Chapter 2: Welcome to China

China is the home of the first worldview we will study: balanced dualism. There are two major Chinese philosophies that express the worldview of balanced dualism in different ways: Daoism and Confucianism. Both of these philosophies have been very influential in shaping the worldview of surrounding cultures. And both of them teach the need for balance between two parts: a balanced dualism. The word dual means two of, having two different parts or sides, or a matched pair. The word dualism refers to a philosophical theory that the world is made of two different forces. Just as a magnet has two poles: positive and negative; so everything in the world has two forces. The classical Chinese expression of this is yin/yang. DualDualism Many cultures believe in a basic dualism. Western cultures often talk about good and evil as a basic duality. The conflict between good and evil is a seed idea in many western cultures. This conflict may be seen in beliefs about God versus the devil, or good guys versus bad guys. The western view results in a competitive view of the world. The traditional Chinese worldview is based on a complementary or balanced view of the two forces. Balance means that two things are evenly distributed in weight or in correct proportion to each other. There are three possible kinds of balance: (1) absolute balance, (2) balance over time, and (3) harmony. 12 (3) An absolute balance is when two things are exactly equal. 2+2 = 3+1 is a balanced equation. The positive and negative poles of a magnet are exactly balanced. A balance scale weighs

something by finding a standard weight to which is exactly equal.

 2+2 = 3+1 Balance over time means that two things are not equal to each other at any point of time but there is equality over a long period of time. For example, day and night are balanced within a 24 hour period, though at the moment only one is happening. The four seasons are balanced within a year, though only one is happening at a time. In a conversation between two people, there is a balance between talking and listening, though at the moment each person is doing only one. A lifetime might be viewed as a balance when a person has passed through all the stages of infancy, childhood, adulthood, and old age. 24 The third type of balance is harmony. Harmony involves a blending of differences that produce a unified whole with a beautiful affect. In music, different voices in a choir blend to produce harmony. Different tones blend to produce a musical chord. In art, different colors or shapes placed beside each other blend to produce a beautiful painting. In a discussion, different viewpoints may combine to provide a more complete and consistent perspective. (Of course, not all discussions achieve harmony, but it is good when they do.) In life, there may be a harmony of conditions: happy events and sad events occurring simultaneously to produce a full human experience. Which of these three types of balance is best expressed in the traditional Chinese worldviews? Yin and yang are often seen as balanced over time: day and night, the four seasons. Human society is often seen as a harmonious balance: male and female: friend and friend. Chinese worldviews teach a complementary dualism in which the two sides cooperate to achieve harmony. Balanced dualism is the seed idea of the traditional Chinese worldviews. In a complementarian dualism, the two sides are different from each other with each having unique strengths and weaknesses. The strengths of the one match the weaknesses of the other. Together they build on each others strengths to produce a stronger whole. The combined strength is the sum of the uniqueness of eachbut only if combined in a cooperative way.

 Unlike the competitive dualism of the western worldviews, Chinese dualism relies on cooperation to achieve balance or harmoniousness. This balance has traditionally been described in different ways. Lao-tzu taught a dualism of equals in which one part needs the other part to exist. Yin and yang need each other. Confucius taught a hierarchical dualism, in which one part is superior to the other and each has complementary duties to the other. For Confucius filial piety was the best expression of balanced dualism. These two philosophers each developed their views of balance based upon a model of what the world is like. For Lao-tzu, the model of reality is nature. For Confucius, the model of reality is the family. These different starting points led them to quite different philosophies of life. Confucius focused on the correct use of strength. Lao-tzu focused on the power of weakness. We will study each more closely.

Lao-tzu and Daoism.

