American ESI turbine with free yawing of the teetering downwind rotor (1985) Loads on the Wind Turbine

The causes of all forces acting on the rotor are attributable to the effects of aerodynamic, gravitational and inertial forces. The different loads and stresses can be classified according to their effect with time on the rotating rotor (Fig. 6.1): Aerodynamic loads with a uniform, steady wind speed, and centrifugal forces, generate time-independent, steady-state loads as long as the rotor is running at a constant speed. An air flow which is steady, but spatially non-uniform over the rotor swept area causes cyclic load changes on the rotating rotor. This includes, in particular, the uneven flow towards the rotor due to the increase in wind speed with height, a cross-flow towards the rotor and interference due to flow around the tower. The inertia forces due to the dead weight of the rotor blades also cause loads which are periodic and thus unsteady. Moreover, the gyroscopic forces produced when the rotor is yawed must also be included among those which increase or alternate with each revolution of the rotor. In addition to the steady-state and cyclically changing loads, the rotor is subjected to non-periodic, stochastic loads caused by wind turbulence. For an investigation of structural stresses, it is important to consider the effects of load variations with time. Fluctuating and alternating loads must be recognised, especially with respect to the fatigue life of the structure. It is not possible to recognise beforehand which of the loads within the entire range of loads will be dominant. As is the case in all structures, the larger the turbine, the greater is the significance of the gravitational loads.Moreover, the elasticity of the structure plays an increasing role with respect to the extent to which the external loads are transformed into structural stresses. In other words, the stress levels on a wind turbine are determined to a high degree by its design.

Other Environmental Influences Environmental influences other than wind can affect the structural strength and the operation of a wind turbine.Most of them are climatic conditions and the combination of these influences has a cummulative increase effect. Temperature range The verifications of strength should be carried out for a temperature range of from 20 C to+50 C.In the case of special operating conditions (e.g. Arctic climate), the appropriate individual verifications must be made. 184 Chapter 6: Loads and Structural Stresses Air density The calculation of aerodynamic loads is based on the assumption of the air density of the standard atmosphere (at sea level): _ = 1.225 kg/m3 Solar radiation The solar radiation is assumed to be 1000Watt/m2 (Central European conditions). Ice accretion One of the environmental factors which may contribute to extraordinary loads is the buildup of ice on the rotor blades. As a rule, it can be assumed that even thick ice formations on the rotor blades do not cause any special loads. Similar to aircraft wings, aerodynamic lift is reduced, with the consequence that rotor performance is reduced, and with it the aerodynamic loading (Chapt. 18.8.2). The load assumptions issued by Germanischer Lloyd distinguish between rotating parts (rotor) and non-rotating parts. For the non-rotating parts, an ice accretion of 30 mm is assumed. For the rotor blades, a varying mass distribution of the accreted ice from the root of the blade to its tip is assumed, and a difference in ice accretion between the individual blades [10].

Bird strike One load case which is fortunately very rare can be caused by a large bird colliding with the rotating rotor. To take this rather theoretical hazard into consideration, the Swedish load assumptions suggest some assumptions about impact velocity and bird weight [8]. The resulting impact may be of significance for the dimensioning of the rotor blade shell. Orographic influences The influence of the orographic situation on the wind speeds (wind flow over hills and mountains) must be taken into consideration above a certain, predetermined influencing quantity and checked in each individual case Lightning The impact of a lightning strike has to be minimized by the lightning protection system. This is specified by the national standards and requirements. Earthquakes For installations in hazardous regions with a risk of earthquakes, the local building regulations concerning earthquake protection must be consulted.

Figure 8.31. Rotor parking brake on the high-speed shaft of the gearbox in the Nordex N-80 Figure 8.32.

