1

08.801 ENERGY MANAGEMENT (MPU)

L-T-D: 2-1-0 Module I Credits : 3
Energy conversion processes and devices Energy conversion plants Conventional ( Thermal, Hydro, Nuclear fission ) and Non conventional (Biomass, Fuel cells and Magneto Hydrodynamics) Energy storage and Distribution Electrical energy route Load curves Energy conversion plants for Base load, Intermediate load, Peak load and Energy displacement Energy storage plants, Energy from waste, Energy plantation.

Module II
Energy Management Definitions and significance objectives Characterising of energy usage Energy Management program Energy strategies and energy planning Energy Audit Types and Procedure Optimum performance of existing facilities Energy management control systems Energy policy in India Computer applications in Energy management

Module III
Energy conservation Principles Energy economics Energy conservation technologies cogeneration Waste heat recovery Combined cycle power generation Heat Recuperators Heat regenerators Heat pipes Heat pumps Pinch Technology Energy Conservation Opportunities Electrical ECOs Thermodynamic ECOs in chemical process industry ECOs in residential and commercial buildings Energy Conservation Measures.

References:
1. T.D.Eastop and D.R. Croft, Energy Efficiency for Engineers & Technologists, Longman Group Ltd. 2. Albert Thumann, P.E, C.E.M and Wlliam.J.Younger, C E.M, Handbook of Energy Audits, Fairmont Press Ltd. 3. Wayne.C.Turner , Energy Management Hand book, Fairmont Press Ltd. 4. S.Rao and Dr.B.B.Parulekar, Energy Technology, Khanna Publishers. 5. G.D. Rai, Non conventional Energy Sources, Khanna Publishers. 6. P.K. Nag, Power Plant Engineering, TMH. University Examination Question Paper consists of two parts. Part A-10 compulsory short answer questions for 4 marks each, covering the entire syllabus (10 x 4=40). Part B-2 questions of 20 marks each, from each module and student has to answer one from each module (3 x 20=60)

Module I INTRODUCTION
Electricity is the only form of energy which is easy to produce, transport, use and control. So, it is mostly the terminal form of energy conversion process/plants, and most suitable form of energy for transmission and distribution. Electricity consumption per capita is the index of the living standard of people of a place or country. When compared to other forms of energy such as heat, light, mechanical work; electric energy as such has limited uses, but the ease of production, transmission, conversion to other forms makes it ideal form of energy. There has been an exponential growth in the production of electricity with a current doubling time of about 12 years. It is found that the demand for electricity bears a linear relationship with the gross national product (GNP) of a country. Projection of future demand of electricity is thus tied to estimates of economic growth of the concerned region. With the increase in economic growth, the consumption of electricity also increases. Advantages of using electricity as a source of energy: (i) Electric energy can be easily converted into any other form of energy and very high conversion efficiency can be achieved. Electric energy is considered as a high-grade energy. (ii) At sites where it is being used, it is a clean energy, with zero emissions, less fire hazards and relatively safe and easy to handle. (iii) Electricity enabled us to create electronics devices, which are the basic components of modern communication networks, computers. (iv) With the help of electric energy almost anything can be manufactured. (v) The ideal energy source for house and street illumination is electric energy. (vi) Without electric energy modern medicine and treatment of many diseases would never have developed. (vii) The living standard of people and further enquiries into nature depends on availability of electric energy. The development of science and technology depends on electric energy. (viii) Electricity enabled us to create robots and it enables us to dream about creating artificial intelligence. Disadvantages of Electric Energy (i) Production of electric power on large scale creates environmental problems such as emissions from thermal power plants, nuclear waste from nuclear power plants, ecological unbalance created by hydroelectric plants etc (ii) Electricity cannot be stored effectively. Electric energy cannot be stored in large quantities. It should be converted into other forms in order to store in large quantities. Electricity should be produced as and when required. (iii) There are huge transmission losses for electric energy. (iv) Since our each and every activity uses electric energy directly or indirectly, an electric power failure can cause total disorder of human life.

Comparing with the advantages and opportunities that that electric energy opens before us, the disadvantages can be neglected to a large extent. Researchers are going on to tackle the problems of emissions at power plants and storage of large amount of electric energy.

ENERGY CONVERSION PLANTS

An energy conversion plant (also referred to as a generating station, power plant, powerhouse or generating plant) is an industrial place for the generation of electric power by converting some other form of energy into electrical energy. At the center of nearly all power stations is a generator, a rotating machine that converts mechanical power into electrical power by creating relative motion between a magnetic field and a conductor. The energy source harnessed to turn the generator varies widely. It depends chiefly on which fuels are easily available, cheap enough and on the types of technology that the power company has access to. Most power stations in the world burn fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas to generate electricity, and some use nuclear power, but there is an increasing use of cleaner renewable sources such as solar, wind, wave and hydroelectric. Central power stations produce AC power owing to the advantages of AC distribution.

Classification of Energy Conversion Plants

The energy conversion plants or Power plants can be classified in many different ways. They are listed below. Classification by fuel 1. Thermal Power plants or Fossil-fuel power stations may use a steam turbine generator or in the case of natural gas-fired plants may use a combustion turbine. A conventional coal-fired power station produces heat by burning coal in a steam boiler. The steam drives a steam turbine and generator that then produces electricity. A side-effect of burning coal is the production of combustion gases such as sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and carbon dioxide. Technology can be used to capture or convert these gases. If this is not done they can contribute to environmental harm such as global warming or acid rain. Thermal power plants generate more than 80% of the total electricity produced in the world. Fossil fuels (coal, fuel oil, natural gas, etc.) are the energy source and steam is the working fluid in thermal power plants. Steam is also required in many industries for process heat. To meet the dual need of power and process heat, cogeneration plants are often installed. 2. Nuclear power plants use a nuclear reactor's heat that is transferred to steam which then operates a steam turbine and generator. About 20% of electric generation in the USA is produced by nuclear power plants. 3. Hydroelectric power plants use gravitational potential energy of water to drive a water turbine which in turn drives a generator. The power extracted from the water depends on the volume and on the difference in height between the source and the water's outflow. This height difference is called the head. The amount of potential energy in water is proportional to the head. A large pipe (the "penstock") delivers water to the turbine. About 16% of worlds total

electric power comes from hydroelectric power plants. It is a renewable source, with zero emissions. 4. Geothermal power plants use steam extracted from hot underground rocks to finally run a generator. 5. Biomass-fuelled power plants may be fuelled by waste from sugar cane, municipal solid waste, landfill methane, or other forms of biomass. 6. Solar thermo-electric plants use sunlight to boil water and produce steam which turns the generator. Classification by prime mover 1. Steam turbine plants use the dynamic pressure generated by expanding steam to turn the blades of a turbine. Almost all large non-hydro plants use this system. About 90% of all electric power produced in the world is by use of steam turbines. 2. Gas turbine plants use the dynamic pressure from flowing gases (air and combustion products) to directly operate the turbine. Natural-gas fuelled (and oil fueled) combustion turbine plants can start rapidly and so are used to supply "peak" energy during periods of high demand, though at higher cost than base-loaded plants. These may be comparatively small units, and sometimes completely unmanned, being remotely operated. 3. Combined cycle plants have both a gas turbine fired by natural gas, and a steam boiler and steam turbine which use the hot exhaust gas from the gas turbine to produce electricity. This greatly increases the overall efficiency of the plant, and many new base load power plants are combined cycle plants fired by natural gas. 4. Internal combustion reciprocating engines are used to provide power for isolated communities and are frequently used for small cogeneration plants. Hospitals, office buildings, industrial plants, and other critical facilities also use them to provide backup power in case of a power outage. These are usually fuelled by diesel oil, heavy oil, natural gas, and landfill gas. Classification by duty Power plants that can be dispatched (scheduled to increase or decrease generation, or to be brought on line or shut down) to provide energy to a system include the following. 1. Base load power plants run nearly continually to provide that component of system load that doesn't vary during a day or week. Base load plants can be highly optimized for low fuel cost, but may not start or stop quickly during changes in system load. Examples of base-load plants would include large modern coal-fired and nuclear generating stations, or hydro plants with a predictable supply of water. 2. Peaking power plants meet the daily peak load, which may only be for a one or two hours each day. While their incremental operating cost is always higher than base load plants, they are required to ensure security of the system during load peaks. Peaking plants include simple cycle gas turbines and sometimes reciprocating internal combustion engines, which can be started up rapidly when system peaks are predicted. Hydroelectric plants may also be designed for peaking use.

3. Load following power plants can economically follow the variations in the daily and weekly load, at lower cost than peaking plants and with more flexibility than base load plants. Non-dispatchable plants include such sources as wind and solar energy; while their long-term contribution to system energy supply is predictable, on a short-term (daily or hourly) base their energy must be used as available since generation cannot be deferred (put off to a later time). Conventional (Non-Renewable) Source of Energy The conventional sources of energy are generally non-renewable sources of energy, which are being used since a long time. These sources of energy are being used extensively in such a way that their known reserves have been depleted to a great extent. At the same time it is becoming increasingly difficult to discover and exploit their new deposits. It is envisaged at known deposits of petroleum in our country will get exhausted by the few decades and coal reserves are expected to last for another hundred years. The coal, petroleum, natural gas and electricity are conventional sources of energy. 1. Coal: Coal is one of the most important sources of energy and is being used for various proposes such as heating of housed, as fuel for boilers and steam engines and for generation of electricity by thermal plants. Coal has also become a precious source of production of chemical of industrial importance coal is and will continue to be the mainstay of power generation in India. It constitutes about 70% of total commercial energy consumed in the country. 2. Oil and Natural Gas: Like coal, petroleum is also derived from plants and also from dead animals that lived in remote past. Natural gas has also been produced in the Earth's curst by the similar process as petroleum and this is also a combustible fuel. The exploitation of oil on a large scale started after 1960, the year when the first commercial well is reported to have come into existence. In India, efforts made by the Oil and Natural Gas Corporation since the late 1950s have led to the identification of a number of oil and gas deposits both offshore and onshore. The onshore fields were mainly discovered in the Mumbai, Gujarat, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh and the offshore fields in the sea are the notably Mumbai High fields such as North and South Basin and South Tapti. Oil and natural gas has also been discovered in the Godavari Basin on the East Coast and the Barmer district of Rajasthan. The new exploration strategy has been developed which places emphasis on intensive exploration, survey and drilling in order to add to petroleum reserves and to argument production. Natural gas is also emerging as an important source of energy in India's commercial energy scene in view of large reserves of gas that have been established in the country, particularly, in South Bassein off west coast of India. Natural gas in also making significant contribution to the household sector. About 30% of the country's output of LPG comes from this source. About three- fourths as the total gas comes from Mumbai high and rest is obtained from Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Assam Tamil Nadu and Rajasthan. The Oil and Natural Gas Corporation has made a significant hydro carbon finding and Reliance Industries struck gas off the Orissa coast in Bay of Bengal.

Non-conventional (Renewable) sources of energy Energy generated by using wind, tides, solar, geothermal heat, and biomass including farm and animal waste as well as human excreta is known as non-conventional energy. All these sources are renewable or inexhaustible and do not cause environmental pollution. More over they do not require heavy expenditure. 1. Wind Energy: Wind power is harnessed by setting up a windmill which is used for pumping water, grinding grain and generating electricity. The gross wind power potential of India is estimated to be about 20,000 MW, wind power projects of 970 MW capacities were installed till March. 1998. Areas with constantly high speed preferably above 20 km per hour are well-suited for harnessing wind energy. 2. Tidal Energy: Sea water keeps on rising and falling alternatively twice a day under the influence of gravitational pull of moon and sun. This phenomenon is known as tides. It is estimated that India possesses 8000-9000 MW of tidal energy potential. The Gulf of Kuchchh is best suited for tidal energy. 3. Solar Energy: Sun is the source of all energy on the earth. It is most abundant, inexhaustible and universal source of energy. All other sources of energy draw their strength from the sun. India is blessed with plenty of solar energy because most parts of the country receive bright sunshine throughout the year except a brief monsoon period. India has developed technology to use solar energy for cooking, water heating, water dissimilation, space heating, crop drying etc. 4. Geo-Thermal Energy: Geo-thermal energy is the heat of the earth's interior. This energy is manifested in the hot springs. India is not very rich in this source. 5. Energy from Biomass: Biomass refers to all plant material and animal excreta when considered as an energy source. Some important kinds of biomass are inferior wood, urban waste, biogas, farm animal and human waste. Importance of non-conventional sources of energy: The non-conventional sources of energy are abundant in nature. According to energy experts the non-conventional energy potential of India is estimated at about 95,000 MW. These are renewable resources. The non-conventional sources of energy can be renewed with minimum effort and money. Non-conventional sources of energy are pollution-free and eco-friendly

THERMAL POWER PLANTS

In a thermal power plant, the heat energy obtained by burning the coal in a boiler is used to raise the steam. The steam thus produced runs a steam turbine to which is coupled the alternator, which generates electrical energy. Thus, in a steam station, the boiler, the steam turbine, and the alternator constitute the main equipment. The efficient conversion of heat energy into electric energy requires a lot of auxiliary equipment. An enormous quantity of coal is required for the operation of a thermal plant. So, there must be an ample storage of coal and the coal-handling plant is required. Sometimes, the coal is used in the form of a fine powder and for this purpose, a pulverizing plant is required. There are the induced draft (I.D.) and forced draft (F.D.) fans to provide the air necessary for the combustion of coal. When coal is burnt in the boilers, large quantity of ash is produced so that there must be an ash-handling plant. Further, to deal with the flue gases, separate arrangements are required. To extract the heat from the flue gases, there will be economizers, air preheaters, etc. In addition, there will be a protection and control equipment. The greatest variation in the design of thermal power stations is due to the different fossil fuel resources generally used to heat the water. Certain thermal power plants also are designed to produce heat energy for industrial purposes of district heating, or desalination of water, in addition to generating electrical power. Globally, fossil fueled thermal power plants produce a large part of man-made CO2 emissions to the atmosphere, and efforts to reduce these are varied and widespread. Almost all coal, nuclear, geothermal, solar thermal electric, and waste incineration plants, as well as many natural gas power plants are thermal. Natural gas is frequently combusted in gas turbines as well as boilers. The waste heat from a gas turbine can be used to raise steam, in a combined cycle plant that improves overall efficiency. Power plants burning coal, fuel oil, or natural gas are often called fossil-fuel power plants. Some biomass-fueled thermal power plants have appeared also. Non-nuclear thermal power plants, particularly fossil-fueled plants, which do not use co-generation are sometimes referred to as conventional power plants. Principle of working of a thermal power station The steam undergoes Rankine cycle. The superheated steam at state 5 is allowed to expand through a High Pressure Turbine. After reaching point 6, the condensed part of the steam flows to feed pump 2, and remaining low pressure steam expands through a Low Pressure Turbine. The two turbines are coupled together, and they drive a generator producing electrical power. After reaching point 7, the steam condenses to liquid state to reach point 1. Pump 1 increases the pressure of water to an intermediate value reaching point 2. The process 2-3 is the preheating by the feed water heater. The pump 2 rises the pressure again to final value to reach state 4. After two stages of pressure rising and boiling, state 5 is again reached. Thus completing one cycle of operation.

As discussed above, the boiler (or the steam generator), the steam turbine, and the alternator are the most important equipment in a thermal station. The coalhandling plant supplies coal to the boiler. The coal is burnt in the boiler and generates the heat that is used to convert water into steam at the required pressure and temperature, which is attained by further heating the steam in the superheater. The steam is then fed to the high-pressure turbine. The expansion of steam in the turbine produces the mechanical power at the shaft to which the alternator is coupled. The mechanical energy input to the alternator is finally converted into electric power. As coal is burnt in the boiler, ash is formed. This is disposed off by the ashhandling plant. The air required for the combustion is taken from the atmosphere by using the F.D. or I.D. fans. Before being fed to the boiler, the air is heated in air preheater by flue gases, which are at high temperature. The flue gases are discharged to the atmosphere through the chimney after passing through the dust collector, air preheater, and economizer. The exhaust steam from the turbine is condensed by the condenser. The condensate, together with the make-up, water is passed through the economizer and then fed to the boiler and so on.] Factors to be considered for locating a thermal plant The ideal location of a thermal plant is at the center of gravity (C.G.) of the load. If located at the C.G. of the load, the length of the transmission lines and the cables will be low, so that the capital cost is reduced. Though the C.G. of the load is the ideal location for the thermal station; yet, it may not be possible to locate it at the C.G. of the load. Let us suppose that the C.G. of the load corresponds to a location in the heart of a city. Now, two important problems may arise: (i) the required extent of land may not be available and (ii) even if available, the cost of the land may be very high. In the latter case, the fixed costs shoot up abnormally and the cost per kWh may be very high. Besides this financial consideration, the location of a thermal station in the heart of the city may lead to atmospheric pollution due to ash and may be a source of nuisance to the public because of the noise. So, the choice of site for a thermal station takes the following points into consideration.

1. A large extent of land is required for the erection of thermal plant. So, the cost of the land has a considerable bearing on the working of a thermal plant. So, the cost of the site should be reasonable. 2. The private land should be as minimum as possible. 3. The operation of a thermal plant requires huge quantities of water. So, it is preferable to have the site near the canal or a river. 4. Facilities should exist for the transport of fuel. 5. The soil should not be too loose or too rocky. 6. The site should be level. There should be no excavation nearby. 7. The site should be far away from the residential localities so as to avoid the nuisance of smoke, noise, etc. 8. Future extensions of the power station should be possible. 9. Sufficient land must be available nearby the power station to build the residential accommodation to the operation and maintenance staff. 10. Ash disposal should not create any problem. 11. To the extent possible, the thermal station should be far away from an aerodrome. 12. If canal or river water is used, it should not be polluted to ensure that the interests of the other users are not affected. 13. The design should be in conformity with the by-laws of the land and the town planning. 14. The interests of national defence must be served. Schematic diagram of thermal power station The schematic diagram of a thermal power station is shown in Fig. 1.7 and is explained briefly as follows. In a thermal station, the fuel burnt may be a solid, a liquid, Fig. 1.7 Schematic diagram of a thermal power station or a gaseous fuel. The solid fuels maybe bituminous coal, peat, or brown coal. Figure 1.7 depicts a coal-fired thermal power

10

station. The coal stored in the coal storage yard is conveyed by the coal-handling plant to a high-pressure boiler. To increase the efficiency of the boiler, the coal may be ground into a fine powder. In the boiler house, coal is burnt to convert water into high-pressure steam. The steam passes through a superheater to get superheated and then passes into the turbine to rotate the blades of the turbine. Thus, the heat energy obtained by burning the coal is converted into mechanical energy. This mechanical energy causes the rotation of the alternator, since turbine is coupled to the turbine. Thus, electrical energy is generated. There is a step-up transformer, together with its circuit breaker, etc., which enables the alternator to feed the bus-bars. Again, the superheated steam which passes into the turbine imparts energy to the turbine rotor. In this process, the pressure decreases and the volume increases. Afterwards, it passes into the condenser. Cold-water circulating pump circulates water is extracted by the condensate extraction pump and is fed to the low-pressure water heater, where the low-pressure steam increases the temperature of the feed water. It is then heated in the high-pressure heater, where high-pressure steam is used for heating. The method of taking out steam from the turbines for feed-water heating is called bleeding of the turbines. This increases the overall efficiency of the boiler. The cooling towers are used to cool the water coming out of the condenser, which is rather too hot. The ash formed after the combustion of coal is removed by the ash-handling plant and is transferred to the ash dump or ash storage, from where it is subsequently disposed. Air is supplied to the combustion chamber of the boiler through F.D. fans and I.D. fans. The dust from the air is removed first and the air is passed through air preheater, where it is heated by the flue gases before it enters the combustion chamber. The exhaust gases after heating the incoming air are passed through dust collector and then led into the atmosphere through the chimney. One-line diagram of thermal station indicating the various circuits While the schematic diagram shown in Fig. 1.7 is helpful in understanding the general arrangement of the various components in a thermal station, Fig. 1.8 is helpful in analyzing the various circuits into which a thermal station can be split up. A modern thermal station may be assumed to be consisting mainly of the following circuits: (i) Coal and ash circuit. (ii) Air and flue gas circuit. (iii) Feed-water and steam-flow circuit. (iv) Cooling water circuit.

11

Fig 1.8 Flow diagram of a Thermal power station

(i) Coal and ash circuit Coal from the coal storage yard is fed to the furnace of the boiler through the coal-handling equipment consisting of conveyors. The ash formed after combustion is removed and transferred to the ash dump. The coal and ash circuit is indicated in Fig 1.8 by the numbers 1 6 enclosed in the circles. (ii) Air and flue gas circuit Air is required for the combustion of the fuel. It is normally supplied to the combustion chamber of the boiler with the help of F.D. and I.D. fans in addition to the natural draft produced by the chimney. The dust from the air is removed before it is passed through the air preheater, where it is heated by the flue gases before it enters the combustion chambers. The exhaust gases after heating the incoming air are passed throughout the dust collectors and then led into the atmosphere through the chimney. This circuit is indicated in Fig. 1.8 by the numbers 711 enclosed in the circles. The flue gas flow arrangement is shown in the block diagram of Fig. 1.9.

12

Fig. 1.9. Flue gas flow arrangement

The gaseous products of combustion give most of their heat to the water in the tubes of the boiler and superheater. To make use of the remaining heat, the gasses are passed through an economizer, where the feed water in the economizer tubes is heated; and through an air preheater in which the air is to be admitted into the combustion chamber gets initially heated. Finally, the gases pass through an electrostatic precipitator (ESP) and then to the atmosphere through the chimney. (iii) Feed-water steam-flow circuit The feed water is preheated before being pumped into the boiler. The superheated steam is led into the turbine, where it does the work. The exhaust steam is used to heat the feed water. Then, it is passed through the condenser and the condensate is recirculated as feed water. The loss of feed water is made good by freshwater suitably processed to remove the hardness. This circuit is indicated in Fig. 1.8 by the numbers 1221 enclosed in the circles. The feed-water steam flow circuit may further be explained with the help of the block diagram shown in Fig. 1.10.

Fig. 1.10 Block diagram of feed-water steam flow circuit

The condensate from the condenser is extracted by the condensate pump. It is pumped to the deaerator through the low-pressure heaters and the ejector. The function of deaerator is to

13

reduce the dissolved oxygen in the condensate. From the deaerator, the feed water is pumped through the high-pressure heaters and the economizer to the boiler, where the steam is generated. This steam is heated in the superheater and is allowed into the turbine to do the work. After doing the work, the steam passes into the condenser and thus a regenerative cycle formed. To make up for the loss of water owing to the leakage through steam traps, which may be of the order of 10%, demineralized water is pumped into the feed system as make-up water. (iv) Cooling water circuit Exhaust steam in the condenser is cooled to reduce it to the condensate. A large amount of water is required for this purpose. If there is a river or a lake nearby with adequate quantity of water available throughout the year, the cooling water is pumped into the condenser from the upper side of the river. The heated water is discharged to the lower side of the river. If the quantity of cooling water is not sufficient for this open system, the heated water is cooled in the cooking towers or cooling ponds. The loss in cooling water due to evaporation is made up from the river. Such a system is called a closed system. The cooling water circuit is indicated by the circled numbers 2227 in Fig. 1.8. Economizer A huge amount of heat energy is lost in the flue gases coming out of the boiler. This loss is reduced in all modern thermal power plants by incorporating an air preheater and an economizer. An economizer is a feed-water heater. It extracts a part of the heat carried away by the flue gases up to the chimney and uses it to heat the feed water to the boiler. An economizer is placed in the direction of flow of the flue gases from the exit of the boiler to the entry of the chimney. By the use of an economizer, there is a considerable saving in the consumption of coal (1025%) and an increase the boiler efficiency (10 12%). However, the incorporation of an economizer requires extra investment and increases the maintenance costs and the floor area Fig. 1.11 Schematic diagram of an economizer required by the plant. The justifiable cost of an economizer depends on the increase in the boiler efficiency achieved. This in turn depends upon the flue gas temperature and the feed-water temperature. The schematic diagram of an economizer is shown in Fig. 1.11. It consists of a large number of small diameters, thin-walled tubes placed between two headers. The feed water enters at one

14

header, passes through the tubes, and leaves through the other header. The flue gases flow outsides the tubes. The heat extracted from the flue gases raises the temperature of the feed water. Feed-water heater The steam coming out of the turbine after doing the mechanical work is condensed in a condenser. The condensate is fed back to the boiler as feed water, after adding the make-up water. Before feeding it back to the boiler, the feed water is to be heated for the following reasons. Feed-water heating increases the boiler efficiency and thus improves the overall efficiency of the plant. The presence of the dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide causes the boiler corrosion. These are removed in the feed-water heater. The thermal stresses set up by the cold water entering into the boiler drum are avoided. Increased steam production by the boiler is achieved. The corrosion in the boiler and the condenser may cause the steam and condensate to carry some impurities. These are precipitated outside the boiler. Feed-water heaters are of two types: contact or pen heaters and surface or closed heaters. In small thermal power plants, open type heaters are used. These heaters receive the steam from backpressure turbine or engines used for driving the auxiliaries. In large thermal plants, the heat bled from the turbines is used for feed-water heating. In the closed feed-water heater, the steam bled from the turbines is used for heating the feed water. Boilers A boiler or a steam generator is one of the most important equipments in a thermal station. It consists of a closed vessel into which water is allowed and is heated to convert it into steam at the required pressure. The following are the requirements of a boiler. (i) It should be able to produce and maintain the desired steam pressure safely. (ii) The boiler should have an output, capable of supplying the steam required to the turbines with 510% overload capacity for small durations. (iii) The boiler should be able to deliver the steam at the desired rate, pressure temperature, and maintaining the quality. (iv) As the load on the system varies, during off-peak-load hours, some of the units may be shut down. During the peak-load hours, they are restarted. So, the boilers must be able to start quickly and take load. (v) Even high-ash content coals must be efficiently burnt by the boiler. (vi) The refractory material used must be as minimum as possible lest the efficiency should be affected adversely. Further, no joints should be exposed to the flames. Auxiliaries such as superheater, economizer, and air preheated may have to be provided. Flue gases contain a large amount of ash. About 97% of the fly ash is to be extracted so, every boiler must have an arrangement such as a mechanical ash precipitator or an electrostatic precipitator.

