IMPORTANT QUESTIONS ANS ANSWERS WHAT ARE THE ITEMS OF INFORMATION AVAILABLE IN THE VOLUME TABLE IN ADDITION TO VOLUME

OF TREE? BRIEFLY DESCRIBE THEM. The volume tables, besides giving the volumes of trees by diameter classes and height classes if two variables are used, give following informations in a descriptive form as introduction: (i) name of the species (both common and scientific) and its distribution, (ii) basic data, i.e., the locality from which the data were collected and the number of trees measured for compilation of table together with any other work done to collect information such as increment borings, stem or stump analysis, etc., (iii) the method of compilation and computation, i.e., the method of measuring sample trees whether according to standard procedure or by some other method up to certain diameter limits, whether the method of computation was according to standard procedure or some other method, the checks applied, etc., (iv) mathematical equations, if fitted, to the basic data and (v) applicability. The volume tables then give a number of tables such as (i) table of basic averages, (ii) table of individual and aggregate checks, (iii) table for under bark volume, (iv) table for bark thickness and/or bark percentage and (v) other tables such as diameter growth table, commercial volume table (if the main volume table is for standard timber) and conversion factors, etc. DESCRIBE PROCESS OF TREE HEIGHT MEASUREMENT BY ABNEYS LEVEL. WHAT ARE ITS ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES? This is an invaluable instrument for forest officers and is therefore most commonly used by them not only for measurement of heights of trees but also for contour survey in forest surveys and alignment of roads. It consists of a hollow tube with an eye piece fitted at one end and a short sighting tube fitted at the other. The eye piece consists of two or three telescopic hollow tubes with a pin hole at the extreme end. The sighting tube is small detachable tube fitted with a horizontal wire across the centre at the inner end, and a mirror behind the horizontal wire, but covering only half of the tube, so fitted that it makes an angle of 45 degree to longitudinal axis of the main tube. The length of the tube is such that the mirror is immediately below the bubble of a small spirit level, which can be seen in the mirror through a rectangular slot in the main tube when the spirit level is in horizontal position. The spirit level is fitted to the main tube in such a way that it can be rotated by one screw or a wheel and a screw. When a wheel and a screw are fitted, wheel is for quicker movement and the screw is meant for final adjustment. An index arm is also attached to the spirit level and as the spirit level is rotated, the index arm moves on a graduated semi-circular arc. The arc is graduated to read whole degrees. As the Abneys level is required to read angles of elevation and depression, the graduations, in degrees up to 90o are on either side of the zero mark which is in the middle of the arc. A vernier and a magnifying glass are also fitted on the index arm. The vernier scale is used for reading fractions of a degree. Each division of the vernier scale represents 10. (Minutes).The number of the division coinciding with any division on the main scale on semi-circular arc gives the reading in units of 10 minutes. For example, if the reading is more than 37o (degrees) and if the 4th division of vernier coincides with any division of the main scale, the angle of inclination will be 37o40. The magnifying glass facilitates easy reading of the vernier. In order to use the instrument, the observer stands away from the tree at a place from where the top of

the tree and the base are visible. Then the top of the tree is sighted through the pin hole of the eye piece after pulling it out. This makes the instrument inclined and the bubbled is not seen in the mirror. Therefore while sighting the top; the screw is rotated to bring the spirit level in a horizontal position. As the spirit level approaches horizontal position, the bubble appears on the edge of the mirror. The spirit level is continued to be moved slowly to the position when the bubble image is bisected by the line of horizontal wire on the mirror and in the other half, the tree top is seen touching the horizontal wire. At this position, the index arm reads the angle of elevation to the top of the tree on the circular arc. Similarly the angle of depression to the base can also be read and the height of the tree determined by any of the formulae mentioned earlier. Advantages. It gives accurate angles of elevation or depression with the vernier with a least count of 10 minutes. Readings can be taken after sighting the tree without disturbing the index arm. The instrument is small and light and can be used even in hills without difficulty. Disadvantages. In the absence of a stand, shaking of the hand makes the sighting of the top or bottom of the tree a little difficult and time-consuming but this drawback can be removed by using a forked branch as a stand to give support to the instrument. The spirit level has to be adjusted by moving the head of the screw while simultaneously looking to the top or bottom of the tree. This is quite tiresome. DESCRIBE THE VARIOUS FORMULAE FOR CALCULATION OF VOLUME OF LOGS. The portion of a tree corresponds to a frustum of neiloid, the middle portion to a frustum of paraboloid and the top portion to a cone if uncut and to a frustum of a cone if it is crosscut at some point. The following table gives formulae for calculation of volume of three solids of revolution together with the formula for cylinder for comparison:

Where s is the sectional area at the base in square units s1 is the sectional area at the thick end in square units sm is the sectional area at the middle in square units s2 is the sectional area at the thin end in square units l is the length of the log or height of the solid in linear units.