Figure 8.32.Rotor parking brake at the low-speed side directly behind the hub in the earlier Howden HWP-1000

Gearbox
The conversion of the greatly differing rotational speeds of the rotor and the electric generator has given the designers of the first wind turbines many headaches. This situation led to costly low-speed generator designs and to hydraulic or pneumatic transmission systems to the generator (Chapt. 8.1).Aerodynamicists made efforts to drive the rotor speed as high as possible in order to lower the gear ratio. It was assumed that costs would also increase considerably with increasing gear ratios, so that the development of rotors with extremely high tip-speed ratios was pushed forward. This situation has changed with the progress which has been made in gearbox technology. Today, high-performance gearboxes with gear ratios of up to 1:100 and more are available. In many areas of mechanical engineering, gearboxes are used which are suitable for deployment in wind turbines, as regards their technical concept, their efficiency and their operating life. The gearbox for the wind turbine has become a vendor-supplied component,

which, with certain adaptations, can be taken from the standard product range of the gearbox manufacturers. Regardless of this favourable situation, the gearbox has been and still is a source of failures and defects in many wind turbines. The cause of these gearbox problems is not so much the gearbox itself, rather the correct dimensioning of the gearbox with regard to the load spectrum. In wind turbines, it is easy to underestimate the high dynamic loads to which the gearbox is subjected.Thus, in the early phase,many turbines had gearboxeswhich were undersized. Having learned their lessons, successful manufacturers equipped their turbines with ever stronger gearboxes and thus, in the course of development, empirically arrived at the right dimension. 8.8. Gearbox Configurations Toothed-wheel gearboxes are constructed in two different forms. One is the parallel shaft or spur-gear system, the other is the technically more elaborate planetary gearing. The gear ratio per single reduction is limited, so that the difference in diameter between the small and the large wheel does not become too unfavourable. Parallel-shaft-gear stages are built with a gear ratio of up to 1 : 5, whereas planetary stages have a gear ratio of up to 1 : 12. Wind turbines generally require more than one stage. Fig. 8.33 shows what effects different designs have on gearbox size, mass and relative cost [11]. It is noteworthy that the three-stage planetary design has only a fraction of the overall mass of a comparable parallel shaft system. The relative costs are reduced to about one half. In the megawatt power class, the multi-stage planetary gearbox is, therefore, clearly superior. In smaller power classes, the comparison is not quite as unambiguous. In the range up to about 500 kW, parallel-shaft gear designs are often preferred for cost reasons. Small wind turbines are equipped with parallel-shaft gear systems.The prevailingmodels are two-stage gearboxes which are commercially available from numerous manufacturers as modified universal transmissions (Fig. 8.34). 8.8 Gearbox 291 In larger wind turbines, the planetary design definitely prevails. For outputs of several megawatts, two- or three-stage models are used (Fig. 8.35). Large gearboxes of this type are used, for example, in ship-building and several other fields of mechanical engineering,

Figure 8.33. Overall mass and relative cost of different gearbox designs [11] E

Figure 8.34. Two-stage parallel shaft gearbox for wind turbines of the 200 to 500 kW power class (Hansen)

Three-stage planetary gearbox of the 2 to 3 MW power class (Thyssen)

so that suitable gearboxes for large wind turbines can be derived from these production sources. In spite of indisputable advances having been achieved in the durability of the gearboxes, there is still trouble with the gears being experienced even in the latest wind

Standard gearbox for large wind turbines with one planetary stage and two parallel shafts (artists concept by NEG Micon

turbines. Although it is possible to adapt gearboxes for wind turbines from other types of machine, they are subject to special demands which are often not encountered in other applications. Much negative experience in recent years has provided important insights

