells, stability of cell membrane. Overall effect of this on growth is retardation. Effect of air movement: Wind can be harmful to unsheltered animals at low Temperatures and when they are wet. e.g. In absence of moisture on the hair and hide, air movement at speed of 14 Km/hr at a temperature as low as -8 0C has no adverse effect on cattle. Winds of 7 Km/hr retard growth of young fowl during the fall and winter season, less effect during spring and no effect during summer.

EFFECT OF CLIMATE ON PRODUCTION

Wool Growth: Maximum environmental temperature is in summer and minimum in Winter. ( Thyroid, Adrenal and growth hormone). Pregnancy reduces wool growth in winter, lactation in spring delays it. Wool growth also depends upon available feed during season and plane of nutrition. Shorter day length wool growth independent of temperature. Egg production: Environment has effect on age and weight of birds at sexual maturity, total number of eggs laid per clutch, per season, per year and also on egg weight. Pullets hatched during winter, summer and fall mature sexually at an earlier age than those hatched during spring. Increase in day length advances the onset of sexual

maturity. There will be in egg weight at high temperature. As far as egg composition is concerned the albumen content is during winter; yolk is not affected. shell thickness with higher temperature (e.g. 320C ). Eggs from birds raised at constant temperature have greatest fertility and hatchability. Eggs can be best stored at 100 to 120C for two weeks as it maintains blastoderm viability. hatchability if stored at 200 to 350C. Milk production: All mammalian species show seasonal variation in milk production. It depends on species, breed, degree of tolerance to heat or cold e.g. Indian cattle breeds can tolerate 320C, Jersey and Brown Swiss 240 to 370C, Holstein 210C. In general milk production decreases approximately 1 Kg for each degree ( 0C) rise in rectal temperature. Also more marked by high humidity than low. Reasons: Fall in feed intake, forage quality, water intake and thyroid activity and physiological response for adjustment to high ambient temperature. Milk composition: environmental temperature and different levels of relative humidity (R.H.) results in in NPN, palmitic acid and stearic acid, in butter fat, total solids, SNF, Total Nitrogen, lactose, short chain fatty acids, oleic acid, citric acid, calcium and potassium. environmental temperature results in butter fat %, total solids, total nitrogen, SNF. Importance in dairy Industry: E.g. citrate and phosphate in proportion to calcium and magnesium will cause coagulation of milk during sterilization and pasteurization. Reproduction and environment: Semen production: In summer, quality of semen is inferior in Rams, Stallion, Cattle, Buffalo etc. It is related to thyroid activity. Bovine semen frozen in the fall gives higher conception rate than that in winter. In all domestic species spermatogenesis is depressed at body temperature. Testicular epithelium degenerates, primary spermatocytes are most sensitive. The scrotum behaves like a thermostat: cremaster and dartos muscles contract and hold testes close to body at 60C or low ambient temperature or relax to drop testes away from the body at air temperature of 240C or above. Apart from this Pampiniform plexus also helps in keeping the temperature of testes lower than the body temperature. Difference between abdominal temperature and testicular temperature is maximum in Rodents (80 to 90C), intermediate in Rabbit and Ram (60 to 70C) and minimal in Cattle and Macaque monkey (20C). Female reproduction: Puberty: of animals in tropics is delayed due to slow growth rate (weight attained at puberty should be related). Sexual season: Sexual activities in mammals controlled by dark light ratio. E.g. Sheep, goats, equines are seasonal breeders and cattle, swine and rabbit exhibit estrus throughout the year.

 Estrous Cycle and Ovulation: Heat stress in cattle shortens the duration of estrus, incidence of quiet ovulations (Silent heat). In seasonal breeders and polytocous species, the ovulation rate is affected. eg. In sheep ovulation rate is maximum near middle of sexual season. Fertilization and conception: Thermal stress causes morphological abnormalities of eggs. eg. Shrunken cytoplasm, ruptured vitelline membrane or zona pellucida. Fertilization rate is reduced in sheep. In cattle the conception rate is greater in spring than in summer. In tropics and subtropics conception rate in buffalo during summer is lowest. Gestation and fetal development: Extremely high temperature causes lowering of fertility, litter size, abortion and fetal resorption. Hyperthermia during pregnancy, if occurs when organogenesis is in progress i.e. in early post-implantation period then it causes malformations. In hot climate, the later maturing parts i.e. lion and rump are definitely stunted. Such animals have smaller pelvis and are unsuitable for accommodating young ones. High ambient temperature acts directly on Milieu interieur than embryo itself. Neonatal survival: Efficiency of neonate to make thermoregulatory adjustments
depends upon degree of physical immaturity of species at birth.eg. sheep and swine are susceptible to low ambient temperature; lambs and calves are susceptible to high ambient temperature.