15

In general, the boiler design must be such that a maximum amount of heat produced in the process of combustion is absorbed. Heat is transferred to the boiler by conduction, convection, and radiation. Types of boilers Depending upon the contents of the tubular heating surface, the boilers are classified as fire tube boilers and water tube boilers. (i) Fire tube boilers These boilers consist of tubes through which the products of combustion and hot gases are passed. Surrounding these tubes is the water to be heated. Since water and steam are both present simultaneously in the shell of the boiler higher pressures cannot be accomplished. Pressures of the order of 17.5 kg/cm2, with a capacity of about 9,000 kg of steam per hours, are realizable. Depending upon wether the tubes are horizontal or vertical, whether the combustion chamber is within the boiler shell or outside the fire tube, boilers can be further subdivided into various types, as indicated in the diagram shown in Fig. 1.12.

Fig. 1.12 Fire tube boilers

Fire tube boilers have the advantages of simplicity, compactness, and rugged construction, besides an initial low cost. Further, they can easily meet the fluctuation in steam demand. However, they have the following disadvantages.

16

Larger time is required for steam rising. This is due to large quantity of water present in the drum. Higher pressures than 17.5 kg/cm2 cannot be attained, since water and steam are simultaneously present in the drum. The steam is wet and the output of the boiler is not high. Horizontal return tube boilers are used in thermal plants of low capacity and they occupy a higher floor space. Vertical fire tube boilers occupy less floor space. They are economical for low pressures. They are available in small sizes with steam capacity of about 15,000 kg/hour. (ii) Water tube boilers A water tube boiler consists of one or more drums and tubes. Water flow inside the tubes and hot flue gases flow outside the tubes. The tubes are always external to the drum and are interconnected to common water channels and to the steam outlet. The drum stores water and steam. The drums are built in smaller diameters and hence they can withstand higher pressures. Most of the conventional water tube boilers depend upon the natural circulation of water through the tubes. However, pumps may be used to obtain forced circulation of water in modern high-pressure steam boilers. Forced circulation of water has several advantages. The weight of the boiler is less and the foundations are cheap. The tubes are lighter and scaling problems are not present. Greater flexibility in the configuration of the furnaces, tubes, etc. Uniform heating of all parts and an increase in the efficiency of the boiler. Better control of temperature and quicker response to changes in the load. The disadvantages of forced circulation water include higher investment, increased cost of maintenance, and power consumption of the auxiliaries. Though water tube boilers with a single drum can operate satisfactorily water tube boilers of two- or three-drum type are commonly used in the thermal stations. Due to the development of high-pressure boilers, the capacities of the boilers have increased. Thus, boilers units with capacities of 1,000 ton/hour at pressures as high as 168 kg/cm2 Fig. 1.13 Water tube boilers (gauge) are available. The classification of the water tube boilers are shown in the Fig. 1.13.

17

Depending upon whether the tubes are arranged in horizontal, vertical, or inclined, the water tube boilers are classified as horizontal, vertical, or inclined tube boilers, respectively. The number of drums may be one or more. The advantages of the water tube boilers are given as: By increasing the number of tubes, a large heating surface can be obtained. Greater efficiency of the boiler can be achieved since the movement of water in the tubes is high with a consequent increase in the rate of heat transfer. Because of the large heating surface available, steam can be raised easily. Very high pressures can be obtained. The approximate efficiency of water tube boilers using coal as fuel and without any heat recovery can be taken as about 7577%. With the addition of heat recovery apparatus (such as economizer, superheated, and air preheater), efficiencies of the order of 8590% can be achieved. Use of oil as fuel may cause an increase in the efficiency to the extent of about 23%. Finally, the choice of a boiler is based on the initial cost, availability labor and maintenance costs, requirement of space, and the cost of the fuel. Methods of firing boilers There must be efficient combustion of fuel used in the boilers. This is ensured by (i) the proper quantities of the primary and secondary air needed for combustion, (ii) the necessary stoker or grate area needed for burning the coal, (iii) the designed temperature to be attained, and (iv) the non-formation of caking during the burning of the fuel. There are several methods of firing boilers, two are important. They are: (i) solid fuel firing and (ii) pulverized fuel firing. (i) Solid fuel firing The solid fuel firing of boilers may be accomplished in two ways. They are: (a) hand firing and (b) mechanical stoker firing. (a) Hand firing This is suitable for boilers of a small output. The grate consists of bar over which coal is put. Dampers are used to regulate the primary and the secondary air required for the combustion of the fuel. (b) Mechanical stoker firing Boilers of large output may require a lot of coal to be burnt in the furnace. In such cases, the fuel is fed to the furnaces by means of mechanical stokers. The advantages of this type of stoker firing are given below. As the coal is fed by the stokers, the labor cost is reduced. The fuel can be fed at a uniform rate. Fluctuations in the load demand can be met by a proper control of the combustion.

18

By burning more amount of coal, the boiler output can be increased. Poor grades of coal can be burnt with a proper control of the primary and secondary air. Again, mechanical stokers are of two kinds: (a) under feed stokers and (b) travel grate stokers. (a) Under feed stokers The fuel is burnt on the grate, the primary combustion air being fed under the grate. Secondary air is supplied at the top. Stoker rams or screw feed under the fuel bed are used to force fresh fuel so that the burnt out fuel is pushed away. (b) Travel grate stokers There is a chain grate which travels forward at a slow speed. The fuel is burnt on the chain grate. By the time the chain grate begins it backward journey, the whole of the fuel is completely burnt. The advantage of the travel grate stoker is that the dust content in the flue gases is very much reduced (approximately 1/3 less than in the underfeed stokers). (ii) Pulverized fuel firing The solid fuel firing is inadequate in many aspects, especially in plants with higher capacities (100 MW or more). The conventional methods are unable to meet the fluctuations in the load. They are not suitable for plants burning coal with high-ash content, since the ash content interferes with the combustion process. To overcome these difficulties, pulverized fuel firing is resorted. In pulverized fuel firing, the coal is ground into a fine powder in a grinding mill. It is led into the combustion chamber with the help of hot primary air currents. (Depending upon the type of pulverized used, the primary air may vary from 10% to 100% of the total air requirement.) To complete the combustion, an additional amount of air called the secondary air is circulated in the combustion chamber. Advantages of pulverized fuel firing The requirement of air for complete combustion is reduced, because of the increased surface area per unit mass of coal. Even low-grade coals with higher ash content can easily be burnt. The firing can be controlled to match the load requirements. There are no clinker and slagging problems. The system can work successfully even in combination with gas and oil fuels. Highly preheated air (350C) can be used as secondary air to help rapid prorogation of flame in the combustion chamber. Since the pulverizing system is located outside the furnace, it can be repaired without cooling the furnace. Larger steam capacities of the order of 2,000 ton/hour can be realized. Rapid and efficient starting of the boilers from cold. The burning losses are lower in the stoker firing system.

19

Since smokeless combustion is possible, the external heating surfaces are free from corrosion. Since there are no moving parts in the furnace which are subjected to high temperature, the system has a long and trouble-free life. The ash-handling problems are reduced to a minimum, i.e., practically there are no ashhandling problems. Less furnace volume. Because of the smaller requirement of air and thorough mixing of air and fuel, very highcombustion temperatures can be attained. Even fine wet coal can be used if the conveying equipment can carry it to the pulverizing mill. Disadvantages of pulverized fuel firing The investment cost of the plant is increased due to the high-initial cost of the pulverization plant. The operating cost is more than that of a stoker-fired system. The high-furnace temperatures, unburnt fuel, etc. deteriorate the refractory material. Because of the higher combustion temperatures, the thermal losses in the flue gasses are increased. There is a danger of explosion hazards so, skilled operating personnel are required. Auxiliary power consumption is increased. Fly ash, i.e., ash in the form of a fine dust is produced. Costly equipment, such as electrostatic precipitators, is required for its removal. The extra equipment such as mills and burners are needed. Special equipment is required for the removal of the slag deposited on the lower rows of boiler tubes. Difficulty in arresting the fine particles of coal going into the flue gases. The storage of powdered coal requires special care and protection against fire hazards. The fine grinding of fuel is not possible at all loads, in a unit system. Special starting up equipment is required. The advantages of using pulverized fuel outweighed the disadvantages, so that all modern power plants use pulverized coal. For pulverizing the coal, pulverizing mills are used. These are classified as contact mills, ball mills, and impact mills. Different systems of pulverized fuel operation There are different systems of pulverized fuel operation. They are (a) central system, (b) unit system, and (c) bin system. (a) Central system: The coal pulverized at a central plant is distributed to all the boilers. This method has a high degree of flexibility and ease of control over the quantity of fuel and air. However, a separable space is required to house the coal preparation plant besides a separate

20

crew of operators. Consequently, the installation and operation costs shoot up. Further, there are fire and explosion hazards. So, the unit system is preferred. (b) Unit system: Each boiler is provided with its own pulverizing plant to prepare and pulverize the fuel. The coal is led to the pulverizing mill by automatic control. This control also adjusts the supply of coal and air in accordance with the load. So, the pulverizing mill receives the warm air from the preheater. There is no necessity of separate drying. Pulverized coal is carried to the boiler by the primary air. The secondary air added around the burner mixes with the pulverized coal and the primary air. Combustion takes place with the fuel in suspension. It is simple and cheap in installation and operation and easy in regulation. (c) Bin system: The coal is ground at a constant rate. It is transported to the bin or the pulverized fuel store, from where it flows through the feeder to the burners. The speed of the feeder is adjusted to suit the varying load conditions. 1.3.7 Furnaces The efficient utilization of the pulverized coal depends to a large extent on the ability of the burners to produce a uniform mixing up of air and coal, and the turbulence within the furnace. Again, the design of a furnace is based on the following factors: The amount of fuel to be burnt. The type of the fuel to be burnt. The type of firing. The load on the boiler and the maximum steam output required. The operating pressure and the maximum steam output required. The degree of heat recovery required. In the furnaces fired by pulverized fuel, the combustion equipment has burners. The flame may be a short flame, a long flame, or a tangential. The furnace can be classified as: (a) dry bottom furnaces, (b) slagging furnaces, and (c) cyclone-fired furnaces. (a) Dry bottom furnaces: Fuels with medium or high-ash fusion temperatures are fired in these furnaces. As the fuel is burnt, about 40% of the ash contents fall into the ash pit because of the force of gravitation. On the other hand, if the ash is deposited on the tubes, it may fall due to gravity if the amount deposited is high. The deposited ash may be blown off at the time of soot blowing also.

21

The draw back of this furnace is that the ash particles are picked up along with the air intake through pit doors. Therefore, the ash content in the flue gases is very high, which is about six to seven times that of under-feed stokers. (b) Slagging furnaces: These furnaces use fuels which have lower ash fusion temperatures. The particles become molten after combustion. The tubes and walls get pasted with this sticky ash, which subsequently entraps the flue ash particles escaping with the products of combustion. The sticky flue ash particles escaping with the products of combustion. The sticky layers thus formed slide down into an ash pit, where they are cooled. (c) Cyclone-fired furnaces: It is a high-turbulence furnace used with some modern boilers. It is a wet-bottom furnace. The cyclone furnace is a horizontal cylinder of water-cooled construction: with its inner surface lined with chrome one. Primary air and partially crushed fuel are admitted tangentially to a small scroll section at the end of the cyclone. The swirling motion imparted is amplified by the secondary air admission tangential to the inner surface. There is combustion at a rapid rate and temperature of the order of 1,650C can be attained. The heat release of the furnace may be as high as 3.5 kcal/cm3/hour. The ash is removed in the molten form. The combustion air pressure is of the order of 700 1,000 mm of water gauge. I.D. fans are not normally required. Even if used, there are fewer burdens on the I.D. fans. In order that the boilers respond to quick load changes, it can have multiple cyclone installations instead of single one. Such boilers can handle 40110% load conditions. In a cyclone-fired furnace, the boiler can be fired with dry pulverized fly ash of the adjacent dry bottom installation units. 1.3.8 Superheaters and reheaters Superheater is one of the auxiliary equipment used to increase the efficiency of a boiler, in addition to such others as air preheaters (economizers) feed-water heaters, etc. A superheater is used to remove the last traces of moisture from the saturated steam which is leaving the boiler tube and to raise the temperature of the steam. Without the use of a superheater, the steam produced by a boiler has a dryness fraction of 98%, i.e., nearly saturated steam. If this steam (saturated steam) was admitted into the turbine, steam exhaust from the turbine will have low-dryness fraction. It may be practically wet steam, with the presence of moisture. The presence of moisture not only reduces the efficiency of the turbine, but also causes corrosion of its parts. To avoid this, the temperature of the steam at the point of admission into the turbine must be increased. This in turn requires that the temperature of the steam from the boiler output be raised. This is accomplished by superheating the steam with the help of a superheater to get superheated steam. Superheated steam is meant that

22

steam which contains more heat than the saturated steam at the small pressure. It is the steam heated to temperature higher than that corresponding to its pressure. The heat contained in the combustion gases from the furnace is used for superheating. The use of superheated steam increases the efficiency of the turbine. Superheated steam causes lesser corrosion of the turbine blades. It can be transmitted over longer distances with little heat loss. (i) Types of superheaters Superheaters may be classified into the following types: (i) convection type, (ii) radiant type, and (iii) the combination of convection and radiant types. The convection type of superheater utilizes the heat in the flue gases to heat the saturated steam. It is placed somewhere in the gas stream to receive most of the heat by convection. A radiant superheater is located in or near the furnace, customarily in the surface between the furnace wall tubes to absorb the heat from the luminous fuel by radiation. With an increase in the output of the boiler, a convection superheater exhibits a rising characteristic, while a radiant superheater exhibits a falling characteristic. To produce steam at constant high temperature, a combined superheater, i.e., a radiant superheater in series with a convection superheater, is used. Thus, the steam leaving the boiler drum passes through the convection section first and through the radiant section next. Finally, it passes to the steam heater. In addition to the superheater, reheater is also provided in the modern boiler. The reheater superheats the expanded steam from the turbine, so that the steam remains dry through the lost stage of the turbine. Just as a superheater, a reheater may be of the convection or radiant type or a combination of both the types is used. Modern boilers employ twin furnaces, one containing a superheater and the other a reheater. 1.3.9 Steam turbines As discussed earlier, the mechanical energy required to drive the alternators in a thermal power station obtained by converting the heat energy of steam. For this purpose, a steam turbine is used. It works on the principle that high velocity is attained by the steam issuing from a small opening. The velocity attained during the expansion of steam depends on the difference between the initial and final heat content of the steam, which represents the amount of heat energy converted into kinetic energy. The steam turbines are of two types. They are:

23

(i) Impulse turbines, and (ii) Reaction turbines. In both the impulse and the reaction turbines, the pressure drop takes place in several stages. The number of stages in a reaction turbine is more than that in an impulse turbine of the same rating. Steam turbines of rating up to 100,000 H.P. or even more are available. They have horizontal configuration. The standard speeds are 3,000 and 1,500 r.p.m. (to drive 2-pole and 4pole alternators, respectively for 50-Hz operation). Speed governors are used to maintain the speed constant at all loads either centrifugal or hydraulic type governors may be used. (i) Impulse turbines In the turbines, the steam expanded in the nozzles attains a high velocity. The steam jet impinges on the blades of rotor, which may be a built-up rotor or an integral rotor. In a built-up rotor, separate forged steel discs are shrunk and keyed onto a forged shaft. A built-up rotor can be manufactured easily and it is cheap. However, there is a possibility for the discs to become loose. In an integral rotor the wheels and the shaft are formed from a single solid forging, so that the discs cannot became loose. For high and intermediate pressures, integral rotors are used. In the impulse turbines, the steam pressure remains the same during the flow of steam over the turbine blades, since complete expansion takes place in the nozzles. The pressure is the same on the profile of the blades. (ii) Reaction turbines In a reaction turbine, the expansion of the steam takes place only partially in the nozzle. As the steam flows over the rotor blades, the further expansion takes place and the relative velocity of steam increases. Unlike in the impulse turbine, the pressure is not the same on the two sides of the moving turbine blades, which have an aerofoil section. Though designated as a reaction turbine, in reality, it is an impulse-reaction turbine, since there is a partial expansion of steam in the nozzle which is an impulse action. Modern reaction turbines have both moving and stationary blades. The blades are similar and arranged such that the area through which the steam leaves is less than that through which it enters. There is pressure drop in both the stationary and moving blades, the velocity of the steam leaving the blades is increased because of the restricted area at the outlet of the blades. 1.3.10 Condensers A condenser, as the very name implies, condenses the steam exhausted from the turbine. It helps maintain a low pressure (below the atmospheric pressure) at the exhaust. This use of a condenser in a power plant improves the efficiency. Further the steam condensed by the condenser may be used as a good source of feed water to the boiler. This results in a reduction of the work on the water treatment plant. The efficient operation of the condenser requires a high vacuum to be maintained in the condenser. Any leakage of air into the condenser destroys

24

the vacuum. However, the leakage of air cannot be completely eliminated. So, a vacuum pump is absolutely necessary to remove the air leaking into the condenser. Types of condensers Basically, there are two types of condensers. They are: (a) mixing type or jet condensers, and (b) non-mixing type or surface condensers. (a) Mixing type condensers The exhaust steam from the turbine and the cooling water come into direct contact. The steam condenses in the water directly. The condensate is not free from salts and other pollutants, so that it may not be reused as feed water. These condensers are rarely used in modern power plants. (b) Non-mixing type or surface condensers In these condensers, the steam and the cooling water do not come into contact with each other. Cooling water passes through the tubes attached to the condenser shell and steam surrounds the tubes. The condensate coming out from the condenser can be used as feed water. These condensers are used in all high-capacity modern power plants. Figure 1.14 shows the schematic diagram of a surface condenser. It consists of a cast iron airtight cylindrical shell closed at each end. A number of water tubes are fixed in the tube plates located between the cover head and the shell. The exhaust steam from the turbine enters at the top of the condenser. It surrounds the condenser tubes through which cooling water is circulated under force. The steam gets condensed as it comes into contact with the cold surface of the water tubes. The cooling water flows in one direction through a set of tubes located in the lower half of the condenser and returns through the other set in the upper half. The cooling water coming from the condenser is discharged into a river or pond. The condensed steam is taken out of the condenser by a separate extraction Fig. 1.14 Schematic diagram of a surface condenser pump. Air is removed by an air pump. The surface condensers are generally used where large quantities of poor quality cooling water are available and pure feed water to the boiler must be used very economically.

25

1.3.11 Cooling towers A cooling tower is a steel or concrete hyperbolic structure. There is reservoir at the bottom for storing the cold water. Water is circulated from the basin of the cooling tower through the condenser. It absorbs latent heat from the steam to get warm. This hot water is return to the cooling tower. It is dropped from a height of about 810 m. The cooling tower reduces the temperature of the hot water by about 7C10C, as it falls down into the basin at the bottom of the cooling tower. This water at the reduced temperature is circulated through the condenser and the cycle is repeated. The reduction in the temperature of the water is brought about by allowing the air flows from bottom to the top. The water drops, as they falls from the top, come into contact with the air and lose heat to the air and get cooled. (i) Types of cooling towers Depending upon the method of creating air movement through the cooling towers, they can be classified as: (i) natural draught cooling towers, (ii) forced draught cooling towers, and (iii) induced draught cooling towers. (i) Natural draught cooling towers In these towers, air movement is induced by a large chimney and the difference in the densities of air inside and out side the chimney. These towers have relatively better output at the lower wet bulb. Relative humidity influences buoyancy drive and chimney effect. At high-relative humidity, the performance of these towers is better Figure 1.15 shows the details of a natural draught cooling tower. Circulating water is diverted in small channels all-round the tower and toward the center and arranged to fall in droplets. This results in a considerable evaporation and cooling. The difference in the pressure of the hot air column inside the tower and the equivalent column of cold air outside the tower predicted the necessary draught. Fig. 1.15 Natural draught cooling tower Water from the base of the

26

cooling tower is pumped into the condenser and the cycle is repeated. (ii) F.D. cooling towers Figure 1.16 shows the arrangement of forced draught tower. The fan is located at the bottom of tower and air is blown by the fan up through the descending water. The hot water from the condenser enters the nozzle and falls in the pond through the hurdles. The entrained water is removed by drift eliminator provided on the top.

Fig. 1.16 Forced draught cooling tower

(iii) I.D. cooling towers Figure 1.17 shows the arrangement of I.D. tower. The difference between F.D. and induced drought lies in supply of air. In this case, the fan is located at the top of the cooling tower and air enters through the louvers located on the sides of the towers as shown in Fig. 1.17.

Fig. 1.17 Induced draught cooling tower

27

The fans pull the air upwards from the cooling tower and the hot air is exhausted at a considerable velocity after cooling the water on its way. These types of cooling towers are popular for very large capacity installations. 1.3.12 Chimneys In modern power plants, the purpose of the chimney is to discharge the exhaust gases into the atmosphere at a high elevation so as to avoid the nuisance to the people living in the locality. The reasons for providing a chimney are: To discharge the products of combustion at a great height to avoid nuisance. To create more draught to pull the products of combustion. The diameter at the base of the chimney and the connecting ducts should be adequate to allow the volume of gases to pass through without the necessity of the gases to acquire high speed. The chimney should be firmly supported and anchored to withstand high wind. The main load acting on the chimney are its own load and wind pressure. The chimney must be designed for structural stability against these factors. Types of chimneys The three types of chimneys mainly used are: (i) steel chimneys, (ii) site constructed chimneys, and (iii) plastic chimneys. (i) Steel chimneys These are used for short exhaust stacks, where the draught is created by a fan. They are lined with brick to increase the life. They can be erected in a short time. Self-supporting steel stacks located on the roof of the power house must be enclosed carefully and sufficient structural steel bracing should be used to carry the load to the building column. (ii) Site constructed chimneys These are built of brick or concrete with mineral or steel liners. Though in the earlier days common bricks were used, nowadays, perforated radial bricks are used for best results. The performance aid the structural stability. The heat insulating properties of the dead air space formed are advantageous for getting maximum draught performance of the chimney. Since the construction process is very slow, brick chimneys are rarely used in large thermal power stations. (iii) Plastic chimneys These chimneys are built of glass with reinforced plastic. However, these chimneys did not stand well against gas temperature. These are used wherever there is a requirement for a low stress, low-temperature chimney for corrosive effluents.