DEFINE STEM ANALYSIS AND DISCUSS ITS PURPOSE. Stem analysis is defined as the analysis of a complete stem by measuring annual rings on a number of cross sections at different heights in order to determine its past rates of growth. Advantages: As compared to other methods for collection of data for increment of trees, stem analysis offers the following advantages: The data are collected from standing trees carefully selected and so it is more reliable. This is more so because the entire tree is analyzed and data are not collected only from the lower part of the stem as in stump analysis or in increment boring. It gives complete information about the growth of trees in respect of diameter, height and volume and so it is self contained. As the conventional method of stem analysis is both time consuming and laborious. Pluth has developed a computer programme for complete stem analysis. This has, however, yet to be tested on Indian trees. DESCRIBE THE INDIRECT METHODS FOR VOLUME ESTIMATION OF TREES. Ocular estimate. The first possible method of estimating the volume of standing trees is the ocular estimate. Experienced persons can make fairly accurate estimate of volume of standing trees marked in felling lots by careful inspection on the basis of records of past feelings. But this method is too subjective for reliable results. Not only do different workers produce different results for the same tree but even the same worker may estimate differently under the influence of fatigue, hunger, etc. All the same every forester must train his eye to make a fair estimate of the cubical contents of standing trees. To be approximately correct, the estimator requires great practice and occasional opportunity to compare his estimate with the actual measurement after the trees have been felled. Even then the results are subject to considerable errors. Partly ocular and partly by measurement. The uncertainty of purely ocular estimate can be overcome by measuring the diameter and height of the tree and then estimating the volume keeping the tree taper in view. In this method, the estimator estimates the diameters of subsequent logs after the basal log and from them the volume till whole length is covered. This method also requires lot of experience and practice without which estimates may not be correct. Direct measurement. The unreliability of the ocular estimate is completely removed if the diameters of tree at different heights are measured by a man climbing the tree with the help of a ladder to some height and thereafter by his own effort. This method then becomes similar to the method of calculating volume of trees after they have been felled, with the difference that in this case the tree is not felled but a man climbs it and measures the diameters at different heights on the tree. This method is however, very time consuming and tiring and cannot be used, when large numbers of trees are involved. Indirect measurement. It is no longer necessary to climb trees for measurement of volume. These instruments are Spiegel Relaskop, Tele Relaskop, Wheeler Pentaprism Calliper and Barr and Stroud dendrometer. The principle on which these instruments are based and the methods of measuring upper stem diameters, with the help of these instruments, the volume of the standing trees can be estimated fairly accurately.

HOW SNOW AFFECTS THE FOREST VEGETATION? At higher altitudes, the decrease in temperature results in precipitation taking the form of snow. The amount of snowfall and the period during which it remains on the round depends upon temperature and the amount of winter precipitation. Snow occasionally falls down to 1200 m in north western and central Himalayas but it stays only above 2000 m. In the eastern Himalayas and the south, the altitude to which snow falls, is higher. Injurious Effects of Snow on forest vegetation Snowfall results in the mechanical bending of stems of trees. Snow gets accumulated on the uphill side of the young saplings and poles and causes them to bend outward at the base. This curve is maintained even when the poles develop into trees and can be seen on all mature trees. The bend makes this portion of the tree unfit for utilization. As this portion of the stem has maximum diameter, there is a great loss in volume. Accumulation of snow on the crowns of trees results in breaking of branches and tops of trees. Kail is most susceptible to snow break and deodar comes next. Sliding snow not only causes erosion but also uproots trees. Often snow slides wipe out strips of forests along their course. The folds of the hills, in which snow slides regularly, are devoid of vegetation and thus a fair amount of area is without tree growth. Snow shortens the period of vegetative growth. Snow is reported to favour the growth of certain fungi, e.g. Fomes, Trametes. BASIS FOR FOREST CLASSIFICATION AND WHY THERE IS NEED FOR SUCH CLASSIFICATION. Forests can be classified on the basis of I. Method of regeneration: from seed or vegetative parts II. Age: even or uneven age III. Composition: pure or mixed forest IV. Objects of management: production forest, protection forest, farm forest, fuel forest, recreation forest, etc V. Ownership: state forest, communal forest and panchayat forest VI. Legal status and Growing stock: normal and abnormal REASONS OF DYING DALBERGIA SISSOO. Dense overhead canopy and inadequate light reaching the forest floor. Even though sal does not require complete overhead light, yet it does require diffused light which is not possible under a dense overhead canopy. Under inadequate light conditions, leaves become small and develop blotches; photosynthesis is retarded and it has an adverse effect on root development. Dense weed growth Dense weed growth not only affects light but also causes root competition and both these have adverse effect on the growth of the seedlings and their establishment. Even if the shrubs are replaced by dense growth of grass, it is injurious for the seedlings. For sal seedlings, the ideal undergrowth is a fifty mixture of light grass and shrubs.