into this issue: Special attention must be devoted to the smooth running of the toothing. Particularly prominent gear meshing frequencies can cause resonances in the drive train. Cheap transmissions with simple toothing are unsuitable for use in wind turbines. Oil leaks in the transmission are a particular problem. Labyrinth seals have proven more reliable than slipring type seals. In many cases, the housing flanges also showed leaks after some time. A box design with a top flange is apparently more advantageous than gearbox housings with flanges on the input and output side. The quality of the lubrication has been found to be a decisive factor for the service life of the gearbox. Oil temperatures which are too high cause just as much damage as does contamination in the oil. Oil coolers and filters are indispensible for large gearboxes and so is the careful observance of oil change intervals. The stiffness of the gearbox housing is an important criterion for its service life if the housing is integrated into the static design of the nacelle. Apart from these constructional measures, of course, the correct dimensioning has a decisive influence. 8.8. Gearbox Dimensioning Dimensioning of the gearbox must be considered under two aspects. On the one hand, there is the internal dimensioning of the gear elements, such as gearteeth, shafts and bearings. This is primarily the task of the gearbox manufacturer. But the manufacturer can only solve this task if he is supplied with correct information about the external loads occurring in accordance with the operating conditions. Supplying the load assumptions is the task of the systems engineer of a wind turbine. For this reason, this problem must be dealt with in greater detail here,whereas internal gearbox dimensioning is better left to the manufacturer. The most important load parameter is the torque to be transmitted. The rotor torque is, of course, not a constant value but is subject to more or less large variations, depending on the technical design concept of the wind turbine. The load spectrum contains torque variations, expressed as magnitude and frequency occurring over the entire operating life of a turbine. Based on this load spectrum, the transmission gearing is dimensioned by the manufacturer in such a way that the so-called fatigue strength limit (Whler line) has sufficient clearance above the load spectrum (Fig. 8.37). This ideal method of proceeding is not always feasible in design practice, as a complete and reliable load spectrum for the gearbox is only rarely available. A simplified and empirically proven method for defining the external load situation is, therefore, used. The starting point is the rated rotor torque TN to be transferred by the gearbox. In rotors operated at a constant speed, the rated torque is obtained very simply by dividing the rated mechanical rotor power by the rotor speed. According to DIN 3990, a so-called

Installation of the Electric Generator

The installation of the electric generator in the nacelle is amechanical engineering problem in the area of the drive train design. The connecting shaft of the gearbox exit to the electric generator, the high-speed shaft, rotates at the nominal generator speed of 1500 r.p.m. in 50 Hz systems and 1800 r.p.m. in 60 Hz systems. Generators with more than two pole pairs are used in some cases, so that the required driving speed can also be, for example, 750 r.p.m. and 900 r.p.m., respectively. In any case, in comparison with the slower rotor shaft, the torque to be transferred is smaller by the gear ratio of the gearbox to the generator, so that the dimensioning of the generator drive shaft presents no problems in the prevailing range of loads.Nevertheless, several problems specific to wind turbines must be solved when the shaft and the generator are installed.
Figure

Figure 8.42. Flexible coupling between gearbox and generator in a GE TW 1.55 wind turbine

Basically, the generator can be flanged directly to the gearbox, so that provision of a long driving shaft can be avoided (Chapt. 8.8). This feature is used in some smaller wind turbines. The rigid connection from transmission to generator, however, is not without its problems. The drive train is always subjected to certain deformations. This almost certainly necessitates flexible connecting elements between the components, if twisting, and with it additional loads in the drive train, are to be avoided. Assembly and maintenance are considerably facilitated if small misalignments between generator and gearbox can be tolerated, which will be compensated for by a flexible coupling. In addition, accessibility of the rear of the gearbox and of the front of the generator should be ensured by providing

a certain clearance between the two. For these reasons, detachable and flexible connecting couplings are generally built into the high-speed generator drive shaft. The requirements of detachable connection and flexibility are met by the most varied types of couplings.They are used in industrialmechanical engineering in numerous designs and sizes. It is not the task of this book to provide a systematic overview of these. The designer of a wind turbine has the task of defining the requirements for the coupling function as precisely as possible, and then of consulting the manufacturers about the choice of design which best meets his requirements (Fig. 8.42). In the past, simple couplings of elastic material were often used between gearbox and generator in small wind turbines (Fig. 8.43). Instead of a generator drive shaft,V-belt drives are also frequently used in small turbines. It is mainly the small turbines of Danish origin which occasionally have V-belts for driving their generators. The V-belt drive has the advantage that it combines the desirable flexible connection to the transmission with overload