28

Efficiency The energy efficiency of a conventional thermal power station, considered salable energy produced as a percent of the heating value of the fuel consumed, is typically 33% to 48%. As with all heat engines, their efficiency is limited, and governed by the laws of thermodynamics. The energy of a thermal not utilized in power production must leave the plant in the form of heat to the environment. This waste heat can go through a condenser and be disposed of with cooling water or in cooling towers. If the waste heat is instead utilized for district heating, it is called co-generation. An important class of thermal power station are associated with desalination facilities; these are typically found in desert countries with large supplies of natural gas and in these plants, freshwater production and electricity are equally important co-products. Electricity cost The direct cost of electric energy produced by a thermal power station is the result of cost of fuel, capital cost for the plant, operator labour, maintenance, and such factors as ash handling and disposal. Indirect, social or environmental costs such as the economic value of environmental impacts, or environmental and health effects of the complete fuel cycle and plant decommissioning, are not usually assigned to generation costs for thermal stations in utility practice, but may form part of an environmental impact assessment.

HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER PLANTS

In hydroelectric power stations, electrical energy is generated by converting the energy stored in the water. Thus, the water stored at a higher level (devotion) is made to impinge on the blades of a hydraulic turbine through a penstock to covert the potential energy and kinetic energy of water into mechanical energy. The mechanical energy thus generated is used to drive the generator coupled to the turbines to produce electrical power. Hydroelectric stations can be usually located only at such places where water is available in abundance, more over at a reasonable head (difference in levels) throughout the year. The required information can be obtained from the records maintained in respect of the annual rainfall, runoff, dry years, frequency of dry years, etc. over a period of 2530 years. As electrical energy is generated by the use of water in the hydroelectric stations and as such there is no cost of fuel, it may appear that the hydroelectric power is very cheap. However, this is not the case: The storage of water at a reasonable head requires the construction of a dam and involves many civil engineering works. The stations are normally located in non-popular mountainous areas, far away from the load centers, thereby necessitating longer transmission network, etc. Because of the civil engineering works involved, the fixed costs increase; however, the running costs are much less as compared to those of the thermal power stations. Further the

29

hydroelectric power stations may be developed as an integral part of multipurpose projects, such as irrigation and power, flood control and power or flood control, navigation, and power projects. 1.2.1 Hydrology For the successful operation of any hydroelectric project, a huge quantity of water must be available throughout the year. So, it is necessary to obtain the stream-flow data, and hence to estimate the yearly possible flow. This necessitates having some basic ideas pertaining to hydrology. Hydrology or hydrography deals with the occurrence and distribution of water over and under the surface of the earth. Water is received on the surface of the land in three ways such as rain, hail, or snow. This is generally referred to as the precipitation and is part of the hydrological or water cycle. The water cycle consists of evaporation, precipitation, transpiration, etc. Thus, the heat of the sun causes the evaporation of water from the seas, oceans, and other water surfaces. This leads to the formation of moist air, clouds, and air currents and the condensation of water vapor. As a result, there is precipitation or rainfall. A part of the precipitation is lost due to evaporation from the water area, soil evaporation, and transpiration, i.e., transpiration from the surface of the leaves and the water absorbed by the vegetation in the area. When the loss of water due to the various causes is subtracted from the precipitation, we get the stream flow. The stream flow is made up of the surface flow and the percolation through the ground. The amount of water that joins a stream is called runoff. 1.2.2 Stream flow, hydrographs, and flowduration curves stream flow Stream-flow data play a vital role in considering any hydroelectric power station. From the data collected at the proposed site over a long period, the average flow and the output power can be estimated. From a survey of the site, the head available can be determined. The stream flow is normally non-uniform. Thus, the minimum or low-water flow data used to estimate firm power of a hydroelectric station. The maximum flow data provide the information necessary for estimating the floods and for designing the spillway. Further, the maximum stream-flow conditions help in arriving at the capacity of the flood control reservoir, the purpose of which is to limit the discharge to a predetermined safe value. In order to maintain the flow at a given value, a storage reservoir is needed. The capacity of the storage reservoir can be estimated from the stream-flow data. 1.2.3 Hydrographs A hydrograph is a plot of the discharge (on the y-axis), against time (on the x-axis) in the chronological order. The discharge can be expressed in terms of the gauge height, cubic meters per second per square kilometer, the power that can be developed theoretically corresponding to a fall of 1 m or the energy recorded at the switch board (in kWh or MWh). Similarly, the time may be expressed in hours, days, or weeks. An inspection of the hydrograph provides the following information. 1. Rate of flow at any point in time.

30

2. Variation of flow with time. A hydrograph is useful: 1. To determine the power available at different times of the day or year. 2. To determine the volume of the flow up to a given point of time by measuring the area under the hydrograph up to that time. A hydrograph is similar to the load curve. To study the effect of storage on flow, a hydrograph is required. Flowduration curve A plot of flows (daily, weekly, or monthly) (on the y-axis) against percentage time (on the xaxis) is called the flowduration curve. Whereas the flows are plotted as they occur, i.e., chronologically on the hydrograph, the flows are plotted against the percentage of time over which the flow was either equal to or greater than a particular flow in the case of a flowduration and the maximum flow for a smaller percentage of time. Thus, let us suppose that we have n monthly discharge readings. In these, let nq readings indicate a discharge equal to or greater than a particular discharge, say Q cubic meters per second. Then, the percentage of time over which the discharge was either equal to or greater than Q will be (nq/n) 100%. The flowduration curve can be converted to the loadduration curve of a hydroelectric plant provided the head at which the plant operates is known. In case storage is available on the up-stream side, the flowduration curve will be altered. A flowduration curve is useful: 1. To determine the primary power (form the low-water flow data). 2. To determine the time during which flow may occur. 3. In designing the spillway to allow the escape of floodwater. 1.2.4 Mass curve Rainfall is different during different times of the year, so the river flow also will be different at different times of the year. In order to have a uniform discharge, the water may have to be stored by means of reservoir. Thus, if the water supply is in excess of the requirement in one season, it will be stored in the reservoir to augment the supply of water during the deficient periods. The capacity of the reservoir can be determined by making the use of a mass curve. It is a plot of the cumulative volume of water that can be stored from the stream flow (on the yaxis) against time (on the x-axis). The time may be in days, weeks, or months. Though, theoretically, the volume of water stored is to be expressed in cubic meters, it is usually expressed in daysecondmeters. A daysecond meter is volume of water corresponding to a flow at the rate of 1 m3/s for one day. i.e., 1 day secondmeter = 1 24 60 60 = 86,400 m3. 1.2.5 Advantages and disadvantages of hydroelectric plants Since electrical energy is obtained from the water in the hydroelectric stations, obviously the operating costs are less. However, since the hydroelectric stations are usually to be located far

31

from load centers, there is a considerable expenditure involved in laying the transmission network. The various advantages and disadvantages are listed below. Advantages of hydroelectric station 1. Since there is no cost of fuel as such, the operating costs of a hydroelectric plant including auxiliaries are considerably less than those in the case of a thermal power station. 2. Hydroelectric stations do not require the purchase, transportation, and storage of large quantities of fuel as in the case of thermal stations. 3. There is no necessity of fuel- and ash-handling equipment. 4. There is no air pollution and other environmental problems. 5. The cost per kWh of a hydroelectric station is not considerably affected by the load factor, as in the case of a thermal station. 6. The maintenance costs of a hydroelectric station are minimal. 7. Hydraulic turbines are robust. They run at low speeds of the order of 3,000 400 r.p.m., so there are no specialized mechanical problems as in the case of steam turbines, which run at 3,000 r.p.m. 8. The efficiency of a hydroelectric plant does not change with age. 9. Hydroelectric plants can respond more quickly to load changes than thermal plants. 10. The plants are simple in construction and robust. They have a life period of 100125 years. 11. Though large number of engineers and skilled workers are required during the construction phase, only a few of them are sufficient for operating the plant. Thus, plantrunning cost is less. 12. The plants are quite neat and clean. 13. A single unit of a very high output can be used. 14. The water used for running the turbines may also be used for such purpose as irrigation, etc. 15. The cost of the land is low, since hydroelectric stations are situated far away from populated areas. Disadvantages of hydroelectric plants 1. Hydroelectric plants require huge quantities of water. As rainfall is at the mercy of nature, long dry seasons affect the delivery of power. 2. Since many civil engineering works are involved, it takes a long time for the erection of a hydroelectric plant. 3. As the sites for hydroelectric stations are usually far away from the load centers, the cost of transmission lines is high. 4. The capitals cost of generators is usually high. 1.2.6 Selection of site for hydroelectric plants The following are the points to be considered for the selection of site for hydroelectric power station. 1. Abundant quantity of water at reasonable head must be available. 2. It must be possible to construct an economical dam.

32

3. Transport facilities for workers and material must be made available, i.e., the site should easily be accessible. 4. Availability of labor at a cheaper rate. 5. It should allow strong foundation with low cost. 6. Sittings reduce the reservoir capacity. So, the rate of sitting should not be high. 7. Structures of cultural or historical importance should not be damaged. 8. There should be no possibility of future sources of leakages of water. 9. A large catchments area must be available. 10. During the construction period, it should be possible to divert the stream. 11. Sand, gravel, etc., should be available nearby. 1.2.7 Water power equation In hydroelectric power station, the energy stored in the water is first converted into mechanical energy, which is used to drive the turbines to which the generators are coupled. Thus, the power developed at hydroelectric plant depends upon: 1. the head, H (in m) and 2. the discharge, Q (in m3/sec.). We know that work done by 1 kg of water as it falls though a height of H m =1 (kg) H (m) = H kg-m, if the final velocity of water is zero. Again, water discharge at a rate of Q m3/sec, which corresponds to (Q 1,000) kg/sec, where 1,000 represents the weight of 1 m3 of water. So, the theoretical work done per second, as water falls at the rate of Q m3/sec form a height of H m. P = 1,000 Q H kg-m/sec. If is the efficiency of the turbine-alternator set, the effective work done/sec:

Thus, the power output in kW = 9.81Q H kW. Note: In the above equation, H is the effective head, i.e., the head available after loss of head in penstocks due to friction is taken into consideration. 1.2.11 Working principle of a hydroelectric plant The water available at a reasonable head from the river or the reservoir behind the dam is received by the intake works and the forebay, from where it is allowed to flow under pressure through the penstocks to run the turbines. In the reaction turbines, the water led to the turbine through a scroll case or scroll flame strikes the turbine vanes. It is let out through a draft tube into the tailrace without any loss of pressure. To allow the requisite quantity of water to cope up

33

with the varying load demand, control gates are operated by a governor with the help of servomechanism and oil pressure system. In the case of high-head installations, impulse turbines are used to convert the pressure head into velocity head by the nozzles at the admission of water into the turbines. The water impinging on the buckets of the runner causes the motion. After the work has been done, the water is let out into the tailrace. No draft tube is required as in the case of the reaction turbines. By varying the nozzle-opening with the help of a governor activated by a servo-mechanism, the required quantity of water can be made to impinge on the buckets of the runner of the turbine. Reaction units are generally vertical; to arrange the draft tube etc., the power station requires many substructure and superstructure. However, in the case of impulse units, no substructure is necessary. Further, these units allow both the horizontal and vertical configurations. The generators driven by the turbines produce the electric power. The speed of the turbinegenerator set depends upon the head, specific speed of the turbine, and the power of the unit. 1.2.8 Classification of hydroelectric plants Hydroelectric plants are classified on different bases. Thus, they are classified according to: 1. Head of water available. 2. Nature of load supplied. 3. Regulation of water flow. (i) Classification according to head of water available (a) Low-head plants If the available water head is less than 30 m, the plant is called a low-head plant. The necessary head is created by construction of a dam or barrage. The power plant is situated near the dam. Regulating gates are provided to discharge the surplus of water. Kaplan turbines may be used. The only disadvantage is that the power output is reduced when the discharge increases as it causes an increase in the downstream water level, with a consequent reduction in the effective head. Structure of such plants is extensive and expensive. Generators used in these plants are of low speed and large diameter. Figure 1.1 shows a low-head installation. (b) Medium-head plants If the available water head is between 30 and 100 m, the plant is called a medium-head plant. In these plants, water is brought from the main reservoir through an open channel to the

34

forebay. Water is led to the turbines from the forebay by the penstocks, which may be steel pipes. Forebay also stores the rejected water as the load on the turbine decreases. Francis turbines are normally used. Figure 1.2 shows a medium-head installation.

(c) High-head plants If the available head is more than 100 m, the plant is called high-head plant. The civil works include a surge tank, the function of which is to meet the sudden changes in the requirement of water caused by the fluctuations in the system load. For heads less than 200 m, Francis turbines are used, while for higher heads, Pelton turbines are used. A pressure tunnel brings the water from the reservoir to the value house at the start of the penstocks. The generators used are of high speed and small diameter. Penstocks are of large length and comparatively smaller crosssection. Figure 1.3 shows a high-head installation.

35

(ii) Classification according to nature of load supplied Figure 1.4 shows the daily load curve of a particular system. A single plant designed to carry the entire load will have a low-load factor. So, the load is divided into two parts. They are base load and peak load. Base load is present for most of the day, while the peak load persists only for smaller period. So, the load may be supplied by two plants, one supplying the base load and the other the peak load; hence, the plants are classified as base-load plants and peak-load plants.

36

(a) Base-load plants These supply the base load of the system so that the load on the plants is almost constant and hence the load factor is very high. The capacity of these plants is usually very high. Runoff river plants are without pondage or reservoir. Plants are used as base-load plants. The cost per kWh generated should be low in order that the plant be used as a base-load plant. (b) Peak-load plants These plants supply the peak load of the system. Reservoir plants can be used as peak-load plants. Further, runoff river plants with pondage can be operated as peak-load plants during the periods of lean flow. The storage of water is an essential feature of the peak-load plants. Water is stored during the off-peak period. The load factor of the peak-load plant is lower. Pumped-storage plants also fall under the category of the peak-load plants. Pumped storage plants The schematic diagram of a pumped storage plant is shown in Fig. 1.5. Pumped storage plants have a small headwater pond, in addition to a tail water pond. During the peak-load period, water is drawn down from the headwater pond through the penstock to generate electric power. The water accumulated in the tail-water pond is pumped back to the headwater pond during the off-peak period. In the earlier days, the pumping was done by a separate pump. However nowadays, reversible turbine pump is used for the purpose. Thus, during the peak-load period, the turbine drives the alternator to generate electrical energy. During the off-peak period, the alternator acts as a motor deriving its power from the supply mains to drive the turbine as a pump to pump the water from the tail water pond to the head-water pond. So, the same water is used again and again to generate electrical energy. However, to take care of evaporation and

37

seepage, some extra water is needed. The off-peak pumping helps maintain the firm capacity of the pumped storage plant.

The capacity of the reservoir should be adequate so as to enable the plant of supply the peak load for 411 hours. As said earlier, during the off-peak period, the motor has to receive its power supply from the power system, which is a mixture of hydro-thermal, and nuclear power stations. The excess energy generated by steam and nuclear plant is used to drive the motor for pumping water to the headwater pond. This will result in an increase of the load factor of the steam and nuclear power stations thereby ensuring the most economic operation. Advantages of the pumped storage plants The following are some of the advantages of the pumped storage plants: Since the same water is used again, peak loads can be supplied at a cost less than that if the peak loads were to be supplied by steam or nuclear power plants. Pumped-storage plants can pick up the load very quickly. In case of necessity, they can be started within 2 or 3 sec and can be loaded to their capacity in about 15 sec. So, they provide standby capacity on short notice. The excess energy generated by steam and nuclear plants during the off-peak load is utilized to drive the motors in the pumped storage plants. Consequently, the load factor of the steam and nuclear stations are improved, which contributes to their economic operation. The forced and maintenance outages of the base-load stations are reduced. The spinning reserve is reduced, since the pumped storage plants can pick up the load very quickly. They can be used for load frequency control.

38

(iii) Classification according to regulation of water flow Depending upon the water flow regulation, hydroelectric plants can be classified as: 1. Runoff river plants without pondage. 2. Runoff river plants with pondage. 3. Reservoir plants. (a) Runoff river plants without pondage The flow of water is affected by the rainfall. Thus, the flow is high when the rainfall is more and low when the rainfall is less. In the runoff river plants without pondage, no efforts are made to regulate or control the flow of water. Water is used as it comes. Normally, in this type of plants, the generation of electrical energy is only incidental. The water may be used for such other purposes as irrigation or navigation. During high-flow periods, a substantial portion of the base load is supplied, with a consequent saving of coal which would have been otherwise required by the thermal plants. It may happen that the water is wasted during low-load periods. Further, the firm capacity of the plant is low, since the power generated during the low-flow period is low. Such plants can be constructed at a considerably low cost. (b) Runoff river plants with pondage These are basically runoff river plants but with a small amount of storage called pondage. Pondage refers to the storage of water at the plant to meet the hourly fluctuations of load on the station. The firm capacity of the stations is increased by pondage, if the effective head is not reduced by an increase in the tailrace level caused by floods. Depending upon the stream flow, these plants can be made to operate as base-load plants or peak-load plants in conjunction with steam plants. Maximum conservation of coal can thus be accomplished. (c) Reservoir plants In this type of plants, which are very common, water is stored in a reservoir behind a dam to be put to effective use. The flow of water can be controlled, so that the firm capacity of the plant is increased. These plants can be operated as base-load or peak-load plants. The factors that determine the operation in one or the other type (i.e., base load or peak load) are the amount of water stored, the rate of inflow, and the system load. 1.2.9 Function of the various components in a hydroelectric generation system The various components in a hydroelectric generation system include: 1. storage reservoir, 2. dam, 3. forebay, 4. intake, 5. surge tank, 6. penstocks, 7. spillway, and 8. tail race. A brief description of the various components and their functions are given below. (a) Storage reservoir

39

The runoff from the rivers will be different during different seasons of the year. During rainy seasons, the runoff is high and during dry seasons it is low. To put the water to the most effective use, it becomes necessary to store the water during the rainy season when there is excess flow so that the same can be used during the periods of lean flow. This necessitates the development of a storage reservoir to help the required quantity of water to be supplied to the turbines in order that the required power can be developed by the plant. The capacity of the storage reservoir, which can be determined from the mass curve, depends upon the difference between the maximum and the minimum runoff encountered during the high- and lean-flow periods, respectively. Low-head plants require a reservoir of a large capacity. (b) Dam In order to store the water and create an artificial head, a dam to be constructed. It is a highly expensive and the most important part of a hydroelectric plant. There are several types of dams, such as: 1. masonary dams (solid gravity concrete dam, arch dam, and buttress dam), 2. earth dams, and 3. rock fill dams. The factors that influence the type of the dam at a particular site are topography of the site, geological conditions, and subsoil conditions. The dams should be safe and economical besides having an esthetic appearance. (c) Forebay The water flowing from the dam is received by an enlarged body of water at the intake. It is called the forebay and it is intended to provide the temporary storage of water to meet the hourto-hour load fluctuations on the station. The enlarged section of a canal or a pond, capable of accommodating the necessary widths of the intake, can serve the purpose of a forebay. (d) Intake The passage to water to the penstock, channel, or water conduit is provided by the intake. The intake structure should prevent the entry of debris and ice into the turbines. So, it is to be provided with trash racks, screens, and booms. Intake structures are of two types: high pressure and low pressure. If the storage reservoirs are big, the high-pressure intake structures are used. In the case of ponds provided to store water to meet daily or weekly load fluctuations, the low-pressure intake structures can be used. (e) Surge tank The power output of a generator at a particular hydroelectric power plant is directly proportional to the discharge, i.e., P Q and the load on the system varies so that the load on the generator goes on fluctuation. This requires that the water intake to the turbine be regulated accordingly. Thus, when the load on the alternator is reduced, the governor closes the turbine gates. This sudden closure of the turbine gates causes an increase in the pressure in the penstock. This is referred to as water hammer. Similarly, an increased load on the alternator causes the governor to open the turbine gates to allow more water. This sudden opening of the turbine gates has a tendency to cause a vacuum in the penstocks. Both the water hammer and the negative pressure (vacuum) are detrimental to the proper functioning of the penstocks and are to be avoided. A

40

surge tank is used to take care of these sudden changes in the water requirements and the consequent water hammer of vacuum. In Fig. 1.6, a surge tank is shown. It acts as a relief value by allowing sufficient quantity of water to flow into or out of the surge tank. A reduction in load demand allows water to flow into the surge tank, thereby raising the water level. So, a retarding head is created and the velocity of water in the penstock is decreased. Similarly, an increased demand causes the water to flow out of the surge tank. This reduces the water level in the surge tank.

So, an accelerating head is created which increases the flow in the penstocks. This prevents the negative pressure (vacuum) to be created in the penstock. Thus, the surge tank is useful in stabilizing the velocity and pressure in the penstock, thereby reducing the water hammer and the vacuum. The surge tank is to be located as near the powerhouse as possible. (f) Penstock It is a conduit system for taking water from the intake works and forebay to the turbines. These are two types and they are low- and high-pressure types. The low-pressure type consists of a canal, a flume, or a pipe line. The high-pressure type consists of steel pipe which can take the water under pressure. A penstock may be buried below the surface of the earth or it may be exposed. Penstock pipes are generally of steel for high- and medium-head plants and concrete in low-head plants. Each turbine will have its own penstock. (g) Spillway During floods, there will be excess water. This is to be discharged without causing any damage to the dam and allowing a predetermined head to be maintained. It will be acting as a safety valve for dam. For this purpose, a spillway which may be of the types: overflow, chute, sidechannel, shaft, and siphon spillways. Alternatively, a bypass tunnel or a conduit may be used. (h) Tailrace

41

The water after running the turbine is to be discharged into the river. For this purpose, a tailrace is required. Some turbines require a draft-tube while others do not. If a draft tube is used, it must be water sealed all the time. Impulse turbines can discharge the water directly into the tailrace. The tailrace should allow the free exit of water and an unimpeded passage to the jet of water leaving the turbine. 1.2.10 Location of a hydroelectric station Generally, the hydroelectric stations are to be located at the foot of the dam and near the storage reservoir. This arrangement results in a reduction in the length of penstocks and a corresponding reduction in power loss. Further, the loss of head due to the friction in the penstocks is reduced. The hydroelectric stations may also be located under ground. It results in safety to the installation. However, factors such as the cost of excavation, cost of tunneling, savings due to the reduction in the length of the penstock and its thickness, and the increase in the available head at the turbines are to be critically examined before arriving at the conclusion.

NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

In the previous units, we discussed in detail the hydroelectric and thermal power stations. Hydroelectric stations are to be backed up by the thermal stations since the operation of hydroelectric stations is very much dependent on the rainfall, etc. Again, the thermal power stations require huge quantities of coal. The coal reserves are getting fastly depleted. So, the alternative sources of energy generation are to be sought. The nuclear energy is one among them. The discovery of utilization of nuclear fuel for electric power plants has been presently taken high importance. The nuclear fuel is highly concentrated from the heat energy. It has been found that 1 kg of atomic material (i.e., uranium) can produced as much energy as produced by burning 3,000 ton of high-grade coal. This shows that nuclear energy can be successfully employed to bridge the gap caused by inadequate coal and oil supplies. 1.4.1 Working principle of a nuclear power station The schematic diagram of nuclear power station is shown in Fig. 1.18. A generating station in which nuclear energy is converted into electrical energy is known as nuclear power station. The main components of this station are nuclear reactor, heat exchanger or steam generator, steam or gas turbine, AC generator and exciter, and condenser.

42

The reactor of a nuclear power plant is similar to the furnace in a steam power plant. The heat liberated in the reactor due to the nuclear fission of the fuel is taken up by the coolant circulating in the reactor. A hot coolant leaves the reactor at top and then flows through the tubes of heat exchanger and transfers its heat to the feed water on its way. The steam produced in the heat exchanger is passed through the turbine and after the work has done by the expansion of steam in the turbine, steam leaves the turbine and flows to the condenser. The mechanical or rotating energy developed by the turbine is transferred to the generator which in turn generates the electrical energy and supplies to the bus through a step-up transformer, a circuit breaker, and an isolator. Pumps are provided to maintain the flow of coolant, condensate, and feed water. 1.4.2 Advantages and disadvantages of nuclear power plants Some of the advantages of nuclear power plants are: 1. They reduce the demand for coal, gas, and oil. 2. Fuel required is only in kilograms; hence, there is no problem for transportation, storage, etc. 3. It requires less area as compared to any other plant of the same size. 4. The running costs are less. 5. For large capacity, nuclear power plants are more economical, 6. The cost per unit decreases when the power generated is in large. 7. The output control is extremely flexible. 8. These are not affected by adverse weather conditions. Some of the disadvantages of nuclear power plants are: 1. High initial capital cost as compared to other types of power plants. 2. These plants are not suitable for varying loads, as reactors cannot be easily controlled.