What do these things have in common: water, a cup, a door, and a pendulum? These are all ways Lao-tzu described the dao. The dao is the essential principle upon which the natural world functions. The dao is a single thing which is the source of everything. It is the centerpoint of all things. The dao that can be spoken of is not the eternal dao; The name that can be named is not the unchanging name. The nameless is the origin of Heaven and Earth. The named is the mother of the ten thousand things. From non-being, therefore we observe the mysterious beginning of the universe; From being, we clearly see the apparent distinctions. (Tao-te-ching 1)

 1 The dao is a single thing, but it the source of the multitude of apparent distinctions. The dao consists of two complementary parts: yin and yang. These can be combined into eight variations known as bagua. All the variations in the world (the ten thousand things) are expressions of the combinations of the duality: yin and yang, and ultimately of the centerpoint, the dao. Yin and yang are usually depicted as a circle with black and white halves each shaped like a comma. The two parts represent the three forms of balance we described earlier. First, absolute equality, they are exactly equal in size. Second, balance over time, the yin/yang circle can be imagined as rotating. When either the yin part or the yang part is at its largest, the other part is beginning to grow. This is a good picture of the four seasons: when summer seems strongest, winter is just beginning to occur. Third, the black and white parts combine to create a beautiful whole. They complement each other. They need each other to exist. Where do we see this duality in nature? Yang/ yin Heaven /earth Light /dark Day /night Dry/ wet Summer /winter Hot /cold Male /female Sun /moon Aggressive/ passive Hard / soft Good/ bad / / /
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/ / / / / / / / / Actually, one of these pairs is incorrect, not yang/ yin. Which one? The last one is wrong. Though many people assume that the dualism of yang and yin includes good and bad, it does not. That is a western way of thinking: good versus evil. Yang and yin are both good. Both need to exist in balance for the universe to function correctly. The only bad is an imbalance of the two. Lao-tzu used several natural metaphors to teach the need for balance. Humans tend to favor the yang things: aggressive, hard, hot, masculine things. People tend to admire strong leaders. Lao-tzu encouraged us to value the yin things as well. In fact, he might be accused of a bias toward yin. For example, what does water teach us about the dao? Water seems weak. It is passive and soft. It flows downward by taking the easiest path. A rock, by contrast, seems strong and hard. It doesnt move. But what happens if water flows over rock? Over time, erosion destroys the rock. The water always wins! Two other examples used by Lao-tzu are the cup and the door. What do you think of when you think of a cup? Probably you think of the physical cup. But Lao-tzu says the most important part of the cup is the empty space between the sides. Without the empty space the cup could not hold tea. In the same way, the most important part of a door is not the actual door but the empty space between the door frame. We use a door by walking through the empty hole it creates in the wall. Lao-tzu is saying that the weak things are also valuable, also strong. He made a similar

point as he refers to yin as the return to the center of the dao. In a pendulum the weight swings away from the center and then returns to the center. It takes an active force (yang) to push the weight away, but then the passive force (yin) brings it back to dao, the centerpoint. Society admires those who are masculine, strong and activist, those who create change; but Lao-tzu prefers those who are yin, female, passive, restoring the center. The tao-te-ching calls this principle non-action (wu wei). Non-action is the path of water, the way of the

dao.
The Tao-te-ching applies this idea to politics by comparing governmental leadership to cooking a fish (chapter 60). What is the best way to cook a fish? Dont overcook it. Use the minimal amount of heat to cook it. What is the best way to govern a cou ntry? Dont overgovern. Use the minimal amount of force or regulation. Let nature take its course. 60 The teachings of Laotzi developed along new paths, leading to feng shui, fortune telling, and various forms of magic. We will study those developments later.

Confucius and Filial Piety

The other model of basic reality which has had a great influence on Chinese culture is the family. The teachings of Confucius view the whole society as though it were a family. Even the King rules his people as though he were their father and they were his children. Confucius worldview was both similar to and very different from that of Lao-tzu. He believed in the dao but understood it in different ways. He was not interested in abstract philosophy about dao as a mysterious force that generated the universe. Confucius did not favor non-action or passivity. He taught that a good leader serves as a gentleman. Perhaps the largest difference between the worldviews of Confucius and Lao-tzu is the way Confucius understood balance. In Confucius worldview dualism consists of dyads or role-pairs. Every person participates in five basic paired relationships: king-citizen, husband-wife, father-son, elder brother-younger brother, and friend-friend.