 Undecomposed leaf litter The leaves of sal are coarse and they do not decompose easily with the result that there is often a thick layer of undecomposed leaves which presents physical obstruction to the roots in reaching the mineral soil. Accumulation of carbon dioxide Towards the end of rains, there is an accumulation of carbon dioxide in the soils of sal forests as a result of respiration by roots and decomposition of organic matter. When the carbon dioxide/oxygen ratio reaches 2.8, the sal seedlings start dying back. Frost A fairly large number of seedlings die during winter as a result of frost. Drip As a result of destruction of the middle storey, drip from the leaves of the top canopy causes splash resulting in the death of seedlings by exposure of roots, retardation of photosynthesis by leaves covered with splashed mud or rooting of tender shoot. Drought Sal seedlings require adequate moisture but between two consecutive rainy seasons, it has to face a long dry period. Though winter rains relieve the hardship, yet large number of seedlings dies as a result of post monsoon as well as a summer drought. Grazing and browsing In places where there is heavy grazing, some seedlings die as a result of trampling as well as due to their being eaten up with grass. An excess population of cheetal and sambhar has also a serious adverse effect on the growth of seedlings. During the summer when all other vegetation is leafless or has dry hard leaves, sal seedlings produce attractive, coloured and juicy leaves and therefore they are heavily browsed. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF TREES. The tree starts its life as a small seedling which grows by increase in length and diameter of its shoot and root. As the shoot grows upwards, it develops branches and foliage. The root grows downward and develops lateral roots and its branches. Thus the seedlings grow not only by increase in the size of its shoot and root but also by the formation of new organs. The increase in size is commonly referred to as growth or increment and the formation of new organs is referred to as development. Thus both growth and development are responsible for the change that takes place in a small seedling growing into a tree. Various stages of growth and development of a plant are designated as follows: i. Seedling Seedling is a plant grown from seed till it attains a height of about one meter, i.e., before it reaches the sapling stage. ii. Sapling Sapling is defined as a young tree from the time when it reaches about one meter (3 feet) in height till the lower branches begin to fall. A sapling is characterized by the absence of dead bark and its vigorous height growth. iii. Pole Pole is defined as a young tree from the time when the lower branches begin to fall off to the time when the rate of height growth begins to slow down and crown expansion becomes marked. iv. Tree Tree is the stage of growth beyond the pole stage when the rate of height growth begins to slow down and crown expansion becomes marked. OBJECTIVES OF SILVICULTURE. 1) Production of species of economic value In the virgin forests, many of the species are generally neither very valuable nor useful. Therefore, the production of timber of species of economic

value per unit area is low. If the forests have to produce timber of industrial and economic importance, it is necessary to study and practice silviculture so that we can produce only the desired species. 2) Production of larger volume per unit area In the virgin forests, the crop is generally either very dense or very open. Both these extremes are unsuitable for quantitative production. If the crop is very dense, the growth of the individual trees is adversely affected resulting in lesser timber volume production per unit area. On the other hand, if the crop is very open, the number of trees, and consequently volume, per unit area would be less. Besides this, a large number of trees die out as a result of competition before reaching maturity. In the unmanaged forest, they are not utilized and that volume of timber is lost. The study and practice of silviculture helps in raising sufficient trees per units area right from the beginning to fully utilize the soil and as they grow up, gradually reduce their number so that the requirement of light and food of the remaining trees is met. In this way, while by raising sufficient number of trees, the volume production per unit area is increased, the utilization of the excess trees as the crop grows in age, prevents the loss and consequently further increases that volume. 3) Production of quality timber In the unmanaged forests, because of intense competition, a large number of trees become crooked, malformed, diseased and defective. This result in the deterioration of the quality of timber produced. If the production of quality timber is to be ensured, knowledge of silviculture will be essential so that the trees can be grown in disease free condition without adverse competition. 4) Reduction of rotation In the virgin forests because of intense competition in the dense parts, the rate of growth of the individual tree is retarded with the result that it takes longer time to reach the size at which it can be exploited. This increases the cost of production of timber. With the knowledge and practical application of silviculture, the density of the crop can be properly regulated and consequently the rate of growth increased and rotation reduced. 5) Raising forests in blank areas In nature, a large number of areas, potentially suitable for tree growth, occasionally remain blank due to certain adverse factors inhibiting growth of trees. Silvicultural skills and techniques help in raising forest in such areas. 6) Creation of manmade forests in place of natural forests There may be areas in natural forests which may not regenerate or reproduce themselves naturally or where natural regeneration may be extremely slow and uncertain. In such areas, it becomes necessary for the forester to take up the work of nature in his hand and raise manmade forests in such areas. Success in this endeavour can be achieved only when he has a good knowledge of the science and art of raising forest crops artificially. 7) Introduction of exotics The indigenous species may not be able to meet the commercial and/or industrial demands. In such areas, efforts are made to introduce exotics which can grown in that particular locality and can supply the timber required by industries, etc., in time. For example, the demand of paper is increasing very fast. There is no indigenous species which may grow in a variety of sites easily and very fast so that the demand of the paper pulp industry may be met. Therefore, a last growing exotic, Eucalyptus hybrid, had to be introduced. This is possible only when the forester is conversant with the silviculture of the exotics as well as climatic and soil conditions of the localities in which they can be introduced.

VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION TECHNIQUES Principle: Normally tree species regenerate by seed but some species have the power of regenerate themselves by vegetative parts viz. root, stem, branch etc., Various horticultural techniques such as layering, grafting, budding, etc. also be used in small extent in forest nursery for propagation of some species. Cutting: Cutting is that method of vegetative propagation in which a portion of stem, branch or root is placed in the soil or other medium, in order that it may develop into a plant. Depending on the part of the plant used, cuttings may be classified into stem cutting, branch cutting, root cutting, root shoot cutting and Rhizome cuttings. The techniques involved in planting of cuttings are as fallow (For branch/stem cuttings). Cuttings of 20-25 cm or longer are taken early in the year from terminal shoots of the main upper branches of the seedling trees or from specially raised stool beds. These cuttings are inserted in the well-prepared nursery bed. The soil in these beds must be sandy loam with good fertility. While planting, cuttings are buried about two third inside the soil in a slanting position. Press the soil from all sides of the cutting completely so that no empty space is left. Layering: Layering is an inducing development of roots in branches while they are still attached to the trees. Layering is that method of vegetative propagation in which bark is removed from part of the circumstances of a thin branch, and would is covered with some soil and moss and tightly wrapped round with polythene sheet. Layering may be done in soil or in air. Soil layering is that method of vegetative propagation in which an undetached branch with bark or after removing a ring of bark 1 cm wide is partially buried in the soil to enable it to strike root, when it is cut from the parent plant to be planted elsewhere. When roots are formed the branch is gradually several from below the rooted portion and plan fed in pots. The air layering is employed for plants that do not graft or do not root from cuttings. Dalbergia sissoo, Morus alba and Ficus carrica can be propagated by air layering. While, Morus alba and Ficus are examples for soil layering. Grafting: Grafting is the joining together of plant parts by means of tissue regeneration. The part that provides the root is called the stock and the added piece is called the scion. The success of graft depends on the matching of the cambial scion and stock. The scion and stock can be united in many ways and this decides the type of grafting. The grafting is successful when the stock and scion are of the same species. Normally dormant scion and actively growing stock are collected. The best period of grafting begins when the buds of the stock plants start to swell and continues throughout late spring. Grafting in winter is not done, as low temperature will not allow the survival of grafts. If the scions are to be transported to long distances, the cut ends are dipped in melted wax to check drying. The various