43

3. It is difficult to shield the plant from radioactive radiation. 4. The disposal of fission products is a big problem. 5. The maintenance cost is high. 1.4.3 Location of nuclear power station Some of the important points to be kept in view in choosing a site for the location of a nuclear power plant are: 1. Proximity to the load center: The nuclear power station should be located as near to the load center as possible in order to reduce transmission losses. 2. Availability of water supply: The cooling water requirement of the nuclear power station is more than double that of a coal plant of the same size. So, it is preferable to locate the plant near a river or a lake. 3. Distance from population area: As per as possible it should be away from thickly populated area, in view of danger of radio activity in the vicinity of the plant. 4. Accessibility: A nuclear plant requires very little fuel. Therefore, rail facilities are not required for the transport of fuel. However, transport facilities are required during the construction stages. 5. To improve the reliability of supply to the whole area, nuclear plants may be located far removed from coal fields and hydro sites. 6. Radioactive waste disposal: The location must be suitable for short-time storage and long-term burial of the radioactive waste. 1.4.4 Energymass relationship: Einstein's law According to Einstein's theory of relativity, mass and energy are interchangeable. Energy can be produced by destroying mass and mass can be produced by the expenditure of energy. Mathematically: = 2 , (1.1)

where E is the energy in J, m is the mass in kg, and c is the velocity of light in m/sec (= 3 108 m/sec). Nuclear energy is produced by the destruction mass. Thus, if 1 kg of mass is destroyed, according to Equation (1.1), the energy produced is: = 1 (3 108 )2 kg-m2/sec2 = 9 1016 N-m/sec or J or W-sec = (9 1016 ) [60 60 106 ] MW hours = 25 106 MWh. For convenience, energy is expressed in units of electron-volts in nuclear engineering. Electron-volt: It is the energy gained by an electron in falling through a potential difference of 1
1 1

44

V. An electron has a negative charge of 1.602 1019 C. Now, 1 eV = 1.602 1019 J, so that 1 million eV (MeV) = 1.602 1013 J. 1 = 1.6021013
1

(1.2)

Again the energy corresponding to one atomic mass unit (a.m.u.) is equal to 1.494 10 10 J, so that: 1 = 1.4941010 . .
1.4941010 1

(1.3)

From Equations (1.2) and (1.3), we have:

1 . . = 1.6021013 = 931.1 (1.4) 1.4.5 Mass defect and binding energy We know that an atom consists of protons, neutrons, and electrons; each one of which possesses a finite mass. However, the weight of an atom is always less than the sum of the weights of its protons, neutrons, and electrons. The difference is known as the mass defect. The mass defect of a given nucleus can be calculated as:

where mp and mn are the masses of the proton and the neutron, respectively, Z is the atomic number, and A is the mass number. The energy equivalent of the mass defect is called the binding energy. It can be calculated from the relation.

1 a.m.u. of mass defect equals 931 MeV of binding energy. An amount of mass equals to mass defect is converted into potential energy to hold the nucleus together. The binding energy per nucleon varies from element to element. The binding energy (or mass deficiency) is highest at the center of the periodic table (or elements). So, if lighter elements are fused together or heavier elements are split, there will be a release of energy. Thus, the energy release can be obtained: 1. by combining light nuclei, the process being know as fusion. 2. by breaking up heavy nuclei into nuclei of intermediate size, the process being known as fission. In nuclear power plants, the fission process is used for generation of energy. It results in an increase in the binding energy per nucleon. Kinetic energy and heat are developed by the change in the binding energy.

45

1.4.6 Nuclear reaction The naturally occurring nuclear disintegration is slow and uncontrolled. However, different types of nuclear reaction can be produced by particle accelerators. When charged particles such as protons or -particles are accelerated, they acquire sufficient energy to cause nuclear reactions when they hit a target nucleus. The particles that are commonly used to start and accelerate nuclear reactions are: 1. proton 1H1, 2. -particle 2He4, 3. dueteron 1H2, 4. neutron 0n1, and 5. -rays. The nuclear reactions depend upon the bombarded element or isotope and the kind of the bombarding particle. When the nucleus of an element is bombarded, the result any be a stable or an unstable atom, smaller nucleus of the atom of a different type. Before finally reaching a stable state, the smaller atom thus formed, if radioactive, may emit energy in the form of radiation or particles. Though an element may be bombarded by different methods, the neutron bombardment results in many advantages. In particular, the neutrons move through matter for longer distances without being stopped, as they have no charge. Neutrons can be produced by various methods: 1. Particle accelerators such as cyclotrons or vande graft generators speed up charged particles to bombard a target nucleus such as lithium and beryllium, which produces a neutron beam. 2. -Particle reactions use -emitters such as radium to bombard a light element such as beryllium or boron: 3. Bombardment of light element such as beryllium by -rays: 4. Neutrons used to produce the fission reaction in nuclear reactors, produce some more highspeed neutrons. 1.4.7 Nuclear fission We have already discussed that the energy release may be due to fusion or fission. In nuclear reactors, the fission process is used. Nuclear fission is the process in which heavy nucleus is split when it is bombarded by certain particles. A thermal neutron, i.e., a neutron with a speed corresponding to the speed of molecules in a gas at normal temperature and pressure viz. 2.2 103 m/sec, bombarding a heavy atom can cause fission. Thus, if a U235 atom is bombarded by a neutron, the nucleus splits up to give the nuclei of some other elements. One of the possible reactions is:

46

The mass equation of this reaction is:

In Equation (1.10), the right-hand side indicates the sum of the masses of the fission products viz. 235.926 a.m.u. It is less than the mass indicated on the left-hand side (236.133 a.m.u.) by an amount of 0.207 a.m.u. Thus, the mass defect is 0.207 a.m.u., so that the equivalent energy is 0.207 931, i.e., 193 MeV. As an approximation, we can assume that one fission of U 235 causes a release of 200 MeV of energy.

Again 1 kg of U235 contains 25.64 1023 atoms. If these were fissioned, the energy released would be equivalent to that contained in 3 106 kg of coal with a calorific value of 6,000 kcal/kg. Natural uranium contains only 0.7% of U235. If we assume a fission efficiency of 50%, i.e., if only a half of the total atoms take part in fission, then the fission of 1 kg of natural uranium would give energy equivalent to (3 106) (0.7/100) 50/100 = 10,500 kg of coal. (i) Cross-section (attenuation coefficient) for nuclear reaction A concept that can be applied to all possible nuclear reactions, such as fusion, photodisintegration by -rays, and fission, is the cross-section for nuclear reaction. It is a measure of the probability of a given nuclear reaction to occur. The cross-section may be microscopic or macroscopic depending on whether the reference is to a single nucleus or to the nuclei contained in a unit volume of material. The unit for cross-section is Barn (=1024 cm2). (ii) Canning materials In order to ensure that the fuel does not contaminate the coolant, the fuel element in the nuclear reactor is canned. Canning eliminates the radiation hazards also. The materials used for canning are aluminum, magnesium, beryllium, and stainless steel. The canning material is chosen based on the fuel used in the reactor. (iii) Coolant Coolant removes heat from the fuel elements and transfers it to the water. For a material to be used as a coolant, it must have the following properties. 1. It should not absorb neutrons. 2. It should be non-oxidizing. 3. It should be non-toxic and non-corrosive. 4. It should have high chemical and radiation stability. 5. It should have good heat transfer capability. The material used as coolants are carbon dioxide, air, hydrogen, helium water, heavy water, and liquid metal: sodium or sodium potassium. 1.4.8 Nuclear chain reaction

47

Consider Equation (1.9) for a typical fission reaction, Uranium235 + neutron lanthanum148 + bromine85 + three free neutrons. When the nucleus captures a neutron, an unstable compound nuclease is formed. It splits up into fragments and releases binding energy. The most important aspect, however, is that three free neutrons are ejected. If conditions are favorable, the neutrons ejected by the first fission may be captured by other nuclei to cause the second and subsequent fission reactions. It may be recalled that bombarding a nucleus with a neutron is easier (than with a proton or -particles). Neutrons produced by the fission process are known as fast neutrons. They are ejected from the nucleus at a velocity of nearly 1.5 107 m/sec and thus possess a very high-kinetic energy. U233, U235, and Pu239 are the elements that can under go a fission reaction with fast neutrons. Natural uranium contains 99.23% of U238 and only 0.7% of U235. Unless the proportion U235 in the metal is increased to more than 10%, chain reaction is not possible. This is due to the fact that U238 atoms absorb fast neutrons to such an extent that the neutrons produced by the fission reactions are absorbed before they can reach a U235 nucleus to cause a further fission. This absorption effect is overcome by increasing the proportion of U235 in reactors known as fast reactors. For effective use in nuclear reactors, the fast neutrons are slowed down to a speed of 2.2 103 m/sec. These are called slow or thermal neutrons. When slow neutrons are used, the absorption properties of U238 are reduced so that a chain reaction can sustain. A reactor in which natural uranium (containing 99.23% of U238) is bombarded by slow neutrons is called a thermal reactor. In thermal reactors, the fissile material is mixed with another material known as a moderator. The moderator provides nuclei with which the fast neutrons may collide by elastic collisions so that successive collisions will slow them down to the required speed. (i) Multiplication factor For a chain reaction to sustain, at least one neutron is to be produced in each fission reaction to initiate the next fission reaction. The possibility or otherwise of the chain reaction to sustain is indicated by a multiplication factor. It is the ratio of the neutrons in one generation and the immediately preceding generation. Thus, the multiplication factor is: = . (1) , ( 2)
.

(1.11)

If K < 1, it implies that the number of neutrons that can initiate the fission reactions gradually decreases and therefore the process dies down. If K > 1, it implies that more and more neutrons will be produced as the number of fission reaction increases and as a consequence a nuclear explosion occurs as in the case of an atomic bomb.

48

Therefore, the value of K must be maintained equal to unity (theoretically) in order that the chain reaction be possible. However, there will be loss of neutrons due to leakage, capture in the canning material, and control rods. To overcome this, K is maintained slightly greater than one, the approximate value being 1.04. The most difficult problem in the control of the reactors is to maintain the value of K at the exact value required. (ii) Critical size If the core of the reactor was to be infinitely large, there would be no leakage of neutrons. The multiplication factor of a reactor having a core of infinite dimensions is referred to as K. However, if the core were to be very small, there would be excessive leakage of neutrons so that the multiplication factor would be less than unity, with the obvious die-down of the chain reaction. As a result, the reactor should be of a certain minimum size in order that the chain reaction may continue. This size of the reactor is referred to as the critical size of the reactor. 1.4.9 Main parts of a nuclear rector and their function Reactor is a part of nuclear power plant where nuclear fuel is subjected to nuclear fission and the energy released in the process is utilized to heat the coolant which may in turn generate steam. Figure 1.19 shows the main parts of a nuclear reactor. They are (a) reactor core, (b) moderator, (c) reflector, (d) shielding, and (e) cooling system.

(a) Reactor core: This contains a number of fuel rods made of fissile material. (b) Moderator: The neutrons speed is enormously high.

49

The speed of the neutrons is to be moderated or reduced to such a value as to increase the probability of the occurrence of fission. For this purpose, a material known as a moderator is used. The fast neutrons collide with the nuclei of the moderator material. In the process, the neutrons lose their energy and get slowed down. A good moderator material should have the following properties. 1. It must not react with neutrons. Neutrons captured in nuclear reactions are lost to the fission process, so that the reactor becomes inefficient. 2. It should not be very costly. 3. It must be non-corrosive. 4. Chemical and radiation stability. 5. High-thermal conductivity. Elements to the top of the periodic table or compounds with small molecular weight can be used as moderator materials. Moderator materials Gases (having small atomic mass) are not suitable as moderator materials since their densities are low and consequently the number of collisions will be small. Helium and beryllium are costly. Boron and lithium have a high-neutron absorption tendency. Heavy water, inspires of its high cost, is an ideal moderator material and is used in many reactors. Carbon, which is cheap and satisfactory, is used in many reactors. It can be obtained with any degree of purity. The moderator and the fuel may be intimately mixed to get an arrangement called homogenous arrangement. By scattering the fuel in discrete lumps throughout the moderator, a heterogeneous arrangement can be realized. (c) Reflector: This completely surrounds the reactor core within the thermal shielding arrangement. The reflector helps in bouncing the escaping neutrons back into the core. This results in conserving the nuclear fuel, since the low-speed neutrons thus returned are useful in continuing the chain reaction. Due to collision of neutrons with their atom, the reflector gets heated and hence its cooling is necessary. Sometimes same material is used in moderator and reflector. (d) Shielding: The process of fission in the reactor gives off the deadly - and -particle radiations and -rays. The shielding helps in giving protection from these radiations and it is usually constructed from iron. (e) Cooling system: The purpose of the cooling system is to remove the heat (produced by nuclear fission in the core) from the core in order that the heat be used in another apparatus to generate steam. Coolant flows through and around the reactor core. A good coolant should not absorb neutrons, should be non-oxidizing and non-corrosive, have chemical and thermal stabilities and have good heat transfer capability. Carbon dioxide, air, hydrogen, helium, water, sodium, or sodium potassium may be used as coolant. 1.4.10 Fuel materials for nuclear reactors (nuclear fuels)

50

In a nuclear reactor, heat is produced by the nuclear fission, so, the fuel material must be fissionable. The materials which can undergo fission are U235, U233, and Pu239. Out of these U235 is the only one occurring in nature. Natural uranium consists of three isotopes; 99.3% of U238, 0.7% of U235, and minute traces of U234. U238 and Th232 are not fissionable. However, they can be converted into Pu239 and U233, respectively, indicated as:
238 + 0N1 92U239 + 92U 239 + 1e0 93Np239 92U 239 + 1e0 94Pu239. 92Np

The above process is called conversion. The Pu239 formed can be used as fuel. Again, 90Th232 + 0n1 90Th233 +
233 + 1e0 91Pa233 90Th 233 + 1e0 92U233. 91Pa

The above process is called breeding. 1.4.11 Control of nuclear reactors The heat output of a nuclear reactor is to be controlled. This can be accomplished by controlling the neutron flux. Automatic control is employed to start, operate, and shut down a reactor. Reactor control depends on changing the value of the multiplication factor, K for normal operation, i.e., to keep the rate of output constant, K must be maintained at unity. To start the reactor, K is raised to a value of greater than unity, with a consequent increase in the power level. When the required power level is reached, K is reduced to unity and maintained constant at that value slightly less than unity. When the required power level is reached, K is once again made equal to unity and maintained at that value. To shut down the reactor, K is reduced to a value less than unity, so that the chain reaction dies down. For these purposes, the control rods are used. (i) Control rods Maintaining the multiplication factor at unity ensures the neutron flux, which is held at a constant value. Materials such as boron, hafnium, and cadmium having a high-absorption crosssection are inserted to absorb the neutrons. They are generally alloyed with steel and made into control rods. They can be moved in and out of the channels in the core. Generally, a large number of rods (usually more than 100) is employed to ensure even distribution of neutron flux.

51

When the rods are fully inserted, neutron absorption will be a maximum, so that K is less than unity and the reactor is shut down. The control rods are of three categories: shut off rods, coarse regulation rods, and find regulation rods. Shut off rods are normally kept out. They are used for reducing the reactivity in case on an emergency. For starting and continuous control, the regulation rods are used. After the reactor is started, it can be taken to the required power level by the coarse control rods. The coarse control rods are be charged at a dangerously high rate. The fine control rods are used to maintain the reactor critical, when running under normal conditions. They can adjust the reactivity to a fine degree of accuracy. (ii) Control through flow of coolant In addition to control by using control rods, an appropriate relation between the mass flow of coolant and power is to be maintained. At constant temperature, the power output is proportional to the rate of flow of the coolant (which removes the heat from the fuel elements and transfers it to the heat exchanger). Coolant temperature recorders, coolant flow indicators, and operating switches are necessary for this purpose. 1.4.12 Classification of nuclear reactors Nuclear rectors can be classified on several bases such as the purpose for which the rectors are used, the type of fusion, and the fuel used. A few of them are listed below. (a) Purpose A reactor can be used for different purposes. Thus, a reactor can be used for: 1. Research and development purposes: To test new reactor designs and for research. 2. Production: To convert fertile materials into fissile materials. 3. Power: Electric power generation. (b) Type of fission Depending upon the kinetic energy associated with the neutrons, a reactor can be classified into: 1. Slow: Kinetic energy less than 0.1 eV. 2. Intermediate: Kinetic energy between 0.1 eV and 0.1 MeV. 3. Fast: Kinetic energy equals to 1 MeV or so. (c) Fuel used The fuel used in the reactor may be: 1. natural uranium, 2. enriched uranium, or 3. plutonium. (d) State of fuel The fuel may be a: 1. solid or 2. liquid.

52

(e) Fuel cycle To appreciate the classification of reactors based on fuel cycle, it is necessary to have some understanding of fissile and fertile materials and the breeding/conversion ratio r. The materials which can undergo neutron fission are known as fissile materials. U235, U233, and Pu239 are fissile materials; U235 only occurs in nature. Pu239 is obtained by converting U238, while U233 can be obtained by converting Th232; U238 and Th232 are not fissionable. However, they can be converted into Pu239 and U233 which are fissile. U238 and Th232 are called fertile materials. Thus, a fertile material is non-fissionable material which can be converted into a fissile material. Each fission process of U235 produces about 2.5 neutrons per fission. Of these, only one neutron is required to sustain the chain reaction. The excess fission neutrons can be used to activate the isotopes of fertile materials to produce new fuel atoms. In the conversion process, we define a parameter. = . If r 1.0, the reactor is called a breeder reactor and r is called the breeding ratio. If r < 1.0 and not equal to zero, i.e., 0 < r < 1.0, the reactor is called a converter reactor and r is called the conversion ratio. Now, based on the fuel cycle, the reactors are classified thus: 1. Burner (thermal): Designed for producing only heat. There is no recovery of converted fertile material. 2. Converter: Converts fertile material into fissile material. The converted fissile material is not the same as the one initially fed into the reactor. r (<1.0) is the conversion ratio. 3. Breeder: Converts fertile material into fissile material. The converted fissile material is the same as that initially fed into the reactor. r (>1.0) is the breeding ratio. (f) Arrangement of fuel and moderator 1. Homogeneous: Fuel and moderator are mixed. 2. Heterogeneous: Fuel in discrete lumps in moderator. (g) Moderator material 1. Heavy water, 2. Graphite, 3. Ordinary water, 4. Beryllium water, and 5. Organic. (h) Arrangement of fissile and fertile material 1. One region: Fissile and fertile materials are mixed. 2. Two regions: Fissile and fertile materials are separate. (i) Cooling system 1. Direct: The liquid fuel is circulated from the reactor to the heat exchanger, where steam is generated. 2. Indirect: Coolant is passed through the reactor and then through the heat exchanger for the generation of steam. (j) Coolant used 1. Gas,
. (..,. )

53

2. Water, 3. Heavy water, and 4. Liquid metal. 1.4.13 Commercial types of reactors There are several types of commercial reactors such as calderhall reactor, pressurized water reactor, boiling water reactor, gas cooled reactor, candu type reactor, sodium graphite reactor, and fast breeder reactors. We shall discuss a few types of reactor as follows: (i) Pressurized water reactor (PWR) Figure 1.20 shows the schematic arrangement of a pressurized water reactor. Enriched uranium oxide, clad in zinc alloy, is used as the fuel. The pressure vessel is made of steel. Water under pressure is used both as a coolant and moderator. PWR is designed to prevent the boiling of the water coolant in the uranium core. Water under pressure is circulated (by a pump) round the core. Water in the liquid state absorbs heat from uranium and transfers it to the boiler having a heat exchanger and a steam drum. The pressure vessel and the heat exchanger are surrounded by a concrete shield. To maintain the pressure in the water system, a pressurized tank tapped into the pipe loop is used. Water with a temperature of 190C and pressure of 140 kg/cm2 (2,000 p.s.i.) is passed into the reactor and is discharge from the reactor at 270C. This water is passed into the heat exchanger, where the steam is raised. The temperature and the pressure of the steam area around are 250C and 42 kg/sq.-cm (600 p.s.i.), respectively. This steam of poor quality is condensed in the condenser and the condensate return to the heat exchanger, thus forming a closed circuit.

54

The advantage of the PWR reactor are compactness, high-power density, less number of control rods is required, and water used in reactor (as coolant com moderator) is cheap. However, it suffers from the following disadvantages. 1. High-strength pressure vessel is required. 2. Severe corrosion problem. 3. High losses from heat exchanger. 4. Fuel element fabrication is expensive. 5. Auxiliaries consume high power. 6. Low temperature steam is formed. Reactors using heavy water as coolant moderator are called pressurized heavy water reactors (PHWR). The atomic reactors such as Rajasthan Atomic Power Station, Madras Atomic Station, and Narora Atomic Power Project are PHWRs. 1.4.14 Boiling water reactor (BWR) Figure 1.21 shows a boiling water reactor. In this reactor also enriched uranium oxide is used as a fuel and ordinary water is used both as a coolant and a moderator. There is a steel pressure vessel containing water. It is surrounded by a concrete shield. The uranium elements are arranged in a particular lattice form inside the pressure vessel. The heat released by the nuclear reaction is absorbed by the water and the steam is generated in the reactor itself. This steam passes through the turbine and condenser and then returns to the reactor. Because of the direct cycle, there is possibility of radioactive contamination of steam.

55

Feed water enters the reactor tank below to pass through the fuel elements in the core as coolant and as moderator. The cooling system of the pressured water reactor is eliminated in this reactor. There is a danger of small amount of fissile material passing through along with the coolant. So, more biological protection becomes necessary. When the turbine is running, no one should go within a limit of 3 m. Small-size pressure vessel, high-steam pressure, simple construction, and heat exchanger circuit is eliminated resulting in reduction in cost are the advantages of boiling water reactor. The overall efficiency is about 33%. Disadvantages 1. More elaborate safety precautions needed which are costly. 2. The steam having in the reactor is radioactive contamination and so shielding of turbine and piping circuits is necessary. 3. Thermal efficiency on part load operation is low due to wastage of steam. 4. It cannot meet a sudden increase in load. The reactors at Tarapore Atomic Power Station are of the boiling water type. (i) Fast breeder reactors As the name implies, fast neutrons are used in these reactors. Further, there is breeding, i.e., more fissile material is kept. The fuel is enriched uranium or plutonium. There is no moderator in this reactor. The vessel is surrounded by a thick blanket of depleted uranium, which is a fertile material. By absorbing neutrons from the new fissile material, the fertile material is

56

converted into fissile material. A reactor working under these conditions is called a breeder. Hence, it is called fast breeder reactor, which is shown in Fig. 1.22.

There are two heat exchanges in this reactor. The reactor core is cooled by a liquid metalsodium or potassium. The secondary heat exchanger uses liquid sodium/potassium as coolant. It transfers heat to the feed water. The neutron shield between the core and the primary heat exchanger is provided by the use of boron, light water, oil, or graphite. The shielding against gamma () rays is accomplished by lead, concrete with magnetite or barium added. The core of a fast reactor needs a high enrichment (i.e., above 10% of fissile material). The core consists of 30% fuel, 50% coolant, and 20% canning and structural material by volume. In addition to producing power, fast reactors can produce Pu239 and U238. The possibility of the core getting overheated and destroyed has to be considered carefully. The heat transfer and control problems need special attention. The thermal efficiency is of the order of 43%. Advantages 1. Require small core. 2. Moderator is not required. 3. High breeding is possible. 4. Control is easy. 5. Greater inherent safety. Disadvantages 1. Highly enriched fuel is required.

57

2. Specific power of the reactor is low. 3. Size and weight of reactor per unit power are higher. 4. Choice of fuel is restricted. (ii) Comparison of thermal and fast breeder reactors Depending upon the neutron kinetic engines, the neutrons may be thermal neutrons or fast neutrons. Accordingly, the reactors may be thermal reactors or fast reactors. In thermal reactors, moderators are used to slow down the neutrons to a speed at which they can react readily with U235 and cause fission. The energy of these neutrons corresponds to the ambient temperature inside the reactor. In fast reactors, the neutron energies are high and are nearly equal to those with which they emerge as fragments from the fissile materials during fission. We had already discussed the significance of breeding. The advantage and disadvantages of the thermal reactors compared to fast breeder reactors are given below. Advantages 1. Greater inherent safety. 2. The heat generated per unit volume of ore or per unit area of fuel is less. 3. Easy controllability. Disadvantages 1. The choice of fuel is severely restricted from the viewpoint of neutron economy when uranium is used as the fuel. 2. The size and weight of the reactor per unit power are higher. 3. The fissile material consumed is more than that could automatically be replaced. The net fuel consumption in fast reactors is much less since more fertile can be converted to fissile material. 1.4.15 Gas-cooled reactor In this reactor, a pressurized carbon-dioxide gas is used as a coolant instead of water. It uses a lattice of graphite in the form of blocks as moderator. It is necessary to protect graphite from contact with coolant, either by canning the graphite or by piping the coolant through the reactor in metal tube. The tubes used will absorb the neutrons to some extent only thus, reducing radio activity of the system. The CO2 gas flows to the heat exchanger where it transfers its heat to water which gets converted into steam. The steam flows into the turbine which in turn drives the alternator to generate electricity. Advantages 1. Less corrosive problem. 2. Capability for the use of natural uranium as fuel. 3. Greater safety as compared to the water-cooled reactor. 4. Simple for processing the fuel. Disadvantages 1. Require large size of reactor. 2. Very low-power density. 3. For coolant circulation, more power is required.