 Confucius ethical system of ethics is based on the proper behavior of people in these paired relationships. There are mutual obligations assigned to each side of these role-pairs. A good person is one who fulfills the duties and rituals (li ) associated with his or her relationships. ,,,, Four of the five pairs are hierarchical in nature, meaning one person in the pair is ranked above the other. Each of them has duties to perform toward the other. The Higher ranked individual is responsible to care for, lead, teach, protect and provide for the lower ranked one. The lower ranked individual is responsible to respect and obey the higher ranked one. The model for how a younger person treats an elder is filial piety ( = + ). What does filial piety mean in your family? to be good to one's parents; to take care of one's parents; to engage in good conduct not just towards parents but also outside the home so as to bring a good name to one's parents and ancestors; to perform the duties of one's job well so as to obtain the material means to support parents as well as carry out sacrifices to the ancestors; not be rebellious; show love, respect and support; display courtesy; ensure male heirs, uphold fraternity among brothers; wisely advise one's parents, including dissuading them from moral unrighteousness; display sorrow for their sickness and death; and carry out sacrifices after their death. (Wikipedia) Filial piety specifically applies to the father-son relationship, but a similar list of duties that show proper respect (li) can be defined for each of the five basic relationships. The king is like a father to his people: protecting and providing for them, receiving their respect and obedience. So, in the teachings of Confucius balanced dualism means a harmonious balance of obligations between people in paired relationships. Confucius taught that when each person fulfills their duties, their relationships will be harmonious and society will function smoothly.

In Confucius teaching, harmoniousness is not only an outer goal for society, it is also an inner goal for each person. A gentleman develops a character of ren : humane, moral empathy viewing others as equal in value to himself. Inner balance is defined as living according to the mean. The goal of the mean is to maintain balance and harmony, directing the mind to a state of constant equilibrium. The person who follows the mean is on a path of duty and must never leave it. A superior person is cautious, a gentle teacher and shows no contempt for their inferiors. They always do what is natural according to their status in the world. Even common men and women can carry the mean into their practices, as long as they do not exceed their natural order (Wikipedia: doctrine of the mean. Internet Sacred Text Archive, 2008). 2008 To put the world in order, we must first put the nation in order; to put the nation in order, we must put the family in order; to put the family in order, we must cultivate our personal life; and to cultivate our personal life, we must first set our hearts right.

Confucius taught that the good person should always act in a moral way, never in a selfish way. However, he acknowledged that this was difficult, and that he had not reached this moral perfection. In conclusion, the worldviews of Daoism and Confucianism share the seed idea of Balanced Dualism. They see reality as composed of matched pairs which complement each other.

Ideally these pairs cooperate not compete with each other. For reality to function well, a balance is needed between the two halves of each matched pair. In Daoist teaching the basic model of balanced dualism is the yin/yang symbol. The two halves are equally balanced over time, though one or the other may be dominant at any moment of time. Lao-tzus teaching emphasized the yin because its passivity restores the balance of the dao. The weaker forces, like water, ultimately overcome the stronger ones. Confucius teaching emphasizes the yang: the father is supreme. Using his strength the father (or the king or the husband) acts on behalf of his children (or citizens or his wife). Balanced Dualism: an analysis. In the introductory chapter we listed ten questions we will use to analyze each worldview: (1) What is real? What is the basic reality? 1 (2) What is the nature of the physical universe? 2 (3) What are human beings? What is human nature? 3 (4) What is the basic human problem and the solution to that problem? 4 (5) What will happen after we die? Is there an afterlife? 5 (6) How do we know anything? What is truth? How do we learn it?

6 (7) What is morality? Why is something thought of as right or wrong? 7 (8) What is history? Is there a plan or purpose for our lives? If so, how do we find that purpose? 8 (9) What is the seed idea? Are there central concepts from which the rest of the worldview begins? 9 (10) What are the social movements that express this worldview?