types of grafting are: Cleft grafting, veneer grating, side grafting, whip and tongue grafting, splice grafting, bark grafting etc., The procedure for cleft grafting is as follows. Flowering shoots of plus trees are cut and kept about 40-45 cm long. These are scions. If the scions are transported for long distances, their cut ends are dipped in melted wax so that it does not dry and is not liable to be attacked by insects and fungi. On reaching site, scion is kept about 30-40 cm and rest is cut-off. The cut end is given the shape of a wedge 5 cm long and prepared scions are kept in basket with water. The stock is selected from 2-3 year old nursery plants having girth of 1-2 cm and height of 20-25 cm from the ground. At this height, a vertical cut is made through the center of pits with help of sharp knife for a distance equal to the wedge of the scion. Then scion whose girth at the top of the wedge is equal to the girth of the stock is fitted upright in the clefted stock with the wedge inside it and union is tied firmly with sutli in such way that the bark is not damaged. Then polythene strip is wrapped over the joint and tied with sutli once again so that rainwater cannot enter the joint. Such cleft grafted plants start producing genetically superior seeds in 3-4 years. Budding: Budding is that method vegetative propagation in which a bud with some portion of the bark of genetically superior plant is grafted on an inferior plant to produce shoot when the old shoot of the stock is cut off. The bud is grafted in the form of a patch after removing the bark of the stock or by making a T shaped incision in the stock. The scion is tied on the stock keeping the bud uncovered. MYCORRHIZA In certain, species, the fine extremities of rootlets behind the root cap, instead of being covered with root hairs are found to be invaded by specific non-pathogenic soil fungi. The invasion results in the formation of composite structures which are neither roots nor fungi. This composite structure or invaded rootlet is called mycorrhiza (plural mycorrhizae). Thus mycorrhiza may be defined as a structure produced from the combination of the modified rootlet with fungal tissue. Types of mycorrhizae Mycorrhizae are broadly classified as ectotrophic, endotrophic and ectendotrophic. In the ectotrophic type, fungi usually belong to Basidiomycetes. They form a mantle over the rootlets and the hyphae usually radiate from the mantle. The fungi enter the cortex, thus permitting the hyphae to grow in the intercellular space. In the endotrophic type, the fungi usually belong to Phycomycetes. They are present in the form of individual hyphae on the root surface and penetrate the cells of the cortex. Roots, sometimes, become beaded. In the ectendotrophic type, both

kinds of above mentioned infections are combined, i.e., a condition where typical ectotrophic condition is accompanied by intracellular penetration of the hyphae. Occurrence Mycorrhiza is found in Pinus, Picea, Abies, Cedrus, Cupressus, Taxus, Populus, Aurocaria, Salix, Podocarpus and Eucalyptus, etc. Importance of mycorrhiza in forestry Though the exact role of mycorrhiza is still not understood, it is believed to perform the following functions: Absorbs soil moisture by increasing the area of absorbing surface. Helps in the absorption of minerals, e.g., phosphorus, copper, iron, which are in short supply and cannot be absorbed by non-mycorrhizal roots. Fixes nitrogen from raw humus Because of these functions, mycorrhiza is very beneficial to tree growth and is considered essential for the growth and survival of several species, especially the exotics. A large number of plantations in many countries have failed due to failure to introduce mycorrhiza. With the large scale introduction of exotics in India, it is likely to plant a dominant role in their establishment. Introduction of Mycorrhiza Though, sometimes, mycorrhiza develops itself in new soils without being introduced by foresters as seen in the successful Eucalyptus plantations in India and chir pine plantations in sal forests of M.P., yet it is advisable to introduce it before planting any exotic. Mycorrhiza may be introduced by the following ways: Mixing soil brought from the natural good quality forests of the species. The soil should be neither dry nor very moist but should contain adequate moisture as well as mycorrhizal roots. It should be brought in sealed polythene bags and applied to the site as early as possible, but not later than 10 days after collection to ensure viability of mycorrhiza. Interplanting imported seedlings with mycorrhizae in nursery beds. FAILURE OF FOREST PLANTATIONS. Wrong selection of species Poor quality seeds and planting material Incidence of pest Incidence of diseases Planting in non-season or summer period Natural calamities such as excessive drought, cyclone, etc Within the species concerned, strain/cultivar should be selected according to the local requirement such as salinity, soil type and others. WOOD PRESERVATIVES: Wood preservative is a solution or mixture or compound that is used for preservative treatment of woods. The characteristic features of a good wood preservative are outlined below: High level of lethal toxicity even in low concentrations against fungi, insects and marine organisms while low level of lethal effects for mammals. High level of permanency under various conditions in which the treated timber would be used such as resistance to Leaching by water. Quick evaporation brought about by heat. Chemical transformation caused by oxidation, reduction or polymerization.

 High level of amenability to impregnation in the entire cross section of the wood that is being treated in order to give a more lasting effect. The stability of the preservative during treatment of the timber must be high. In other words, it must not decompose at the high temperatures that are normally used during such treatments. The preservative must be such that it does not increase the inflammability of the wood. On the other hand it would be advantageous to have a preservative which also functions as a fire retardant. The health of the workers who use the preservative or even of those living in the area must not be adversely affected by it. The cost of the preservative must not be prohibitive and it should be readily available. Ease of transportation over long distances is another desirable characteristic. The preservative must not cause corrosion in the metals that are used in the equipment used for wood preservation. The preservative must not prevent the painting or varnishing of the treated timber. The strength and other properties of wood should not be adversely affected by the preservative.