58

4. Complicate in control. 1.4.16 Radiation In the operation of a nuclear power plant, the disposal of the solid, liquid, and gaseous waste and effluent is an important problem to be tackled effectively, since the radiation can give rise to several hazards, both internal and external. Thus, it is essential that adequate shielding be provided to guard the operating personnel and delicate instruments, in particular, and the environment in and around nuclear plant, in general. In addition, certain safety measures (or precautions) are to be followed to overcome the ill effects of radiation. 1.4.17 Types of radiations The important types of radiations that can cause hazards are the -, -, and -rays and the neutrons. 1. -Rays: These are the nuclei of helium atom, 2He4. They carry a positive charge. They cannot penetrate the skin. However, they can cause internal hazard, if ingested. 2. -Rays: These are electrons that travel at the speed of light since they are smaller in size; they have grater penetrating power than -rays. Over exposure to -rays can cause skin burns. Malignant growth may result because of repeated over exposure to -rays. Since their penetrating power is not high, a thin sheet of metal or a brick wall can stop them. 3. -Rays: These are electromagnetic radiations of a very short wave length. They have high energy and penetrating power. They can cause considerable damage, especially to organic materials. Over exposure to -rays can lead to blood diseases, anemia, and some undesirable genetic effects. Larger exposure may cause death in a few hours. The effects of slow exposure may become apparent only after several years. There is no material which can stop the -rays completely, though thick sheet of lead and concrete can alter them considerably. 4. Neutrons: These are produced in fission. They have a wide range of energies up to 10 MeV. They possess no charge, but they are highly penetrating. The effects of neutrons are similar to those of the -rays. 1.4.18 Radiation hazards The hazards caused by radiations can be either internal or external. (i) Internal hazards: Food inhalation or breaking in of the skin by radioactive radiation is the causes of internal hazards. The tolerance of the body to the radiations depends on several variables. 1. Degree of retention of the radioactive material in the body. The longer the retention, the greater is the harm caused. 2. The fraction of the radioactive material passed to the critical tissues by the blood stream. The greater the fraction conveyed, the greater will be the harm.

59

3. Radio sensitivity of the tissues: Different tissues will have different radio-sensitivities. Thus, bone, lymph glands, ovaries, and testes are more vulnerable to the energetic radiation. 4. Size of the organ involved: The smaller the organ, the greater the concentration of the radioactive material and hence the greater is the damage. 5. Essentiality of the organ: The most essential organ damaged can cause early death. 6. The type of radiation: The important radiations are -, -, and -rays and the neutrons. (ii) External hazards: Before discussing the external hazards, it is necessary to have some preliminary ideas pertaining to health physics. These are presented below. Health physics: Units of contamination and radiation. The unit of contamination is a measure of the amount of radioactive material present in any material. The unit is curie. One curie is equal to 3.7 1010 nuclear disintegrations per second. Curie is rather a large unit. So, submultiples, such as millicurie and microcurie are normally used. The curie indicates the number of radioactive atoms in a material. Rontgen is the classical unit for measuring radiation. The quantity of x or radiation necessary to produce one electrostatic unit of charge, be it positive or negative, in one cubic centimeter of dry air at standard temperature and pressure (S.T.P.) is termed one rontgen. One rontgen = 86.9 ergs of energy absorbed per gram of air. Though rontgen is the basic unit, another unit called RAD is commonly used. RAD is equivalent to 100 ergs of energy absorbed per gram of irradiated material at the point of interest. It should be noted that the absorption of energy from the radiations, rather than the radiations, is of great concern. The absorption of radiations depends upon the material absorbing them. Since the unit RAD specifies the absorbing material, it is more specific and relevant. Another unit is rontgen equivalent man or rontgen equivalent mammal abbreviated as REM. REM and RAD are related through a factor R.B.E., which is the abbreviated from of relative biological effectiveness. R.B.E makes allowance for the different biological damage resulting from unit energy absorption from different radiations. REMs = R.B.E. RADs. External hazards due to radiations: An external hazard is caused when the body is bombarded by energetic radiation from radioactive sources. The radiations may penetrate through the skin and damage the internal tissues. We had already noted that REM is the unit of radiation dose rate. The maximum integrated dose depends upon the age of the person. For a person of age, A years, the maximum integrated does allowed is (A-18) 5 REM. [18 is used under the assumption that a person below the age of 18 years need not have to work in a place where there is a possibility of damage due to radiations.] The effect of radiation on the body can be summarized as given in the Table 1.1. It may be noted that the values represented in Table 1.1 are some typical values. Though an irradiation dose of about 400450 REM to the whole body may result in death, the individual parts may withstand comparatively higher doses of radiation. Table 1.1 Energetic radiation effect on human body Dose (REM)

60

(i) Amount which is detectable (iii) Eventual death in 50% of exposed (iv) Certain death in 24 hours (v) Death in few hours

25 450 6001,000 1,000

(ii) Radiation sickness in 50% of exposed 200

When a part of the body is exposed to a radiation dose of about 200 REMs, the result may be a temporary effect of radiation sickness such as shock symptoms and nausea. 1.4.19 Shielding To guard the personnel and delicate instruments, adequate shielding is to be provided by suitable shielding materials. The effectiveness of the material in providing the shielding depends to a large extent upon its density. Hence, the shielding purpose are given below. 1. Lead: Density is 11.3 g/cm3. It is a commonly used shielding material because of its low cost and high density. 2. Concrete: Density is 2.4 g/cm3. It is less efficient than lead. 3. Steel: Density is 7.8 g/cm3. Though steel has good structural properties, it is not an efficient shielding material. So, it is used as an alternating shield. 4. Cadmium: Density is 8.65 g/cm3. Slow neutrons of nuclear reaction can be absorbed by cadmium. It should be noted that no shielding material is effective in shielding all types of radiations. For example, materials containing hydrogen (such as water and polythene) are used to slow down fast neutrons. For absorbing thermal neutrons, born or steel may be used. On the other hand, for absorbing -rays, a heavy material such as lead is needed to act as a shield. In nuclear power reactors, there will be a thermal shield of several centimeters thick steel. It is surrounded by about 3-m thick concrete shield. The water, in concrete, slows down the fast neutrons. To attenuate the -rays and to absorb thermal neutrons, iron, barium, or steel turnings.

GAS POWER PLANTS

In some case of incorporating intermittent (or) peak-load plants in combination with the baseload plants, the gas turbines are preferable which are the cheapest types of plants available. In large system, the size of these gas turbine plants are from 10 to 25 MW, and the largest size of plant being used is about 50 MW. The thermal efficiency of the gas turbine plant (2025%) is less when compared to the steam power plant (2530%). This lower thermal efficiency reduces the load factor and increases the fuel cost but which can be compensated in gas plant by lowering the fixed, operating, as well as maintenance charges. In India, gas turbine plant of size 70 MW was situated at Namrup in Assam, working as a base-load plant with natural gas fuel. And, the second one uran gas turbine power plant was placed at Maharastra. Types of gas turbine power plants:

61

1. According to the process of combustion takes place in the combustion chamber, gas turbine power plants are classified into two types: 1. Continuous combustion constant pressure type: In this type, the combustion cycle working on constant pressure principle known as joule (or) Brayton cycle. 2. The explosion (or) constant volume type: In this type, the combustion cycle working on constant volume principle known as Atkinson cycle. 2. According to the path of working substance, gas turbine plants are classified into following types. 1. Open-cycle gas plant: In this type of plant, working substance is air. This working fluid enters into the compression chamber from atmosphere, there compressed after compressed air is fed into the combustion chamber, to raise the temperature of it by burning the fuel. Now, the final product of combustion chamber is mixed up with excess air and pumped through the turbine, developing power, and then exhausted into the atmosphere. The above process is repeated for every cycle. Figure 1.23 (a) shows open-cycle gas turbine. 2. Closed-cycle gas turbine plant: In this type of plant, working fluid, i.e., air is heated in the preheater by burning fuel external to it. Hot air is fed to the turbine to generate power. The hot air expands in the turbine and then cooled in a precooler for cooling purpose. Now cooled air is passed to the compressor and again fed back to generate power. Again, the same air circulates over the system continuously. Figure 1.23 (b) shows closed-cycle gas turbine.

1.5.1 A simple gas turbine power plant A simple gas turbine power plant consists of units such as compressor, combustion chamber, and turbine. In addition to the above main components, plant has some other auxiliaries such as

62

starting device, fuel system, duct system, and auxiliary lubrication system. Schematic diagram of gas turbine power plant is shown in Fig. 1.24.

A simple gas turbine plant uses air as a working fluid. When the plant units run atmospheric air admitted into the combustion chamber to raise the pressure of air to several times of atmospheric pressure. Compressed air is fed into the combustion chamber with mixture of gasses at high pressure to increase the temperature. Now, the working fluid is passed through the turbine at which gasses expand thereby developing heavy motive forces which will drive the shaft of turbine. After the expansion, the gasses will exhausted out from the turbine to the atmosphere. The temperature of the products in the combustion chamber is about 1,0001,500F. The temperature of the exhaust gas is about 9001,100F. In this model, compressor, turbines, generator are arranged on the same shaft. In this, some of the energy (60% of power generation) developed by the turbine is used to drive the compressor and remaining is for the generation of the electric power by the generator. 1.5.2 Applications of gas turbine plants Gas turbine plants have the following applications. Gas turbine plants are used as substitute plants for the hydroelectric power plants. These plants are used to supply peak loads in steam, diesel (or) hydro plants, etc. The plants are used to supply mechanical drive for auxiliaries. Gas turbine plants are widely used in aircrafts and ships. These plants sometimes used as engines for automobile use.

63

1.5.3 Advantages and disadvantages of gas turbine plants Gas turbine plants have the following advantages. The size and weight of the gas turbine plant are less for large capacities compared to the steam power plant. Water needed to run the gas turbine plant is less compared to the steam plant. Gas turbine plants can be put on load easily and they can be started quickly. The maintenance cost of the gas turbine plant is less. The installation of the gas turbine plant is easier because of the absence of boiler, evaporator, condensating system, etc. Heavy foundations and buildings are not requiring for the gas turbine power plant. Disadvantages In addition to the above advantages, the gas turbine plants have the following disadvantages. Net output from the gas power plant is low; this is because major portion of the energy is required to drive the compressor. Temperature of the combustion products is too high. So, even at moderate pressure, more care should be taken.

DIESEL POWER PLANTS

Diesel engine power plants are more efficient than the other types of engine plant for the same capacity. The diesel engine plants are more suitable for low- and medium-power outputs. These plants are commonly employed where fuel prices are low and water availability is limited. The capacity of the diesel power plants is about 5 MW, such plants are used as standby plants to hydro- and diesel power plants for small output. These plants do not require large amount of water for cooling. Diesel engines are widely used in railroad locomotives, road buildings, ship propulsion electric generators for feeding supply to public industrial and institutional purpose, etc. A wide application of diesel engine is mainly due to the less cost fuel than gasoline products. Diesel engine power plant has the following systems by means of which electric power can be generated. Schematic diagram of diesel engine power plant is shown in Fig. 1.25.

64

(i) Air intake and exhaust system: This system consists of pipes arrangement for admitting fresh atmospheric air into the diesel engine, and also to pump out the exhaust gases to the atmosphere. Filters are needed at the air inlet to remove dust particles etc. from the incoming air. At the outlet of the system silencer is provided to reduce the noise when the exhaust gases are coming out from the engine. In order to reduce the specific fuel consumption and to increase the engine capacity, the intake system must have to maintain minimum pressure loss. (ii) Fuel supply system: This system consists of fuel tank to store fuel, and fuel pumps and filters to transfer and inject fuel into the diesel engine. Fuel oil is supplied by trucks, rail, cars, etc. at the plant site. (iii) Cooling system: This system circulates sufficient amount of water around the engine in order to maintain desired temperature. The hot water recooled in the cooling ponds again recirculated into the system. (iv) Lubricating system: This system is necessary to reduce ware on the rubbing parts and friction. It consists of lubricating oil tank, pumps, filters, etc. (v) Starting system: Starting system is essential for the initial starting of engine. It consists of compressor, battery, and electric motor (or) self-starter. Diesel engine is nothing but internal combustion engine, in which fuel is ignited by injecting into system thereby compression. So that these engines are also called as compression ignition engines. This engine will convert heat energy into mechanical work. In the combustion chamber, fuel burns rapidly and gases attain very high temperature and produces extremely hot compressed gases. These gases expand and push back the piston of engine. This is nothing but

65

the power stroke in which mechanical work is done. This work is helpful to rotate the crank shaft on which generator is mounted, which converts mechanical power into electric power. 1.6.2 Site selection for diesel power plants While selecting a site for the diesel engine power plant, it is necessary to consider the following factors. 1. Site for the diesel power plant should be nearer to the load center; this is to reduce the cost of transmission of power and also to reduce the power loss. 2. Plant should be located where plenty of water is available. 3. The site for the diesel plant should nearer to the source of fuel supply, to decrease the transportation charges. 4. The selection of the site for the plant should be in such a way that, it has road and rail transportation facilities. 5. The site for the diesel plant should be far away from the town, thus smoke and flue gases exhausted from the plant will not affect the human being. 1.6.3 Applications of diesel engine power plants Diesel engine plants are widely used for the following applications. Diesel plants are widely used for generating power ranging from 100 to 5,000 H.P. Diesel plants can be used as standby plants for steam and hydropower plants. These plants are used to supply peak-load plants. These plants are suitable for mobile power generation and widely used in ships, aeroplanes, automobiles, etc. These plants are preferred for industrial applications for which power requirement is small of the order of 500 kW. 1.6.4 Advantages and disadvantages of diesel power plants Diesel power plants have the following advantages. 1. The construction of diesel power plants is simple. 2. The plants can be put on load easily. 3. The plants can be started quickly. 4. No need of requiring large amount of water for cooling. 5. The size of diesel engine plant is small compared to the steam plant for the same capacity of generation. 6. The maintenance cost of the plants is less. 7. The thermal efficiency of diesel plants is high compared to the steam plants. 8. There is no standby loss for diesel power plants. 9. The plants can be easily located nearer to load center. Disadvantages In addition to the above advantages, the diesel plants have the following disadvantages. 1. Diesel plants do not work satisfactorily for over loads. 2. The cost of diesel is high.

66

3. The plant capacity is limited. 4. The life of diesel plants is less compared to the steam plant. In addition to the above disadvantages, the system of generation suffers from the operational and constructional difficulties.

NON-CONVENTIONAL SOURCES OF ENERGY ENERGY FROM BIOMASS

Introduction Organic matter derived from biological organisms (plants, algae, animals etc.) are called Biomass. The energy obtained from biomass is called Biomass Energy. The raw organic matter obtained from nature for extracting secondary energy is called Biomass Energy Resource. Biomass energy resources are available from botanical plants, vegetation, algae, animals and organisms living on land or in water. Biomass resources are broadly classified into two categories: 1. Biomass from cultivated fields, crops, forests that are harvested periodically. 2. Biomass derived from waste e.g., Municipal waste (Urban Rubbish), Animal excreta/dung, forest waste, agricultural waste, bioprocess waste, butchary waste, Fishery waste/processing waste etc. Biomass is considered as a renewable source of energy because the organic matter is generated every day/year. Biomass energy is well known from Agricultural Age (5000 years B.C.). The use of biomass as a fuel is well-known and wide-spread. Wood, cow dung etc. are used as fuels particularly in rural and tribal areas in India. The use of waste-to-energy processes by incineration, Biogas, Bio-chemicals etc. is comparatively recent. Biomass energy is produced by green plants by photosynthesis in presence of sun light. Biomass energy is a result of solar energy converted to biomass energy by green plants. Only green plants are capable of photosynthesis. Other living organisms consume green plants or their byproducts and generate biomass. Biomass cycle maintains the environmental balance of oxygen, carbondioxide, rain etc. Hence Biomass Energy Technology is an EnvironmentFriendly Technology.

Solar Energy Photosynthesis Biomass Energy Generation

Fossil Fuels (Coal, Petroleum Oil and Natural Gases) are produced from dead, burned biomass under pressure and in absence of air, during several millions of years. However, they are considered separately as fossils and are not included in the category of Biomass. Biomass is being used for production, of process heat and electricity, producing gaseous and solid fuels, liquid chemicals etc. The scope of Biomass Energy is considered in three categories. (i) Rural applications of biomass energy. (ii) Urban and Industrial applications of biomass energy.

67

(iii) Biomass as a primary source for large scale Electrical Power Generation. Present contribution of biomass energy is between 4% and 18% of total primary energy consumption of various developed and developing countries respectively. The situation is likely to be changed dramatically and rapidly during coming years with increase in the biomass energy consumption to 25-40% by 2016 A.D. India has vast land based, aquatic, forest, rural, agricultural biomass resources of every type. The biomass energy conversion technologies and their socio-economic adaptation has vast scope in India. Biomass energy processes serve many purposes. (i) Energy supply: Fuels, Biogas, Organic Chemicals. (ii) Rural development (iii) Waste disposal (iv) Environmental balance. The range of these technologies covers plants of a few watts to a few hundred MW. For example, a domestic chulha which burns wood or charcoal is rated less than 2 kW, a large urban waste incineration power plant is rated 150 MW. Biogas plants are available in sizes from 3 m3/day to 2000 m3/day of biomass feed. Renewable Energy by Photosynthesis in Green Plants (Origin of Biomass) Biomass is organic matter from plants, animals and micro-organisms grown on land and in water and their derivatives. Biomass includes forest crops, crops from agricultural fields, animal manure, urban and rural organic wastes, etc. Energy farms are specially cultivated forest/agricultural crops/aquatic farms. The origin of biomass energy resources is explained by the Photosynthesis by green plants under sunlight. Green plants consume atmospheric carbondioxide gas, moisture, minerals and water from earth/water and photo energy from the sunlight and produce biomass plus oxygen.

The biomass is stored in the green plants in the form of complex organic compounds of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen etc.

68

Algae biomass is an another important renewable source of energy produced by photosynthesis. Fig. 11.2 shows the process of algae production. After extracting the biogas. the organic residue from the biogas-plant is added to the algae pond. This acts as a food to the algae in the pond. Special fast growing and energy packed algae species are developed by genetic research. The algae - bacterial combination consumes the waste organic water in the pond and absorbs solar energy and results in rapid growth of algae (a type of biomass energy resource). Algae are extracted as primary, renewable energy source and are processed in a biogas plant to get methane (Biogas) through anaerobic digestion.

Alga crops are likely to be cultivated on large scale to obtain renewable energy. The algae energy technology is in infant stages. The green plants fix the organic matter by photosynthesis. Non-green plants, micro-organisms and animals derive the organic matter from green plants in the form of food. The biomass from cultivated platations is obtainable from: (i) land based plants and animals, (ii) aquatic plants and animals, and (iii) micro-organisms, algae etc. Photosynthesis is the mother process in the life cycle and is developed by green plants. The other plants and animals derive the organic matters generated by the green plants. The photosynthesis is light actuated. In addition to C, H and O, the plants also incorporate nitrogen and sulphur in the organic material via the light dependant bio-chemical reactions. Photosynthesis converts solar energy and chemical energy of biomass. The process of photosynthesis was probably developed about 2 billion years ago when bluegreen algae acquired the ability to split water into hydrogen and oxygen. The natural process of photosynthesis is continuing and will continue to fix about 2 1011 tonne of carbon per year with energy content of 3 1021 J. This is about 10 times World's annual energy needs. The result is a renewable energy source of organic matter containing fixed carbon. Biomass energy obtained from the plant photosynthesis is likely to solve the energy problem in the coming years in a significant way. Energy strategies of various countries are focusing their attention on biomass resources.

69

The biomass can be converted to useful secondary energy forms such as: (a) heat, (b) gaseous fuels, (c) solid fuels, (d) organic chemical, and (e) liquid fuels (f) electrical energy There are several alternative routes for producing useful secondary energies from biomass. Biomass Technologies deal with the entire processes of producing biomass, processing the biomass and delivering the useful secondary energies. Biomass Energy Resources The biomass used for producing secondary energy forms (useful energy forms) are called Biomass Energy Resources. There are several ways to classify the biomass resources. The most accepted classification is (i) Biomass from Cultivated Crops. (Energy farms) (ii) Biomass from Waste Organic Matter. Both these are renewable sources of energy. Table 11.1 gives a list of Biomass Energy Resources. Catetory Name of the Biomass Source Conversion Process Cultivated 1. Trees (Wood chips, saw 1.1. Burning to produce heat Energy dusts) and electricity Resource 2. Aquatic crops, algae, green 1.2. Producing biogas and plants biochemicals 1.3. Production of wood-gas. 3. Agricultural crops Wood gasification 1.4. Production of wood oil and charcoal. Wood to oil 4. Fruit farms process Waste1.5. Production of ethyle Biomass alcohol by fermentation of resources molasses, beet root, fruits, 1. Rice and wheat husk from farms potatoes, cereals. 2. Baggase of sugar cane and bio3. Coconut husk, groundnut industry shell, straw of rice, wheat etc. 4. Waste of furniture industry, wood industry 5. Waste of poultry industry, fishery industry, food industry, brewery, tannery, butchery etc

70

6. Carbohydrates, glucose, fructose etc Table 1.11. Principal Biomass Energy Sources Cultivated Biomass:- The biomass can be grown specially in energy farms for obtaining renewable energy resource periodically. Fast growing trees, farmcrops, aquatic farms (of algae and aquatic plants) etc. are in this category. For energy farming, special species are cultivated (cultured) through genetic research. The special species of energy resources include fast growing trees (supertrees), fast growing land based or aquatic crops and algae, etc. having high energy density (J/kg) The cultivated biomass (Biomass from energy farms) includes: 1. Sugar cane crops, sweet sorghum crops, sugar beets. 2. Herbaceous crops which are non-woody plants which can be converted into biogas or biochemical fuels. 3. Cereals, potatoes and other carbohydrate fruit crops, etc. grown for producing infeeds to the fermentation plants. 4. Forests crops (Silviculture) of fast growing energy intensive trees (Super trees), specially grown as source of energy. 5. Aquatic crops grown in fresh water, sea water, muddy water etc. These crops include submerged plants, surface plants, and include seaweeds, marine algae, water hyacinth, floating kelp etc. Algae is considered to be a promising aquatic biomass. Several land areas and ocean/lake areas which are presently not used fully may be used as energy farms for growing the energy crops. Waste to Biomass Resources:- The waste-to- energy processes convert organic wastes to intermediate or secondary energy forms such as heat, biogas, alchohol, fuels, chemicals etc. The waste is classified as: (i) Urban (Municipal) Waste. (ii) Industrial organic waste, Process waste. (iii) Agricultural farm waste. (iv) Rural animal waste. (v) Forest waste. (vi) Fishery, Poultry, Butchary waste. (vii) Animal and human excreta. The major energy technology of waste-to-energy is cogeneration plant producing heat, steam, electrical energy from incineration of biomass. Such plants are located in large cities. Their capacity is in MW range. Another technology is of landfill gas produced from urban waste. The urban waste is dumped in landfills. Landfills are subjected to organic decomposition by bacterial dacay. The gas contains about 50% methane by volume. The gas is extracted from landfill sites. The gas is then transported to the consumer site.

71

Agricultural waste may be converted into useful heat/ biogas/bio-chemicals by various processes such as combustion, biochemical and biothermal reactions. Biogas plants produce methane by the process called anaerobic digestion. Several biomass plants have been installed in India for supplying energy to rural areas. Biomass Conversion Processes The energy technology is concerned with the conversion of biomass into useful secondary energy. Several different energy conversion processes have been developed and are being used commercially. Several other conversion processes are under research and development. The biomass conversion process (Bio conversion process) has several routes depending upon temperature, pressure, micro-organisms utilised, process and the culture conditions. These routes are classified in following three broad categories. (a) Direct Combustion (Incineration) (b) Thermochemical Conversion. (c) Biochemical Conversion. The following diagram illustrates some of the common routes of biomass energy conversion.