10 We will often look at these questions in different order based on the most important concepts in each worldview. Often we will begin with the last question: what movements are examples of this worldview? Question 10: What social movements express this worldview? The two most obvious examples are Daoism and Confucianism. Both of these movements started as philosophies, expressing the core teachings of the worldview. The writings of Lao-tzu and Confucius were greatly expanded by their followers over the course of centuries. Eventually both philosophical movements developed into religions with temples, priests, rituals, and patterns of worship. 10 Contemporary Chinese examples of this worldview are traditional medicine and the disciplines of taiji, both of which attempt to maintain a balance of forces within the body. These ideas are beginning to be accepted in western medicine with an emphasis on a balanced lifestyle to prevent disease. Contemporary environmental movements also resemble this worldview. The view of our planet as an ecosystem in which life depends on the elements of clean air, water, and soil, and in which plant and animal species inter-relate in a balanced system necessary for survival. While these movements may not describe the need for harmoniousness in Chinese terminology, they clearly share common beliefs. Question 9: What is the seed idea of this worldview? The name balanced dualism expresses the core concept that the universe is made up of matched pairs of energies, people or things. These pairs are complementary in nature and therefore need to be kept in balance for the entire system to function well. The most basic set of matched pairs is the concept of yang and yin. Many common dualities, such as hot and cold, male and female, are identified as either yang or yin. 9

Question 1: Basic Reality (what is really real?) Chinas ancient philosophers spoke of the dao, a basic principle that underlies the universe. Dao is the pattern of behavior found in nature. Dao should be the pattern of proper behavior found in society. In the book Dao de jing () the dao is described as the essential, mysterious force which is the source and pattern for everything else. 1:() Question 2: The external world: (what is the physical universe like?) The material and social worlds are visible expressions of the dao and of yin-yang. Since these principles are built into nature, it is necessary to live in harmony with the principles to have a happy and successful life. 2 Question 3: Human Nature (what does it mean to be human-- really?) Humans are part of the natural world. Forces of yin and yang are present in our physical bodies. Our bodies are a miniature universe. 3 Humans are part of the social world. Throughout our life we pass through a series of role pairs (relationships) that dictate our duties to others. These duties are called li. Understanding and fulfilling our duties is the basis of social harmony. Human nature is basically good, but it is the responsibility of rulers, parents and teachers to protect and teach the younger ones in their care. ( at a later time some Chinese philosophies would disagree with this positive view of human nature) Question 4: What is the human problem and the solution to that problem? When humans stray from the dao, when the yin and yang forces become out of balance, our bodies become sick, our societies become oppressive, and nature becomes unsupportive. The basic problem is a lack of harmony (loss of balance). 4: The solution is a restoration of harmony by (1) keeping yin and yang in balance, (2) carrying out our social duties. 12 Question 5: View of the afterlife (what happens to a person after they die?)

After death someone becomes an ancestor. Ancestors should be remembered with reverence and gifts for several generations. In ancient China emperors took entire staffs of servants and soldiers to the next world with them. In more modern times ancestors are remembered with burning incense and offerings of paper money, paper houses and cars. 5: A person who lived an unhappy life or died an unpleasant death might become a ghost who brings trouble on the family. Some great heroes may become gods after death. An ancestor is remembered by its family, but a god is remembered by the nation. After a few generations it is no longer necessary to remember a dead ancestor. Question 6: How do we know anything? Truth is derived from observing patterns of nature and society. Philosophers, scholars and teachers understand truth and are to be treated with respect and learned from by memorizing their words. 6 Question 7: View of morality (why is something considered right or wrong?) In the worldview of the Daodejing the good person patterns himself after the dao. 7 In the ethics of Confucius the good person practices the mean: avoiding extreme actions in any area of life. The good person develops ren (the character of a gentleman) which means moral empathy viewing others as equal in worth to yourself. The good person practices li (proper rituals and duties to honor your superiors). In general, the worldview of social harmony has led to a morality based on self-restraint, humility and passivity. Maintaining social harmony is often viewed as more important than keeping laws or moral rules. Laws are viewed as ideals, but social harmony is a very practical daily necessity. Question 8: View of history (what is the meaning of human history?) In pre-modern China, people believed the traditional ways were the best ways.

The focus

was on maintaining tradition, not on cultural innovation. Confucius believed that there was one right way to organize society. Every person had social responsibilities based on their relationships. Social harmony depended on each person following these traditional ways. Chinese traditions also dictated many customs regarding daily life, worship, and festivals. 8