Figure 8.43. Flexible coupling of elastic material between gearbox and generator in a small Bonus wind turbine

protection. Its disadvantages are wear and lower efficiency (slippage), which is significant

at higher outputs. The couplings in the high-speed shaft can take on another important task beyond their connecting and compensating functions. In the case of a failure, extreme loads can occur in the mechanical drive train of a wind turbine which make it advisable to implement a rupture joint for safety reasons. The generator short-circuit torque, in particular, can reach a value of 5 or 6 times the rated torque (Chapt. 9.1). From the economic point of view, it would make little sense to dimension the entire drive train components for this load. The maximum transferable torque can be restricted with the help of overload couplings in the high-speed shaft. This task can be handled, for example, by a so-called breaking ring coupling, dimensioned for a load three times the value of the gearbox rated torque. When installing the electric generator, its coolingmust also be taken into consideration, in addition to themechanical drive.Wind turbines are often located near the sea.Air-cooled generators, as well as frequency converters and other electric systems,move a considerable volume of air in their cooling system. In case of salty sea air, salt deposits are unavoidable, with obvious consequences.Against this background, the system of protection used for the electric generator must be considered carefully, and the cooling system must be designed accordingly.The class of protection common today for electric generators is IP 54, according

Nacelle
In almost all turbines, the components of the mechanical drive train and of the electric generator are housed in a closed nacelle. Some smaller turbines make do without it.A completely closed housing could become redundant in case of a complete integration of the drive train components, for example by mounting the rotor bearings directly on the gearbox. After all, the nacelle does represent a considerable cost factor.On the other hand,many practical reasons speak for a closed nacelle, particularly in large turbines. 8.. Design and Load Carrying Concept As has been explained in Chapter 8.6, the design and static concept of the nacelle are closely associated with the arrangement of the drive train. The rotor bearing assembly, in particular, largely determines the design of the supporting nacelle structure.Assembly and cost considerations are also determining factors. 8.11 Nacelle 307 The most widely used design features a supporting bedplate with a non-load bearing fairing. In older turbines, the bedplate is commonly a welded steel structure (Fig. 8.49). This bedplate must transfer all rotor forces to the tower via the azimuth bearing in its front section. Considering the stiffness required for supporting the drive train components, the weight becomes correspondingly high. Inmore recent wind turbines, cast nacelle bedplates are increasingly found which results in cost advantages, particularly in series production. The heavy cast bedplate is often flanged to a more light-weight sheet steel structure for accommodating the generator (Fig. 8.50). Various materials have been used for the non-load bearing fairing structure, for example aluminium or steel sheet structures, reinforced by struts. Today laminated shells made of glass-fiber reinforced composite material are used for most wind turbines (Fig. 8.51). One aspect which should be focused on when selecting material and design, is insulation against noise and temperature. Sound insulation of the nacelle is almost always necessary to provide shielding against the gearbox noise. The components of the electronic control system require a certain insulation against temperature and humidity, at least for a closed part-section of the nacelle. For these reasons, costly insulating material having these properties can be more economical than insulating the individual units. A strategy for reducing overall mass, commonly used in motor vehicle and aircraft construction and developed there to perfection, is to integrate the fairing into the load-bearing structure. The most favourable design with high stiffness is a self-supporting stressed-skin construction. However, an optimal result will only be achieved if the geometric shape is

8.49.Welded nacelle bedplate of the experimental Gamma-60 turbine

chosen accordingly and the load-bearing shell is largely closed. Cylindrical bodies with circular cross-sections are best for this purpose (e.g.: aircraft fuselage). There are difficulties to be dealt with in production, though. The costs of manufacturing dual-curvature steel sheets are unjustifiably high.Another disadvantage is the difficulties experienced with respect to the insulation of the structure-borne sound from the high-noise components inside the nacelle. If, for example, the gearbox is joined directly to the skin, it will be difficult to avoid unpleasant resonances. For these reasons, self-supporting nacelle structures of welded steel sheet are rarely found today in wind turbines. Apart from the technical concept, the size of the nacelle plays a role in production costs which is not to be underestimated. A compact design with short paths for load transfer from rotor to tower considerably reduces the tower head weight and thus the costs. In contrast to older experimental wind turbines, the more recent large wind turbines are, therefore, distinguished by their considerably smaller nacelles. Their sizes are dimensioned to provide space for the installation of the aggregates plus an absolute minimum of space for assembly and accessibility for maintenance work. 8