Organic matter can be burnt in presence of Oxygen/air to produce heat, and byproducts. This is the well known process called combustion. Complete combustion to ashes is called incineration. Organic matter can be converted into gaseous and liquid fuels by Thermochemical Reactions. These are carried out at various temperatures, pressures, with supply of reactants etc. The processes give liquid and gaseous fuels, residues, byproducts etc.

72

Organic matter can be converted into chemical gaseous and liquid fuels by fermentation. Fermentation includes several processes. The fermentation is brought about by micro-organisms such as yeast, bacteria. Direct Combustion of Biomass (Incineration) Combustion is the process of burning (rapid oxidation accompanied by heat and light). Combustion also includes slow oxidation accompanied by little heat and no light. Incineration is the process of burning completely to ashes. The process of combustion is applicable to solid liquid and gaseous fuels. The fuels include various primary or intermediate biomass, fossils etc. Combustion or burning is one of the most common processes in energy technology and biomass conversion technology. Generally the combustion process is applied to solid fuels including cultivated biomass and waste biomass. It is convenient and economical to burn the solid, semidried biomass and obtain useful heat at the location of biomass source (e.g., trees can be burnt at a site in the forest, sugar cane baggasse can be burnt near a sugar factory site.) The heat obtained from the combustion of biomass can be used for several useful processes such as cooking, industrial heat, steam generation, generation of electrical energy from steam etc. However, when the energy is to be transported over a long distance, it is more-economical to convert the biomass into liquid or gaseous fuels and then transport them through pipeline or by tanks and use the fuels in liquid or gaseous forms at the receiving end. Alternatively the biomass is converted to electrical energy in a biomass thermal electrical power plant and the energy is transmitted as eiectrical power to the load centre. The applications of biomass combustion process cover a wide range of ratings from a fraction of kilowatt (For cooking) to a few megawatt (In municipal waste-to-energy electrical power plant). Thermochemical Conversion of Biomass Biomass is decomposed in thermochemical processes having various combinations of temperatures and pressures. Gasification of Biomass:- This is carried out by one of the following two processes. 1. Heating the biomass with limited air or oxygen. 2. Heating at high temperature and high pressure in presence of steam and oxygen. Pyrolysis:- Biomass can be converted into gases, liquids, and solids through pyrolysis at temperatures of 500~900C by heating in a closed vessel in the absence of oxygen. The pyrolytic destructive distillation of wood has long been used to recover methanol, acetic acid, turpentine and charcoal. Pyrolysis can process all forms of organic materials, including rubber and plastics which are difficult to handle by other processes. The gases produced are a mixture of nitrogen, methane, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and other hydrocarbons. The liquids produced are oil-like materials and the solids are similar to charcoal. Fig, 11.4 shows a schematic.

73

Biochemical Conversion There are two principal conversion processes in Biochemical Conversion : (i) Anaerobic Digestion. (ii) Fermentation. Anaerobic digestion is a type of biochemical conversion involving microbial digestion of biomass. The process and end products depend upon the micro-organisms cultivated and culture conditions. An anaerobe is a microscopic organism that can live and grow without external oxygen or air. It extracts Oxygen by decomposing the biomass at low temperatures up to 65C, in presence of moisture (80%). Anaerobic digestion of biomass generates mostly methane and carbon dioxide gas with small impurities such as hydrogen sulfide. The output gas obtained from anaerobic digestion can be directly burnt, or upgraded to superior fuel gas (methane) by removal of CO2 and other impurities. The residue of the anaerobic digestion may consist of protein-rich sludge and liquid effluents. These can be used as animal feed or for soil treatment after certain processing. Anaerobic Digestion Technologies are being widened for using following feedstocks: Urban (Municipal) waste Agricultural biomass (Straw of rice, wheat, sugar cane bagasse etc.) Forest biomass (Trees, Leaves) Aquatic biomass (algae, water-plants) Human and animal excreta. In the presence of moisture and the absence of oxygen, most organic materials will undergo natural fermentation imwhich 60-80% of the carbon in the organic material is converted to a mixture of carbon dioxide, methane, traces of hydrogen sulfide, and nitrogen. The conversion process takes place at temperatures of 15-50C and near-atmospheric pressure. The volatile gases produced have a heating value Eh of 50 MJ/kg. The carbon dioxide and

74

hydrogen sulfide can be removed, providing a gas that is essentially pure methane and which has a heating value of 56 MJ/kg corresponding to that of natural gas. In general, one kg of dry organic material will produce 0.036 m3 of methane (at standard temperature and pressure) or 36 m3 biogas per 1000 kg biomass. Anaerobic digestion processes have been used for many years for conversion to gases and liquids. The sewage treatment facilities have used generally for producing fuel gas and in some cases for producing electrical power from such biogas. Fig, 11.5 shows a schematic, of a continuous process to produce methane by Anaerobic Digestion.

The sizes of Anaerobic Digestion Plants vary from 0.5 m3/day to 2000m3/day. In India Anaerobic Digestion Plants are commonly known as Biogas Plants or Gobar Gas Plants. In such plants slurry of cow dung and water is fed to the digester and is allowed to ferment for a few weeks. The biogas is released. The biogas contains about 55% of methane (CH4). This gas is used as a fuel. Fermentation The fermentation is a process of decomposition of organic matter by microorganisms especially bacteria and yeasts. Examples of fermentation include: (i) decomposition of grains, sugar to form ethyl alcohol (ethenol) and carbon dioxide by yeast (in making of wine). (ii) ethy alcohol forming acetic acid (in making Vinegar) About 15% of ethenol produced in the world is through fermentation of grains and molasses. Ethenol (Ethyl Alcohol) can be blended with gasoline (petrol) to produce gasohol (90% petrol and 10% ethenol). Processes have been developed to produce various fuels from various types of fermentations. Ethenol fermentation of biomass occurs at 20 to 30C. The process takes about 50 hours. Yield is about 90% liquid. This contains about 10 to 20% of alcohol depending upon the tolerance of yeast to alcohol. Concentration of alcohol is increased by distillation. Energy from Cereal Grains and Sugar, Beet, Starch, Potatoes, Fruits etc.

75

Ethyl alcohol (C2H5OH) (Ethenol) is obtained by fermentation of cereal grains molasses of cane sugar, sweet sorghum, beet root, molasses, spend liquor from wood pulp factory, etc. Ethyl alcohol can be used as an additive to the fuel in internal combustion engines. For this purpose, there should be no traces of water. Absolute alcohol used for this purpose is called power alcohol. It is not sufficiently volatile to give proper starting in cold weather, it is therefore mixed with petrol. A mixture of 20% of power alcohol and 80% petrol has been used in India as a substitute of petrol. The Ethyl alcohol is produced in plenty from biomass. This is a renewable source of energy. The chemical equations of conversion of starch to Ethyl alcohol by fermentation are as follows:

The fermentation of molasses is produced by means of yeast which contains enzymes invertase and zymase. Molasses is a dark coloured viscous liquid left as a residue after crystalisation of cane sugar from sugar cane juice. Molsases contains about 50% glucose, fructose, sugars. In USA, the surplus foodgrains are used for production of Ethyl alcohol. It is intended for mixing with petrol to produce gasohol (90% petrol and 10% ethanol). Ethanol (Ethyl Aleohol) CH3CH2OH It is one of the most exotic organic chemicals used as a solvent germicide, alcoholic beverage, antifreeze, fuel, depressant and as a chemical intermediate for other organic chemicals, fuel for automobiles used as additive to petrol. Ethyl Alcohol is a volatile, flammable clear colourless liquid with pleasured odour. Can be diluted with water. Uses of Ethanol (i) Organic chemicals (ii) Solvent (iii) Drugs plastic, lacquers, polishes plasticzers, perfumes (iv) Liquid detergents, sprays, montrivaters . (v) Automotive fuel additive (vi) Fuel Gaseous Fuels from Biomass Biomass can be converted into fuel gases for use in chemical industry and for mixing with petrol (gasoline). Biomass can be partially gasified by pyrolysis to obtain charcoal or charcoal and gas. Carbonisation (Pyrolysis) of wood gives wood gas and other by products such as tar, volatile acids, alchohol.

76

Anaerobic decomposition of organic wastes by suitable bacteria produce biogas which contains methane and other impurities. Anaerobic fermentation of biomass in two stages produces methane and carbondioxide. Biogas can be produced from cow dung in a plant called gobar gas plant. In India, gobar gas is being used in villages for: cooking lighting running diesel engines fuel for furnaces etc.

FUEL CELL
Fuel cells are electro-chemical devices in which the chemical energy of a fuel is converted directly into electric energy. Chemical energy in the form of free energy of reactants is converted into electric energy. This conversion takes place at constant temperature and pressure. The basic feature of the fuel cell is that the fuel and its oxidant are combined in the form of ions. As per the fuel used the main types of fuel cells are: (i) Hydrogen (H2) fuel cell, (ii) Hydrazine (N2H4) fuel cell, (iii) Hydrocarbon fuel cell, and (iv) Alcohol (Methanol) fuel cell. Fuel cells may be classified according to the temperature range in which they operate, (i) Low Temperature Fuel Cell 25 - 100 oC (ii) Medium Temperature Fuel Cell 100 - 500 oC (iii) High Temperature Fuel Cell 500 - 1000 oC (iv) Very High Temperature Fuel Cell above 1000 oC Another method would be according to the type of electrolyte, e.g., aqueous, non-aqueous, molten or solid. One could also classify the fuel cells according to the physical state of the fuel as Gaseous fuel type, Liquid fuel type, or Solid fuel type. Fuel cells can also be classified as primary or secondary types. A primary fuel cell may be defined as one in which the reactants are passed through the cell only once, the products of the reacton being discarded. e.g., H2-O2 fuel cell. A secondary fuel cell is one in which the reactants are passed through the cell many times because they are regenerated from the products by thermal, electrical, photochemical methods. e.g., Nitric oxide-chlorine fuel cells. Design and principle of operation of a fuel cell The main components of a fuel cell are: (i) a fuel electrode (anode), (ii) an oxidant or air electrode (cathode), and (iii) an electrolyte Hydrogen is the active material at the negative electrode and oxygen is active at the positive electrode. Since hydrogen and oxygen are gases, a fuel cell requires a solid electrical conductor

77

to serve as a current collector and to provide a terminal at each electrode. The solid electrode material is generally porous.

Porous nickel electrodes and porous carbon electrodes are generally used in fuel cells for commercial applications. The porous elecrode has a larger number of sites, where the gas, electrolyte and electrode are in contact; the electro-chemical reactions occur at these sites. Usually a catalyst is included in the electrode to enhance the rate of reaction. The best electrochemical catalyst is finely divided platinum. Hydrogen gas is supplied to one electrode and oxygen gas to the other. Between the electrodes is a layer of electrolyte. The electrolyte is an aqueous solution of an alkali or acid. The liquid electrolyte is generally retained in a porous membrane. At the negative electrode, hydrogen gas (H2) is converted into hydrogen ions (H+), plus an equivalent number of electrones ( ); thus the chemical reaction at anode is, 2 2 + + 2 At this electrode, hydrogen is diffused through the permeable nickel in which is embedded a catalyst. The catalyst enables the hydrogen molecules, H2 to be absorbed, on the electrode surface as hydrogen atoms, which react with the hydroxyl ions ( ) in the electrolyte to form water. When the cell is operating and producing current, the electrons flow through the external load to the positive electrode; here they interact with oxygen (O2) and water (H2O) from the electrolyte to form negatively charged hydroxyl ( ) ions; thus the chemical reaction at cathode is, 1 + 2 + 2 2 2 2 The hydrogen and hydroxyl ions then combine in the electrolyte to produce water, + + 2

78

The electrolyte is typically 40% KOH solution because of its high electrical conductivity and it is less corrosive than acids. The above equations show that hydroxyl ions produced at one electrode are involved in the reaction at the other. Also electrons are absorbed from the oxygen electrode and released to the hydrogen electrode. Addition of the three forgoing reactions show that when the cell is operating, the overall process is the chemical combination of hydrogen and oxygen (gases) to form water that is, 1 2 + 2 2 2 The oxygen and hydrogen are converted to water, which is the waste product of the cell. The reactants are stored outside the cell, and the electrodes and electrolyte are not consumed in the overall process. These properties lead to the design of convenient small size and long life power units. Fuel cell power system The main components of a fuel cell power system are shown schematically in the figure. It consists of: (1) The fuel processor which converts the fossil fuel into a hydrogen-rich gas, (2) The power section consisting of the actual fuel cell (or combination of cells), and (3) The inverter for changing the direct current generated by the fuel cell into alternating current to be transmitted to user.

The highly developed fossil fuel cells for this purpose are phosphoric acid cells, molten carbonate cells, and solid oxide electrolyte cells. Molten Carbonate Cells. These are high temperature fuel cells, with a molten carbonate mixture as the electrolyte, offer the prospect for use with a variety of fossil fuels, including coal. A special feature of these cells is that during operation they can oxidize carbon-monoxide to carbondioxide as well as hydrogen to water. Hence gaseous mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide, which are relatively inexpensive to manufacture, can be used in the cell, the presence of carbon-dioxide would have only a minor effect. Several methods are available for fuel processing. These methods are essentially the same as those used for the commercial production, of mixtures of hydrogen and carbon-monoxide, known as synthesis gas. Synthesis gas can be made from coal by reactions with air and steam or

79

from various petroleum products. In order to prevent poisoning of the electrodes in the fuel cell, the gas mixture must be desulfurized before being supplied to the power section. The electrolyte is a molten mixture of alkali metal (lithium, sodium and potassium) carbonates at a temperature of 600-700C. This is retained in an inert porous matrix sandwiched between two porous nickel electrodes. Because of the high temperature, electrochemical catalysts are apparently not necessary on the electrodes. The mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide is supplied to the negative electrode and oxygen (from the air) to the positive electrode. The discharge e.m.f. of the cell is about 0.8 volt. At the fuel electrode, H2 and CO react with CO3 ions in the electrolyte, releasing electrons to the electrode, and forming H2O and CO2. At the oxygen electrode O2 reacts with the returning electrons and CO2 diverted from the fuel electrode to form CO3 ions. These CO3 ions then migrate through the electrolyte to the fuel electrode. Thus the reactions are as follows.

At the fuel electrode: 2 + 3 2 2 + 2 + 2 + 3 2 22 + 2 At oxygen electrode: 2 + 22 + 4 23 2 Overall cell reaction: 2 + + 2 2 + 2 An important aspect of the molten carbonate fuel cells is that the discharged gases, consisting mainly of the steam and carbondioxide products and nitrogen from the air, are at a temperature exceeding 540C. The hot gases could be used to provide industrial process heat, to operate a gas turbine or to produce steam in a waste-heat (heat exchanger) boiler to drive a steam turbine.

80

The turbine would be attached to a generator to produce additional electric power. The overall efficiency for fuel use would thus be substantially increased. Solid Oxide Electrolyte Cells Certain solid, ceramic oxides are able to conduct electricity at high temperatures and can serve as electrolytes for fuel cells. These cells could utilize the same fossil fuels as the molten carbonate cells. The processing operation would then be the same as described above. Solidoxide cells are in the early stages of development. A possible electrolyte is zirconium dioxide containing a small amount of another oxide to stabilize the crystal structure; this material is able to conduct oxygen ions (2 ) at high temperatures. The electrode material might be porous nickel and the operating temperature in the range of 6001000C. Electrochemical catalysts would not be required. Some other fuels Other energy sources or fuels, that can be conveniently stored and transported in liquid form, such as methanol, ammonia and hydrazine, have been proposed for the fuel cells. Methanol Methanol can be catalytically reformed with steam at about 200C to yield a mixture of hydrogen (75 volume per cent) and carbondioxide. This gas can be supplied to the negative electrode of a fuel cell with air at the positive electrode. The cell with aqueous phosphoric acid solution as the electrolyte, might be similar to those already described. Ammonia In the ammonia (NH3) oxygen (air) fuel cell, ammonia gas, obtained from the stored liquid, is decomposed catalytically into hydrogen (75 volume per cent) and nitrogen. Part of the hydrogen is burned in air to provide the heat required for the decomposition. The bulk of the hydrogen is then supplied to the negative electrode of a hydrogen air fuel cell. The most suitable electrolyte would probably be potassium hydroxide solution. The nitrogen formed in the decomposition of ammonia is inert and plays no role in the cell. The advantage of ammonia as fuel is that it can be stored in the liquid form. Disadvantages include higher vapour pressure and cell does not operate satisfactorily at low temperatures. Hydrazine A compact fuel cell for a mobile source, possibly for vehicle propulsion, utilizes the liquid hydrazine (N2H4) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) or air as the energy source. Hydrazine is injected as required into the aqueous potassium hydroxide electrolyte to provide the active material at the negative electrode. The oxygen for the positive electrode is obtained either by the catalytic decomposition of hydrogen peroxide at ordinary temperatures or from the ambient air. Each electrode may consist of a nickel screen matrix with nickel (negative) or silver (positive) as the electrochemical catalyst. The overall cell reaction is the oxidation of hydrazine to water and nitrogen, but the discharge emf is similar to that of the hydrogen oxygen cell. Basic reactions are: 2 2 + 4 2 + 42 + 4 2 + 22 + 4 4 Overall cell reaction: 2 2 + 2 2 + 22

81

Basic drawback of H2-O2 cell is that Hydrogen and Oxygen are gases, so there is storage difficulty. But hydrazine is liquid, can be easily stored. Liquid fuel hydrazine is highly reactive. Power output is more as open circuit voltage (OCV) for this case is 1.56 as compared to 1.23 volt of H2-O2 cell. Main drawback of hydrazine fuel is that it is highly toxic as well as costly. Regenerative Systems A regenerative fuel cell is one in which the fuel cell product (e.g., water in the hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell) is re-covered into its reactants (e.g., hydrogen and oxygen) by one of several possible methods such as thermal, chemical, photochemical, electric or radio chemical. There are two stages in a regenerative fuel cell: (1) Conversion of fuel cell reactants into products while producing electrical energy, and (2) Reconversion of fuel cell products into reactants, it is clear that the overall efficiency of a regenerative fuel cell is the product of the efficiencies of these two stages. Photochemically regenerative fuel cells. In this method, the products of the fuel cell reaction are transformed into its reactants by light. Because of the ample availability of solar energy, this method should be valuable, provided that there are suitable substances which can undergo photo chemical dissociation. The sequence of reactions which are taking place in this fuel cell can be represented as follows: Electrochemical: + + Photochemical: + + Overall: The nitric oxide-chlorine fuel cell, in which the overall reaction is, 2 + 2 2 the product nitrosyl chloride is decomposed Photochemically to chlorine and nitrous oxide. The system is schematically represented in Figure.

82

The cell has a standard reversible-cell potential of 0.21 volt. The reactants may be regenerated from NOCl, in the liquid phase by light. Under these conditions, the quantum yield is low because the back reaction is also rapid. In the gas phase regeneration is easier although there is some problem of separating the NO and CI2. The currents obtainable are low, probably as a result of the low value of the reversible potential. Advantages and Disadvantages of Fuel Cell Advantages. (1) It has very high conversion efficiencies, as high as 70 per cent have been observed, since it is a direct conversion process and does not involve a thermal process. (2) Fuel cells can be installed near the use point, thus reducing electrical transmission requirements and accompanying losses. Consequently considerably higher efficiencies are possible. (3) They have few mechanical components; hence, they operate fairly quietly and require little attention and less maintenance. (4) Atmospheric pollution is small if the primary energy source is hydrogen, the only waste product is water; if the source is hydrocarbon, carbon dioxide is also produced. Some heat is generated by a fuel cell, but it can be dissipated to the atmosphere or possibles used locally.

83

(5) There is no requirement for large volumes of cooling water such as are necessary to condense exhaust system from a turbine in the conventional power plant. (6) As fuel cells do not make noise, they can be readily accepted in residential areas. (7) The fuel cell takes little time to go into operation. (8) The space requirement for fuel cell power plant is considerably less as compared to conventional power plants. Disadvantages The main disadvantages of fuel cells are their high initial costs and low service life. Applications of Fuel Cells The applications of fuel cell may be discussed with reference to the following: (i) Domestic use (ii) Central power stations (iii) Automotive vehicles (iv) Special applications.

MAGNETO HYDRO DYNAMIC (MHD) POWER GENERATION

MHD power generation is a new system of electric power generation which is said to be of high efficiency and low pollution. It is concerned with the flow of a conducting fluid in the presence of magnetic and electric field. The fluid may be gas at elevated temperature or liquid metal like sodium or potassium. An MHD generator is a device for converting heat energy of a fuel directly into electrical energy without a conventional electric generator. Principle of MHD Power Generation The principle of MHD generation is simply that discovered by Faraday: when an electric conductor moves across a magnetic field voltage is induced in it which produces an electric current. In MHD generator, the solid conductors are replaced by a gaseous conductor; an ionized gas. If such a gas is passed at a high velocity through a powerful magnetic field, a current is generated and can be extracted by placing electrodes in a suitable position in the stream. This arrangement is shown in the figure. According to Faradays law of electromagnetic induction, an electric conductor moving through a magnetic field experiences a

84

retarding force as well as an induced electric field and current. From an energy point of view, the movement of the electric conductor through a distance (mechanical work) is converted into electrical work (current flow against a potential difference). This is a work energy conversion and is not limited by the Carnot principle. The electromagnetic induction principle need not be limited to solid conductors; the movement of a conducting fluid through a magnetic field may also be employed for electric energy conversion. When a conducting fluid is used instead of a solid conductor, the conversion technique is called Magneto Hydrodynamic (MHD) energy conversion. A schematic of MHD generator is shown below.

The conducting fluid (ionized gas) is forced between the plates with a kinetic energy and pressure differential sufficient to overcome the magnetic induction force. Ionization is produced either by thermal means i.e. by an elevated temperature or by seeding with substance like cesium or potassium vapours which ionize at relatively low temperatures. The presence of the negatively charged electron makes the carrier gas an electrical conductor. The other way is to incorporate a liquid metal into the flowing carrier gas. Since metals are good electrical conductors, a gas metal mixture can be used as the working fluid in an MHD generator. In the overall power cycle, the MHD converter takes the place of a turbine in a conventional vapour or gas turbine cycle. Still, a compressor must be used to elevate the pressure, heat is added at high pressure and the flow is accelerated before entering the converter. A schematic of the MHD power cycle is shown below along with a T-S diagram for the ideal processes.
Schematic of MHD Power cycle (closed system)

85

MHD Systems Magneto hydrodynamic conversion systems can operate in either open or closed cycles. In an open cycle system, the working fluid is used on the once through basis. The working fluid after generating electrical energy is discharged to the atmosphere T-S diagram for MHD cycle through a stack. In the closed cycle, system the working fluid is continuously re-circulated. In an open cycle system the working fluid is air. In closed cycle systems helium or argon is used as the working fluid. In open-cycle systems, the hot combustion gases offer seeding, can be used directly as the working fluid, in closed cycle systems, however, heat is transferred from the combustion gases to the working fluid by means of a heat exchanger. A higher working temperature and a better thermal efficiency are thus possible in open cycles. Thus the MHD systems can be classified broadly as follows: (1) Open cycle systems. (2) Closed cycle systems. This may be further sub classified as: (i) Seeded inert gas systems, and (ii) Liquid metal system. Open-Cycle Systems The arrangement of the system is shown schematically in Figure. In this system, fuel used may be oil through an oil tank or gasified coal through a coal gasification plant. The fuel (coal, oil or natural gas) is burnt in the combustor or combustion chamber. The hot gases from combustor is then seeded with a small amount of an ionized alkali metal (cesium or potassium), to increase the electrical conductivity of the gas. The seed material, generally potassium carbonate, is injected into the combustion chamber, the potassium is then ionized by the hot combustion gases at temperatures of roughly (2300 to 2700oC). To attain such high temperatures, the compressed air used to burn the coal (or other fuel) in the combustion chamber, must be preheated to at least 1100C. A lower preheat temperature would be adequate if the air were enriched in oxygen.