Certain terms /definition:1) Poikilotherms /Cold blooded animals: - The animals in which body temperature fluctuate according to the environmental temperature E.g. fish, snail, insect etc. 2) Homeotherms / Warm blooded animals: - The animals, which maintain their body temperature almost constant and which does not fluctuate according to the environmental temperature E.g. Mammals and birds 3) Endothermic animals: - These animals can able to maintain a high body temperature by internal heat production. 4) Exothermic Animals: -Body temperature of these animals depends on external heat sources primarily solar radiation for maintaining high body temperature 5) Heterothermic Animals: - Animals that at a time have high and well-regulated body temperature. But at certain other times are more like cold-blooded animals, are often called as heterothermic animals.

6) Weather: - It is a day to day state of atmosphere and pertain to short term changes in the condition of heat, moisture and air movement. OR It is defined as specific, temporary combination of certain metrological factors like temperature, humidity, air movement, radiation, precipitation and pressure. 7) Atmosphere: - It is a deep blanket of the gases, suspended liquids and solids that entirely envelope the earth. It is as much a part of earth as much occupied by the land and oceans. 8) Climate: - It is the aggregate of atmospheric condition involving heat, moisture and air movement. 9) Climatology: - It is the science that seeks to describe and explain the nature of climate, why it differs from place to place and how it is related to the other elements of natural environment and to human activities. It involves the collection and interpretation of observed data, whether for developing generalization or for testing the theories. It requires instruments and statistical techniques. 10) Hibernation: - It refers to a tropic condition with substantial stop in metabolic rate. The temperature of hibernating animals a show great variation even in the warm blooded state and is very much dependent upon the activity of the animal. It is inactive stage of piokilotherms. OR It is sleep like winter inactivity of animals with minimum BMR. E.g. Frog, rodents, hamsters etc. 11) Milieu interieur: - Internal environment of the entire body. This term coined by Claude Bernard(1878). 12) Homeostasis: (Coined by Cannon, 1932) Ability of the animal to maintain a constant body condition or status of the entire body (such as body weight, blood pressure, body temperature etc.) in presence of diverse, disruptive external environmental influences. The concept of homeostasis includes heat balance and thermoregulation, chemical balance of water, carbon compounds & electrolytes; circulatory balance of cardiovascular activities.

13) Ecology: is the branch of biology that deals with the relation of living things to their environment, their habits and their mode of life. When concerned with the domestic animals, ecology includes their relationship to human society and economy and in particular their productivity.

Ecology is divided into two branches o Autecology/species ecology/self ecology

It is a study of interaction between a single species with its environment. It is primarily experimental. Synecology/population ecology/biocenology/biosociology It is the study of group or community of organisms and their relationship with each other and to their common environment.

14) Environmental physiology: deals with the surrounding conditions that affect the structures and organ functions of humans and animals. Environment includes physical, chemical and biological elements that surround the animals and is therefore included in the study of animal ecology. The components of the environment either promote or impair the performance of the animal.

Heredity and environment o Animals are the products of heredity and environment. Heredity pattern is a product of environment as the environment conditions mutation and selection of survival rate. This makes the animal to adapt to different climatic regions, e.g., animals evolved in colder regions are adapted to cold and have abundant wool and subcutaneous fat. Animals adapted to hot weather have sparse wool and subcutaneous fat. The environment of an animal affects the degree of the genetic potential determining the optimum climate and environment required for maximum production of the animals.

15) Bioclimatology : deals with the inter relationships between climate, soil, plants and animals. 16) Microclimate and Macroclimate: Macroclimate is one, which can be studied by measurements with the help of physical instruments and that which includes climatic environment at large. Microclimate is private climate or weather, which surrounds the animal at the confined place, at precise time. It related with ability of animal to protect itself from so called unfavorable or intolerable climatic conditions. The animals respond to macroclimate and make it favorable by changing the microclimate around them.