86

The hot, pressurized working fluid leaving the combustor flows through a convergent-divergent nozzle similar to a rocket nozzle. In passing through the nozzle, the random motion energy of the molecules in the hot gas is largely converted into directed, mass motion energy. Thus, the gas emerges from the nozzle and enters the MHD generator unit at a high velocity. The MHD generator is a divergent channel made of a heat-resistant alloy with external water cooling. The hot gas expands through the rocket like generator surrounded by powerful magnet. During the motion of the gas the positive and negative ions move to the electrodes and constitute an electric current. The magnetic field direction, which is at right angles to the fluid flow, would be perpendicular to the plane of paper. A number of oppositely located electrode pairs are inserted in the channel to conduct the electric current generated to an external load. An MHD generator, unlike a conventional generator, produces direct current, this can be converted into commonly used alternating current by means of an inverter.

As the working fluid travels along the MHD generator and its energy is converted into electricity, its temperature falls. When the gas temperature reaches about 1900C, the extent of ionization of the potassium is insufficient to maintain an adequate electrical conductivity. This places a lower limit on the useful operating temperature of the MHD system. The large residual heat available from the hot discharge working gas can then be utilized in several ways. For example, it conserve to preheat the combustion air by way of a heat exchanger similar to the regenerator in a gas turbine. At this stage, some 25 to 35 per cent of the heat energy in the working fluid should have been converted into electrical energy. The still hot gas leaving the air preheater would be used in waste heat (heat exchanger) boiler to produce steam for operating a turbine generator. In this way, another 25 to 30 per cent of the initial heat should be recovered as electrical energy in a combined cycle system. The seed material is recovered for successive use in seed recovery apparatus.

87

For efficient practical realization an MHD system must have the following features: 1. Air super heating arrangement to heat the gas to around 2500C, (the inlet temperature of MHD is about 2500C), so that the electrical conductivity of the gas is increased. 2. The combustion chamber must have low heat losses. 3. Arrangement to add a low ionization potential seed material to the gas to increase its conductivity. 4. A water cooled but electrically insulating expanding duct with long life electrodes. 5. Seed recovery apparatus necessary for both environmental and economic reasons. Closed-cycle systems Two general types of closed cycle MHD generators are being investigated. In one type, electrical conductivity is maintained in the working fluid by ionization of a seed material, as in open-cycle systems; and in the other, a liquid metal provides the conductivity. The carrier is usually a chemical inert gas, although a liquid carrier has been used with a liquid metal conductor. The working fluid is circulated in a closed loop and is heated by the combustion gases using a heat exchanger. Hence, the heat source and the working fluid are independent. The working fluid is helium or argon with cesium seeding. 1. Seeded inert gas system:In a closed cycle system the carrier gas (argon/helium) operates in a form of Brayton cycle. The gas is compressed and heat is supplied by the source, at essentially constant pressure; the compressed gas then expands in the MHD generator and its pressure and temperature fall. After leaving the generator, heat is removed from the gas by a cooler, this is the heat rejection stage of the cycle. Finally the gas is recompressed and returned for reheating.

A closed cycle MHD system is shown in Figure. The complete system has three distinct but interlocking loops. On the left is the external heating loop. Coal is gasified and the gas (having a high peak value of about 5.35 MJ/kg and at a temperature of about 525C) is burnt in a combustor to provide heat. In the primary heat exchanger, this heat is transferred to a carrier gas

88

such as argon/helium (working fluid) of the MHD cycle. The combustion products after passing through the air preheater (to recover a part of the heat of combustion products) and purifier (to remove harmful emissions) are discharged to atmosphere. Because the combustion system is separate from the working fluid, so also are the ash and flue gases. Hence, the problem of extracting the seed material from flyash does not arise. The flue gases are used to preheat the incoming combustion air and then treated for flyash and sulfur-dioxide removal, if necessary, prior to discharge through a stack to the atmosphere. The loop in the centre is the MHD loop. The hot argon gas is seeded with cesium and resulting working fluid is passed through the MHD generator at high speeds. The d.c. power out of MHD generator is converted to A.C. by the inverter and is then fed into the grid. The loop shown on the right hand side in figure is the steam loop for further recovery of the heat of working fluid and converting this heat into electrical energy in the diffuser the working fluid is slowed down to a low subsonic speed. Then hot fluid enters a secondary heat exchanger, which serves as a waste heat boiler to generate steam. This steam is partly utilized to drive a turbine generator and for driving a turbine which runs the argon (or helium) compressor. The output of the generator is also fed to the main grid. The working fluid is returned back to primary heat exchanger after passing through compressor and inter cooler. 2. Liquid Metal System:When a liquid metal provides the electrical conductivity, an inert gas (e.g. argon or helium) is a convenient carrier. The carrier gas is pressurized and heated by passage through a (primary) heat exchanger within the combustion chamber. The hot gas is then incorporated into the liquid metal, usually hot sodium, to form the working fluid. The latter then consists of gas bubbles uniformly dispersed in an approximately equal volume of liquid sodium. The working fluid is introduced into the MHD generator through a nozzle in the usual ways ; the carrier gas then provide the required high directed velocity of the electrical conductor (i.e. the liquid metal). After passage through the generator, the liquid metal is separated from the carrier gas. Part of the heat remaining in the gas is transferred to water in a (secondary) heat exchanger to produce steam for operating a turbine generator. Finally the carrier gas is cooled, compressed, and returned to the combustion chamber for reheating and mixing with the recovered liquid metal. The working fluid temperature is usually around 800oC, as the boiling point of the sodium, even under moderate pressure, is below 900C.

89

The lower operating temperature then in other MHD conversion systems may be advantageous from the material standpoint, but the maximum thermal efficiency is lower. A possible compromise might be to use liquid lithium, with a boiling point near 1300C, as the electrical conductor. Lithium is much more expensive than sodium, but losses in a closed system is small. The closed cycle liquid metal system has the basic advantage of high electrical conductivity. However, liquids being practically incompressible, high velocities cannot be produced by expansion as in the case of gas. In order to achieve reasonable velocities, either in low efficiency jet pump or a two-phase system with vapour bubbles can be used. Even though liquid metal are excellent conductors, their vapours are poor electrical conductors. Thus there are several practical problems which have to be solved before liquid metal MHD systems can be commercially exploited. These systems are also appropriate for being coupled to nuclear reactors and the temperature range of interest to the liquid metal MHD (800K - 1300K) is similar to liquid metal fast breeder reactors. A liquid metal MHD cycle is illustrated in Figure.

90

In this liquid potassium after being heated in breeder reactor is passed through a nozzle to increase its velocity. The vapour formed due to nozzle action are separated in the separator and condensed and then pumped back to the reactor as shown. Then the liquid metal with high velocity attained is passed through MHD generator to produce d.c. power. The liquid potassium coming out of MHD generator is passed through the conventional steam plant, where in the heat exchanger the heat of liquid potassium is utilized to generate steam to run steam turbine generator. Advantages of MHD Systems (1) The conversion efficiency of an MHD system can be around 50 per cent as compared to less than 40 per cent for the most efficient steam plants. Still higher thermal efficiencies (60-65%) are expected in future, with the improvements in experience and technology. (2) Large amount of power is generated. (3) It has no moving parts, so more reliable. (4) The closed cycle system produces power free of pollution. (5) It has ability to reach the full power level as soon as started. (6) The size of the plant (m2/kW) is considerably smaller than conventional fossil fuel plants. (7) Although the costs cannot be predicted very accurately, yet it has been reported that capital costs of MHD plants will be competitive with those of conventional steam plants. (8) It has been estimated that the overall operational, costs in an MHD plant would be about 20% less than in conventional steam plants.

91

(9) Direct conversion of heat into electricity permits to eliminate the gas turbine (compared with a gas turbine power plant) or both the boiler and the turbine (compared with a steam power plant). This elimination reduces losses of energy. (10) These systems permit better fuel utilization. The reduced fuel consumption would offer additional economic and special benefits and would also lead to conservation of energy resources, (11) It is possible to utilize MHD for peak power generations and emergency service. It has been estimated the MHD equipment for such duties is simpler, has the capability of generating in large units and has the ability to make rapid start to full load.

TIDAL POWER
Introduction Tidal or lunar energy as it is sometimes called, has been known to mankind since time immemorial. Various devices, particularly the mills were operated using tidal power. In the past water supply of London was pumped to a water tower by a mill operated by the tidal power (which consisted of a large paddle wheel, mounted on a raft and fastened between two of the piers of old London Bridge). The tidal power has been used to irrigate fields in Germany and to saw firewood in Canada. Tides are caused by the combined gravitational forces of Sun and Moon on the waters of the revolving Earth. When the gravitational forces due to the Sun and the Moon add together, tides of maximum range, called spring tides, are obtained. On the other hand, when the two forces oppose each other, tides of minimum range, called neap tides, are obtained. In one year there are approximately 705 full tidal cycles. 1.1.2 Basic Schemes It has been suggested, that for harnessing tidal power effectively the most practicable method is the basin system. Here a portion of the sea is enclosed behind a dam or dams and water is allowed to run through turbines, as the tide subsides. The power available from a given head of water varies as the square of the head and since the head varies with the tidal range, the power available at different sites from tidal energy shows very wide variation. Various tidal basin systems have, therefore, been evolved, in order to overcome this wide variation in availability of tidal power. Single Basin System The simplest scheme for developing tidal power is the single basin arrangement, in which a single basin of constant area is provided with sluices (gates), large enough to admit the tide, so that the loss of head is small. The level of water in the basin is the same as that of the tide outside. When the tides are high, water is stored in the basin and sluice gates are closed. When the tides are falling, sluices are opened to allow water to go through the turbine to generate power. A head of water is obviously required for the turbine to generate water. This continues to generate power till the level of the falling tides coincides with the level of the next rising tide. The major disadvantage of this single basin scheme is that it gives intermittent supply

92

of power, varying considerably over the period of operation. It is for this reason that the tidal power has not been developed on a large scale. Also with this scheme, only about 50 per cent of tidal energy is available. Two Basin System An improvement over the single basin system is the two-basin system. In this system, a constant and continuous output is maintained by suitable adjustment of the turbine valves to suit the head under which these turbines are operating. A two-basin system regulates power output of an individual tide but it cannot take care of the great difference in outputs between spring and neap tides. This system, therefore, provides a partial solution to the problem, of getting a steady output of power from a tidal scheme. This disadvantage can be overcome by the joint operation of tidal power and pumped storage plant. During the period when the tidal power plant is producing more energy than required, the pumped storage plant utilizes the surplus power for pumping water to the upper reservoir. When the output of the tidal power plant is low, the pumped storage plant generates electric power and feeds it to the system. This arrangement, even though technically feasible, is much more expensive, as it calls for higher installed capacity for meeting a particular load. This basic principle of joint operation of tidal power with steam plant, is also possible when it is connected to a grid. In this case, whenever tidal power is available, the output of the steam plant will be reduced by that extent which leads to saving in fuel and reduced wear and tear of steam plant. This operation requires the capacity of steam power plant to be equal to that of tidal power plant and makes the overall cost of power obtained from such a combined scheme very high. In the system shown in Fig. 1.1, the two basins close to each other, operate alternatively. One basin generates power when the tide is rising (basin getting filled up) and the other basin generates power while the tide is falling (basin getting emptied). The two basins may have a common power house or may have separate power house for each basin. In both the cases, the power can be generated continuously. The system could be thought of as a combination of two single basin systems, in which one is generating power during tiding cycle, and the other is generating power during emptying.

93

Cooperating double basin system. This scheme consists of two basins, at different elevation connected through turbine. The sluices in the high and low level basin communicate with sea water directly as shown in Fig. 1.2. The high level basin sluices are called the inlet sluices and the low level as outlet sluices. The basic operation of the scheme is as follows.

Let us assume that the upper basin is filled with water. The water is allowed to flow to the lower basin through the turbine. Therefore, the level in the upper basin falls and that in

94

the lower basin rises. At an instant when the rising level in the basin is equal to the level of the falling tide, the outlet gates are opened. When the tide reaches its lower most level, the outlet gates are closed. After a while the tide rises. When its level becomes equal to the low level of the upper basin, the inlet gates are opened. As a result, the level of the upper basin starts rising. At the same time, the turbines are fed from the upper basin transferring water to the lower basin, thus raising level of water there. When the tide reaches its peak value, the inlet gates are called again. Thus the cycle is repeated. 1.1.3 Turbines for Tidal Power Tidal power plants operate using a rapidly varying head of water and, therefore, their turbines must have high efficiency at varying head. The Kaplan type of water turbine operates quite favourably under these conditions. The propeller type of turbine is also suitable because the angle of the blades can be altered to obtain maximum efficiency while water is falling. A compact reversible horizontal turbine has been developed by French Engineer which acts with equal efficiency both as a pump and as a turbine. The bulb-type turbine (Fig. 1.3) consists of a steel shell completely enclosing the generator which is coupled to the turbine runner. The turbine is mounted in a tube within the structure of the barrage, the whole machine being submerged at all times.

When the power demand on the system is low during the rising tides, the unit operates as a pump to transfer water from sea to the basin. When the load on this system is high, the unit will work as a generator, and deliver the stored energy which is a valuable additional input to the system. There are two tidal power plants in France now in operation; an experimental one with

95

a capacity of 9 MW at Saint Malo and a 240 MW Plant with a 700 m long dam at the mouth of the Rance River. A large number of tidal power projects have been planned but subsequently abandoned because of the high cost involved and obstruction in navigation. Even though many problems have to be overcome in tidal power development, this form of power has certain definite advantages. Output of a tidal power station is independent of the seasonal changes and can be predicted well in advance, as it depends on the cosmic phenomenon. It is possible to predict the amount of power and the time at which it will be available throughout the year. This power can, therefore, be utilized at the proper position of the load curve. More than fifty sites have been identified in the world for possible generation of tidal power. As more and more technological advancement take place, even more sites could be identified for tidal power development. Some of the important sites are: (i) La Rance (France), (ii) Severn Barrage (UK), (iii) White sea (USSR), (iv) Passamaquoddy (USA), (v) Gulf of Cambey (India) and (vi) Gulf of Kutch (India). The maximum tidal range in the Gulf of Cambey is about 10.8 m and is quite attractive for a tidal plant. However, the silt charge of the Gulf of Cambey is relatively high and needs a closer study for further development. The Gulf of Kutch has a maximum spring tide of 7.5 m and the silt charge is relatively low. WIND POWER 1.2.1 Introduction The wind wheel, like the water wheel, has been used by man for a long time for grinding corn and pumping water. Ancient seamen used wind power to sail their ships. With the development of the fossil fuelled and hydro-electric plants, there was decline in the use of wind power due to the less cost involved in the new methods. Another difficulty with wind power was the problem of energy storage. The energy could not be made available, on demands, due to uncertainties of wind. Due to these two reasons, no further attempt was made to develop wind power for large scale power generation. In recent years, however, as a result of energy crisis in the world, it has been decided to investigate all possible means of developing power, as alternatives to fuel fired plants. The wind could supply a significant portion of the worlds energy demand. An estimate by an American Professor indicates the potentialities of wind power. According to him about 350,000 wind mills each rated for about 1250 KW to 2200 KW could develop power of the order of 190,000 MW. With the advancement in the knowledge of aero-dynamics it has been possible to build larger and more efficient wind power plants. A typical example is the 1250 KW installation at Grandpas Knol in U.S.A. Whereas some success has been achieved in developing small and medium size plants, the prospects of large scale generation i.e., 1 MW or above are not, as yet very encouraging. 1.2.2 Characteristics of Wind Power

96

Wind as a source of energy is plentiful, inexhaustible and pollution free but it has the disadvantage that the degree and period of its availability are uncertain. Also, movement of large volumes of air is required, to produce even a moderate amount of power. As a result, the wind power must be used as and when it is available, in contrast to conventional methods where energy can be drawn upon when required. Wind power, therefore, is regarded as a means of saving fuel, by injection of power into an electrical grid, or run wind power plant in conjunction with a pumped storage plant. The power that can be theoretically obtained from the wind, is proportional to the cube of its velocity and thus high wind velocities are most important. The power developed using this law, in atmospheric condition where the density of air is 1.2014 kg/cu metre, is given as Power developed = 13.14 106 A V 3 KW where A is the swept area in sq. metre and V the wind velocity in Km/hr. The energy developed is affected by: The Altitude of the Site The velocity of the wind increases with the altitude. In general, the higher the wind wheel is placed above ground, the greater will be wind power available. Velocity Duration Curve The variation of velocity of wind over the period affects the power output, e.g., let the velocity over the first hour be 30 kmph and the next hour be 20 kmph. The energy developed is proportional to 303 + 203 = 35,000. On the other hand, if we assume average velocity during these two hours of 25 kmph, the power developed is proportional to 2 253 = 33250. Thus, the relation between the actual energy available, and that available from a steady wind of average velocity, varies considerably and depends on the shape of the velocity-duration curve for the period of generation. The wind speeds, between which a wind wheel generator operates, are limited. A certain minimum wind velocity is required to overcome frictional and other losses of the machine and, on the other hand, it would be uneconomical to design a plant for very high velocity wind which would occur only for a small period over the year. Therefore, the machine must be designed for a rated wind velocity, for which the output is maximum. Typical wind velocities for some sites may range between 30 kmph to 45 kmph. The rated wind velocity, for which a plant is designed substantially affects the specific output (K whr generated per annum per KW installed capacity) and also the cost of construction. If the rated velocity is low, the specific output is high as full output will be generated for a relatively longer duration of the year, whereas if the rated velocity is high, the converse will be true. But with low rated wind velocity, a larger diameter wheel will be required for a given KW rating, which in turn increases the cost of the plant. Economic development of wind power, therefore, requires selection of sites where high specific outputs are compatible with reasonable cost of construction of plant. It is, therefore, necessary to obtain wind velocity duration curve for a particular site and to know the output of the machine for varying wind velocities. The maximum efficiency of the wind power plant is found not to exceed 40%. 1.2.3 Design of Wind Wheels

97

Several types of wind wheels have been used but the advantage of propeller rotating about a horizontal shaft, in a plane perpendicular to the direction of the wind make it the most likely type to realise economic generation on a large scale. A propeller consisting of two or three blades (with an aerofoil section) and capable of running at the high speeds is likely to be the most efficient. Present technology has been able to build systems with 60 m long blades, on towers as high as 305 m. A large tower system, to support many small rotor-generator units, can also be built. Wind pressure rotates the wind vanes or propellers attached to a shaft. The revolving shaft rotates the rotor of a generator, through a mechanism of gears couplings etc. Thus, electricity is generated. The wind power plants can be operated in combination with steam or hydro power station, which will lead to saving in fuel and increase in firm capacity, respectively of these plants. Wind energy can prove to be a potential source of energy for solving the energy problem. It can certainly go a long way to supply pollution-free energy to millions of people, living in the villages all over the world. The economic viability of wind mills is better in situations where conventional transmission costs are extremely high (because of inaccessiability and small load) or where continuous availability of supply is not essential so that only a limited amount of storage on standby power need be provided. GEOTHERMAL POWER 1.3.1 Introduction Many geothermal power plants are operating throughout the world. Although larger geothermal power plants are in operation in America today, it is to the credit of the Italians that the first impressive breakthrough in geothermal power exploitation was achieved. The oldest geothermal power station is near Larderello in Italy, which has an installed capacity of 380 MW. In Newzealand geothermal power accounts for 40% of the total installed capacity, whereas in Italy it accounts for 6%. It is a common knowledge that the earths interior is made of a hot fluid called magma. The outer crust of the earth has an average thickness of 32 Km and below that, is the magma. The average increase in temperature with depth of the earth is 1C for every 35 to 40 metre depth. At a depth of 3 to 4 Kms, water boils up and at a depth of about 15 Kms, the temperature is, in the range of 1000C to 1200C. If the magma finds its way through the weak spots of the earths crust, it results into a volcano. At times, due to certain reasons the surface water penetrates into the crust, where it turns into steam, due to intense heat, and comes out in the form of springs or geysers. Moveover, the molten magma also contains water, which it releases in the form of steam, which could be utilized for electric power generation. 1.3.2 Principle of Operation Various types of cycles have been suggested for geothermal power generation. Only two important ones, which are being used in practice, are discussed here. Indirect Condensing Cycle While developing Larderello power plant, it was thought, that geothermal steam may corrode the turbines. Therefore, an indirect system was adopted, which involved the use of a

98

heat exchanger by means of which clean steam was raised from contaminated natural steam (Fig. 1.4). In spite of the fact that about 15% to 20% of the steam power potential had to be sacrificed in the heat exchanger, the cycle was considered economical, because of the recovery of minerals and non-condensible gases from the new steam.

With the advancement in metallurgy technology and the declining economic attractions of mineral extraction, through this process, this cycle has been rendered obsolete. Direct Non-Condensing Cycle This is the simplest, cheapest and most widely used geothermal cycle. Bore steam, either direct from dry bores, or after separation (using centrifugal separator) from wet bores, is simply passed through a turbine and exhausted to atmosphere (Fig.1.5).

There is a need for utilizing the heat available from the high temperature (about 1000C) layers of the earth. It has been suggested that water should be pumped into artificial volcanic craters and then turned into useful steam. Like hydro power stations, geothermal power plants are unattended and do not need full time supervision. Since the units are unattended, the warning alarm can be transmitted to the attended station where appropriate action can be taken. If a well has been shut down, it requires several hours to get it upto rated flow to clear it of water and debris. Some more time is required to warm up the steam collection system piping the drain condensate from it. No attempt should be made to fast start ups as it results

99

in damage to the turbine blades. Steam temperature and steam line drains should be closely monitored, for any indication of water. If there is any possibility of water coming alongwith the steam, the unit should be tripped to prevent damage to the turbine. Rated turbine throttle pressure is maintained by connecting sufficient number of wells to the supply line of a unit. Whenever a unit trips, the steam should be released to the atmosphere. If a unit is to be shut down for a long time, the wells should also be shut down. It is important that a systematic schedule of preventive maintenance be observed at these plants. A rigidly planned periodic maintenance schedule must be adhered to. Units should be inspected every three years. An adequate stock of spare partsespecially the turbine blades must be maintained. With proper maintenance, it is possible to operate these plants at very high annual plant load factor of the order of 90% or even more. 1.3.3 Combined Operation of Geothermal Plant It is well known that a composite power system can be supplied more economically by a combination of two main types of plants: (i) Base Load Plant which is characterised by high fixed cost and low variable cost. (ii) Peak load Plant which is characterised by low fixed cost and high variable cost. In case of a geothermal plant, the usual practice is to regard all the production cost as fixed cost, with zero variable cost as no fuel is required for its operation. This is justified by the fact, that once geothermal steam has been made available by means of capital spent on exploitation, drilling and pipe work, it may be regarded as free. Geothermal plants are, therefore, ideally rated as base load plants. Most of the plants today are being used as base load plants as they can achieve annual plant load factor of 90% or morehigher than that obtainable from thermal or nuclear plant. The commercial viability of a geothermal power plant as compared to other sources, depends upon the cost of alternative power sources and other local factors. As a rule of thumb, the following guidelines may be followed to assess its viability: (i) The fluid temperature at the bottom of the bore should be at least 180C. (ii) A temperature of 180C should be available at depths not exceeding 3 Kms. (iii) The yield from a 24 1/2 cm bore should be at least 20 tons/hr of steam. The following are some of the geothermal power projects in operation : Larderello : Italy Geysers : California (USA) Cerro Prieto : Mexico Hatchobaru : Japan Matsukawa : Japan Paratunka : USSR Wairakei : New Zealand Pugga Multipurpose : India At present geothermal energy makes a very small, but locally important, contribution to world energy requirements. This situation will not change unless important technological advances are made. Environmentally, it is probably the least objectionable form of power

100

generation available at present, with, the exception of hydroelectric methods. WAVE POWER 1.4.1 Introduction Another source of non-conventional energy generation is the wave power. The major problem with the wave power is that it is not concentrated at a place. If means could be developed for collecting the energy in the wave, spread over a large surface area, and concentrating it into a relatively small volume, the prospects, would be considerably improved. It has been observed that a typical wave measures 2 to 3 metres in height throughout the year. The energy per square metre of wave surface area is given as 1/2 ga2 where is density of sea water, g is acceleration due to gravity and a is the amplitude of the wave. In the Atlantic, the wave period T is around 9s, and the average velocity of propagation of wave is 14m/s. It has been observed that a power flow of around 70 KW for every metre of wave front, can be obtained. This is a considerable amount of power, especially when we think of the availability of this power throughout the year. If the length of the coast line is, say 1200 Km, the power available is around 84 GW. 1.4.2 Wave Power Conversion Devices A large number of devices for converting wave power to mechanical power have been suggested in the literature e.g. flaps, ramps, floats and converging channels. A device known as Salter Cam is being used for this purpose which has a high efficiency (75%). A cross section of the device is shown in Fig. 1.6. It simulates the action of a vertical flapping plate at the front where energy is absorbed, but the rear is cylindrical so that the water beyond the device is not disturbed, as it rotates. Due to its asymmetrical shape, the response of this device depends upon its loading and therefore, counter-balancing is necessary.

101

Another device suggested by Masuda uses a bell shaped chamber filled with air, which is pumped through an air turbine by the rising and falling motion of the water. A large number of such devices are in use, for providing about 60 watt of power for marine buoy lights. Such devices are inherently small in size, but a large number of them could be put together, to provide a large floating structure e.g. an arrow-shaped triangular structure (Fig. 1.7) for mounting, near the shore.

Wave power, even though looks to be a single component, but it must be considered in its entirety if it has to make significant contributions. Fig. 1.8 shows various possible ways in which wave power can be used and shows the various links between the sea-waves and the consumer of power. If the wave power is to be brought off-shore as electrical power, a submarine cable will be required. In recent times a lot of technological developments have taken place in the design and manufacture of submarine cables and it should not be a problem to produce economical submarine cables. A variable frequency generator could feed a rectifying device. The power could be transmitted through the cable to the substation. It could then be inverted and fed into a grid system. Alternatively, the power could be used on-board floating factories. Also, hydrogen could be produced by the d.c. output which could be supplied to the consumer as fuel.

102

Another possibility is that the energy could be transmitted hydraulically, using a storage system to provide short term storage before transfer to a turbo-generator. The conversion equipment would be inside the cams and the electricity outputs connected to a floating substation by cable. SOLAR ENERGY 1.6.1 Introduction

103

Sun is the primary source of energy. The earth receives 1.6 1018 units of energy from the Sun annually, which is 20,000 times the requirement of mankind on the earth. Some of the solar energy causes evaporation of water, leading to rains and creation of rivers etc. Some of it is utilized in photosynthesis which is essential for sustenance of life on earth. Man has tried, from time immemorial, to harness this infinite source of energy, but has been able to tap only a negligibly small fraction of this energy, till today. Three broad categories of possible large scale applications of solar power are: (i) The heating and cooling of residential and commercial buildings; (ii) The chemical and biological conversion of organic material to liquid, solid and gaseous fuels; and (iii) Conversion of solar energy to electricity. The use of solar energy for generation of electricity is costly as compared to conventional methods. However, due to scarcity of fuel, solar energy will certainly find a place in planning the national energy resources. 1.6.2 Residential cooling and heating A major component of our electricity bill is due to heating and cooling of buildings. This can be achieved using solar energy. A typical solar energy scheme is shown in Fig. 1.11. A flat plate collector is located on the roof of a house, which collects the solar energy. The cooling water is pumped through the tubes of the solar collector. The heat is transferred from the collector to the water and the hot water is stored in a storage tank which may be located at ground level or in the basement of the house. Hot water is then utilized to heat or cool the house by adjusting the automatic valve. A separate circuit is there to supply hot water. Thus all the three requirements i.e., space cooling, heating and water heating are met.

1.6.3 Photosynthesis Production of Energy Sources Solar energy can be transformed into chemical energy in the form of plants and trees,

104

through the process of photosynthesis, which is the basis of the worlds fossil fuels. It is, now possible, to produce organic matter with high heat content, by using suitable chemical processes. 1.6.4 Solar Power Plant It is known that only a small fraction of the energy radiated by the Sun reaches the Earth. It would, therefore, be an attractive proposition, if energy could be received from outside the atmosphere and then transmitted to the earth. A man-made satellite revolving around the earth will receive energy for all the 24 hours and will not be affected by the weather conditions. Fig. 1.12 shows the arrangement and general view of a solar power plant, carried by a man-made satellite. The solar cell panels to be installed on the satellite may vary in area from

16 to 100 sq km according to the plant capacity. The solar cells arranged in space would generate d.c. electric power and transmit it by means of microwaves (of about 10 cm. wave length), using a transmitting antenna. Microwave transmission may be at 2 to 3 GHz, as this keeps the losses at minimum. On the earth, this energy will be converted into high voltage d.c. or commercial frequency electric power. The diameter of transmitting antenna would be around 1 km and that of the receiving antenna, 7 to 10 Kms. The effeciency of transmission is estimated to be in the range of 55 to 75%. The overall efficiency, with the present technology, is around 25% but is likely to go upto 60% in the near future. The solar cells operate on the principle of photo electricity i.e., electrons are liberated from the surface of a body when light is incident on it. Backed by semi-conductor technology, it is now possible to utilize the phenomenon of photo-electricity. It is known that if an n-type semi-conductor is brought in contact with a p-type material, a contact potential difference is set-up at the junction (Schottky effect), due to diffusion of electrons. When the p-type material is exposed to light, its electrons get excited, by the photons of light, and pass into the n-type semi-conductor. Thus, an electric current is generated in a closed circuit. The pn junction silicon solar cells have emerged as the most important source of

105

long duration power supply necessary for space vehicles. These cells are actuated by both, direct Sun rays and diffuse light. The efficiency of silicon solar cells increases with decreasing temperature. In cold weather the decreased luminous flux is compensated for, by higher efficiency. The efficiency of these solar cells varies from 15 to 20%. Although the energy from the Sun is available free of cost, the cost of fabrication and installation of systems, for utilization of solar energy, is often too high to be economically viable. In order to make solar installations economically attractive, plastic materials are being increasingly used for the fabrication of various components of the system. The efficiency of solar heating/cooling installation depends on the efficiency of collection of solar energy and its transfer to the working fluid (e.g. water, air etc.). There are two main classes of collectors. The flat plate collector is best suited for low and intermediate temperature applications (4060, 80120C) which include water heating for buildings, air heating and small industrial applications like agricultural drying etc. The concentrating collectors are usually employed for power generation and industrial process heating. 1.6.5 Solar Concentrators Solar concentrators are the collection devices which increase the flux on the absorber surface as compared to the flux impinging on the concentrator surface. Optical concentration is achieved by the use of reflecting refracting elements, positioned to concentrate the incident flux onto a suitable absorber. Due to the apparent motion of the Sun, the concentrating surface, whether reflecting or refracting, will not be in a position to redirect the sun rays onto the absorber, throughout the day if both the concentrator surface, and absorber are stationary. Ideally, the total system consisting of mirrors or lenses and the absorber should follow the Suns apparent motion so that the Sun rays are always captured by the absorber. In general, a solar concentrator consists of the following: (i) a focussing device; (ii) a blackened metallic absorber provided with a transparent cover; and (iii) a tracking device for continuously following the Sun. Temperatures as high as 3000C can be achieved with such devices and they find applications in both photo-thermal and photo-voltaic conversion of solar energy. The use of solar concentrators has the following advantages: (i) Increased energy delivery temperature, facilitating their dynamic match between temperature level and the task. (ii) Improved thermal efficiency due to reduced heat loss area. (iii) Reduced cost due to replacement of large quantities of expensive hardware material for constructing flat plate solar collector systems, by less expensive reflecting and/or refracting element and a smaller absorber tube. (iv) Increased number of thermal storage options at elevated temperatures, thereby reducing the storage cost. Parameters Characterising Solar Concentrators Several terms as used to specify concentrating collectors. These are: (i) The aperture area is that plane area through which the incident solar flux is accepted. It is defined by the physical extremities of the concentrator.

106

(ii) The acceptance angle defines the limit to which the incident ray path may deviate, from the normal drawn to the aperture plane, and still reach the absorber. (iii) The absorber area is the total area that receives the concentrated radiation. It is the area from which useful energy can be removed. (iv) Geometrical concentration ratio or the radiation balance concentration ratio is defined as the ratio of the aperture area to the absorber area. (v) The optical efficiency is defined as the ratio of the energy, absorbed by the absorber, to the energy, incident on the aperture. (vi) The thermal efficiency is defined as the ratio of the useful energy delivered to the energy incident on the aperture. Solar concentrators may be classified as point focus or line focus system. Point focus systems have circular symmetry and are generally used when high concentration is required as in the case of solar furnaces and central tower receiver systems. Line focus systems have cylindrical symmetry and generally used when medium concentration is sufficient to provide the desired operating temperature. A solar concentrator consists of the following components: (i) A reflecting or refracting surface, (ii) An absorbing surface i.e., an absorber, (iii) A fluid flow system to carry away the heat, (iv) a cover around the absorber, (v) Insulation for the unirradiated portion of the absorber and (vi) A self supporting structural capability and well adjusted tracking mechanism. 1.6.6 Flat Plate Collector The schematics of a flat plate collector are shown in Fig. 1.13. It usually consists of five main components viz. (i) an absorber plate (metallic or plastic), (ii) tubes or pipes for conducting or directing the heat transfer fluid, (iii) one or more covers, (iv) insulation to minimise the downward heat loss from the absorbing plate, (v) casing which encloses the foregoing components and keeps them free of dust and moisture and also reduces the thermal losses. Generally flat plate collectors are framed sandwich structures, mounted on roofs or sloping walls. In most of these collectors, the absorber element is made of a metal such as galvanised iron, aluminium, copper etc. and the cover is usually of glass of 4 mm thickness. The back of the absorber is insulated with glass wool, asbestos wool or some other insulating material. The casing, enclosing all the components of the collector is either made of wood or some light metal like aluminium. The cost, with such meterials, is rather too high to be acceptable for common use. As the temperatures needed for space heating are rather low, plastics are being considered as potential material for fabrication of various components of the flat, plate collector. This would make solar energy systems comparable with other energy systems.

107

Solar cells A solar cell (also called a photovoltaic cell) is an electrical device that converts the energy of light directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect. It is a form of photoelectric cell (in that its electrical characteristicse.g. current, voltage, or resistancevary when light is incident upon it) which, when exposed to light, can generate and support an electric current without being attached to any external voltage source, but do require an external load for power consumption. The operation of a photovoltaic (PV) cell requires 3 basic attributes: The absorption of light, generating either electron-hole pairs or excitons. The separation of charge carriers of opposite types. The separate extraction of those carriers to an external circuit. In contrast, a solar thermal collector supplies heat by absorbing sunlight, for the purpose of either direct heating or indirect electrical power generation. "Photo-electrolytic cell" (photoelectro-chemical cell), on the other hand, refers either to a type of photovoltaic cell (like that developed by A.E. Becquerel and modern dye-sensitized solar cells), or to a device that splits water directly into hydrogen and oxygen using only solar illumination. The solar cell works in three steps: 1. Photons in sunlight hit the solar panel and are absorbed by semiconducting materials, such as silicon. 2. Electrons (negatively charged) are knocked loose from their atoms, causing an electric potential difference. Current starts flowing through the material to cancel the potential and this electricity is captured. Due to the special composition of solar cells, the electrons are only allowed to move in a single direction. 3. An array of solar cells converts solar energy into a usable amount of direct current (DC) electricity.

108

ENERGY STORAGE AND DISTRIBUTION

Introduction Energy is useful only if available when and where it is wanted. Carrying energy to where it is wanted is called distribution; keeping it available until when it is wanted is called storage. Means for storing energy in a readily recoverable form when the supply exceeds the demand for use at other times. Storage of primary fuels (e.g. coal, oil and gas) is a form of energy storage, but the term generally applies to actual energy and to secondary fuels (e.g. hydrogen) rather than to primary fuels. The effective utilization of intermittent and variable energy sources such as solar energy and wind energy, often requires energy storage. If the intermittent energy is converted into electricity, as it is with solar photovoltaic cells and in most cases of wind energy utilization, electrical energy in excess of the demand might be fed directly into a utility grid. If this is not possible, some form of energy storage would be required. Furthermore, where solar energy is used to produce steam in generating electricity, thermal (heat) energy storage is necessary for continuous operation. Storage of thermal energy is also desirable when solar energy is used for space and water heating. In some circumstances, electricity may be generated, either on land or at sea, at a location that is too distant from a load (or consumption) centre for conventional transmission lines to be used, for example ocean thermal energy conversion. Means must then be found for both storing the energy and transporting it economically to a load centre. Electrically propelled vehicles, which are expected to come into increasing use, require some form of energy storage. Since the vehicle must carry its energy supply, equivalent to the gasoline in a conventional automobile, the storage system should be readily transportable. Electric utilities generally useless efficient (intermediate and peaking) units, in addition to the more efficient base load equipment, to meet the additional demand for power during the daytime. With the availability of energy storage facilities, however, the less efficient units can be eliminated. The most efficient plants are operated continuously at the optimum (or rated) power level, excess electrical energy generated at night and during weekends is stored for use when the demand exceeds the base load. This procedure, called load leveling, can reduce the overall cost of generating electrical power. Renewable energy supplies have different requirements for storage and distribution than do fossil or nuclear energy supplies. In particular the low intensity and wide distribution of renewable sources favour decentralized end-use. Therefore energy from renewable sources will often not require much further distribution since the sources are already distributed. However, some renewable sources can fruitfully be harnessed in a moderately centralized manner (e.g. large hydroelectric scheme). Since use of renewable energy supplies constitutes a diversion of a continuing natural flow of energy, there are problems in matching supply and demand in the time domain, i.e. in matching the rate at which energy is used. In contrast to fossil fuels and nuclear power, the initial input power of renewable energy sources is outside our control. We have the choice of either matching the load to the availability of renewable energy supply, or storing the energy for future use.

109

Energy storage systems Methods for energy storage may be classified according to the form in which energy is stored; the following categories appear to be the most important: 1. Mechanical energy storage (i) Pumped hydroelectric storage (ii) Compressed air (iii) Flywheel. 2. Electrical storage: the lead acid battery. 3. Chemical energy storage (i) Hydrogen (ii) Ammonia (iii) Reversible chemical reactions. 4. Electromagnetic energy storage. 5. Thermal (heat) energy storage (i) Sensible heat (ii) Latent heat (iii) Chemical reactions 6. Biological storage. The primary electric-generating plant is continuously operated in a base load mode, which results in excess electricity production during the off peak periods. Electrical or electricalmechanical energy storage is then used to hold this excess electricity for use during peak demand. In thermal storage, all schemes deal with storing energy in a thermal form in a material during periods of low power demand and releasing it back during periods of high demand. The primary electric-generating plant is operated to meet the real-time electrical demands during off-peak hours. The available thermal energy input to the plant may be essentially constant as is that from fossil or nuclear fuel, or varying as from solar incidence. The excess thermal energy is stored as such and withdrawn to be converted to meet peak electrical demands. Energy storage systems like pumped hydro, compressed air and super conductive magnets are, or will be, suitable for large utility energy storage. Others, like flywheel and batteries, are in the development stages and will probably be suitable, for medium utility energy storage. 1. Mechanical Energy Storage (i) Pumped Hydroelectric Storage or micro-hydel powerplant Electric power in excess of the immediate demand is used to pump water from a supply (e.g. lake, river or reservoir) at a lower level to a reservoir at a higher level. When the power demand exceeds the supply, the Water is allowed to flow back down through a hydraulic turbine which drives an electric generator. The overall efficiency of pumped storage, that is, the percentage of the electrical energy used to pump the water that is recovered as electrical energy, is about 70 per cent. Pumped hydroelectric storage is the most economical means presently available to electrical utilities. It could also be used for storing electrical energy produced from solar and wind energy.

110

There are relatively few suitable sites where there is a water supply at a lower level and reservoir can be constructed at a higher level, but the use of natural or excavated underground caverns as lower reservoirs, now being developed, should greatly increase the number of possible sites. Pumped storage is an indirect method for temporarily storing substantial amounts of electrical energy by pumping water from a lower to a higher level. Pumped storage can be used in conjunction with electrical generating plants of all types, regardless of the energy source.

Schematic diagram of pumped hydroelectric storage

In most pumped-storage plants, the turbine generator system is reversible and can serve to pump water from the lower to the upper level, as well as to generate electricity. In the pumping mode, the generator becomes a motor, driven by electricity produced by a generator in the main plant, and the turbine then operates as a pump. Start up of the turbine/generator or reversal from motor/pump to turbine/generator requires only a few minutes, so that power could be stored after a short delay in the event of a failure in the main plant. The altitude difference between upper and lower levels (i.e. the water head) in pumped storage facilities ranges from less than 30 m to some what more than 300 m. As a general rule, Francis type reversible turbines are used, but for low heads propeller type turbines, are preferred. In the pumped-hydro system the high heads are desirable, some topographies do not allow them, and thus pumped-hydro systems are often classified as above-ground, which includes the preferred high head and medium head, and underground.

111

In underground pumped hydro system, the upper reservoir may be at or near ground level. The lower reservoir is placed underground in natural caverns, old mines, or other underground cavities. This type of system overcome the requirement of a suitable topography. Such a system is shown in Figure. In all systems, a reversible pump-turbine or motor-generator set is a principal piece of equipment. Pumped hydro, like compressed air, is a potential-energy' storage system suitable for large utility energy storage. It is the most developed and used of all storage systems. The principle behind pumped hydro is simple and follows the law of potential energy (PE) that is, the raising of mass to an elevation. Large masses must be elevated to sufficiently large heights to store large quantities of energy. Fortunately large masses are available in pumped hydro systems by the elevation of large quantities of water from a lower to an upper reservoir. One or both of these reservoirs may be artificially excavated or may be a natural river or lake. The efficiency of a pumped-storage plant is about 65 to 75 per cent. In spite of the loss of 25 to 35%, pumped storage can be economical. The stored water generates power at times of peak demand when it would otherwise be supplied by a gas turbine or diesel engine that is expensive to operate. On the other hand, apart from capital and maintenance charges, the costs of operating a pumped-storage plants are small. Advantages of Pumped Storage Plants:Pumped storage plants have following advantages: (i) As compared to other peaking units, pumped storage plants have relatively low capital cost and thus an economical source of peaking capacity. (ii) The pumped storage plant, is as rugged and dependable as conventional hydel power station and can pick up load rapidly in a matter of a few minutes. (iii) Such plants are readily adoptable to automation as well as remote control. (iv) It is free from effects of environmental pollution. (v) These types of plants allow a great deal of flexibility in the operational schedules of the system. (vi) The power required for pumping is available at cheaper rate.

112

(vii) The pumped storage plants allow the entire thermal or nuclear power generation to take up the base load. Thus the load factor of these units improve giving rise to overall greater system efficiency. (viii) Standby capacity is available on short notice. Power engineers in utilities having pumpedstorage installations have long realized the benefit of quick switching on and off capability of these installations. Pumped storage plants need a starting time of only 2 to 3 seconds and can be loaded fully in about 15 seconds. In the event of an outage on a unit, a pumped storage plant can be called upon to meet the generation deficiency, (occurring due to outage) thus ensuring reliable supply and avoiding the necessity of load shedding. (ix) Since the base load plants need not be used to supply peak loads, the forced and maintenance outages of these plants are likely to be reduced. (x) Pumped storage plants can be used for load frequency control. (ii) Compressed Air Storage This type of storage is analogous to pumped hydro storage. The excess energy generated by a base-load plant during periods of low demand is used to compress and store air in reservoirs, aquifers, or caverns. The stored energy is then released during periods of peak demand by expansion of the air through an air turbine. In general, the efficiency of compressed air storage is comparable to that of pumped-hydro storage. Compressed-air storage could serve for electric utility load leveling or for storing electrical energy generated from solar or wind energy. The overall recovery efficiency is estimated to be about 65 to 75 per cent. A wind turbine, for example, could be created which would directly pump air into a suitable pressurized storage tank. Then later when the wind is not blowing, the energy stored in the air could be utilized to drive an air turbine whose shaft would then drive a generator, thus supplying the needed electrical power when the wind is not blowing. A compressed air storage may also be applicable to solar-electric conversion systems also. In a gas-turbine, roughly 60 per cent of the power output is consumed in compressing air for combustion of the gas. In a conventional gas turbine, the compressor and turbine are connected. In a compressed-air energy storage system, however, the turbine and compressor are uncoupled so that they can operate separately. Furthermore, the electric generator, normally connected to the turbine, must also be capable of functioning as a motor when electricity is supplied.

113

Electric power in excess of the immediate demand is supplied to the motor/generator which drives the compressor; the compressed air, at about 70 atm (7 MPa), is stored in a suitable reservoir. The air is heated during compression and may have to be cooled prior to storage to prevent damage to the reservoir walls. When additional power is needed to meet the demand, the compressed air is released and heated using gas or oil fuel. The hot compressed air is then expanded in a gas turbine connected to the motor/generator unit which now acts as a generator. Compressed-air storage reservoir would probably be too large and too expensive for above ground construction; hence, underground reservoirs, preferably existing ones, are being considered. Among the possibilities are natural caverns, deep aquifers, depleted gas or oil reservoirs, mined-out rock or salt caverns, and abandoned mines. Salt Caverns have been used in the past to store petroleum products. They are stable under compressed-air storage loading for the duration of plant life. The major concerns are cavern geometry, size and spacing, long-term creep and creep-rupture of rock salt, and air leakage. When the air is compressed for storage, its temperature will rise. The heat of compression may be retained in the compressed air or in another heat-storage medium and then restored to the air before expanding through the turbine. This is called adiabatic storage and results in high storage efficiency. Restoring the heat to the air also prevents the turbine parts from freezing if low temperature air is allowed to dissipate, additional heat could be added by fuel combustion to retain the high storage efficiency, but the results would be extra expense and maintenance problems. This is called a hybrid system. (iii) Energy Storage via Flywheels The basic idea of flywheel energy-storage, sometimes referred to as a "super flywheel", is to accelerate a suitably designed physical rotor to a very high speed in a vacuum, as via an electric motor, at which state high energy storage densities are achieved. The energy is stored as kinetic energy most of which can be electrically retrieved when the flywheel is run as a generator, (armature is rotated by the flywheel). Flywheel could conceivably be used for electric utility peaking units, for storage of solar and wind energy, and for vehicle propulsion. The energy recovery efficiency is estimated to be up to 90 per cent. The proponents of super flywheel

114

energy storage claim this storage method has higher energy storage per kg than conventional flywheel or lead acid storage batteries. More recently interest in flywheel energy storage has been generated by motor vehicle designers. In the hybrid automobile for example, the flywheel stores some of the energy of gasoline engine during periods of low vehicle demands and releases it during periods of high demands, such as during acceleration, hill climbing, etc, and thus operates the engine at a more steady and hence more efficient output. Flywheels have been used extensively to smooth out power pulses from reciprocating engines. They store off-peak energy as kinetic energy. The fluctuations in speed caused by torque variations are reduced to a minimum by the use of flywheels. As kinetic energy is proportional to the mass times velocity squared, the changes in velocity from the addition and subtraction of kinetic energy are reduced by the use of a large mass. Conversely the energy stored in a flywheel can be increased by increasing the velocity. Materials for energy storage flywheels must have high tensile strengths, high strength density ratio, high resistance to cyclic crack growth, and high strength density to cost ratios. Those under consideration include some alloys, such as so-called maraging steels, and more promising, composites such as fiber-reinforced plastics. One composite that shows particular promise is a 62 volume per cent S-glass in epoxy composite. Other attractive composites are graphite-epoxy and Kevlar epoxy. Flywheels for energy storage are systems that include, besides the flywheel itself, a number of subsystems. These are a housing; bearings with ball bearings believed the most suitable; a vacuum pump to minimize wind losses inside the housing; seals to minimize oil and air leakage into the vacuum chamber; and sometimes a containment ring to protect nearby personnel and equipment from flying fragments in case of flywheel rotor fracture. Losses in a flywheel energy-storage system include wind loss, bearing and real friction, vacuum pump input power, and eddy current (hysteresis) and other inefficiencies in the motor generator (or in transmission systems). In early designs these losses were prohibitively large, and much development work still needs to be done to arrive at a technically attractive system. For use in smoothing demand in large electricity networks, flywheel have the advantage over pumped hydro-systems that they can he installed anywhere and take up little land area. Units with a 100 tone flywheel would have a storage capacity of about 10 MWh. Larger storage demands would probably best be met by cascading many such 'small' units. Flywheel also offer an interesting alternative to storage batteries for use in electrically powered vehicles especially since the energy in a flywheel can be replenished more quickly than in a battery. 2. Electrical Storage: The lead acid battery Electricity is a high grade form of energy, and therefore great effort is made to find cheap and efficient means of its storage. A device that has electricity both as input and output, is called an (electrical) storage battery or (electrical) accumulator. Usually the combination of electrolyzer and fuel cell is not included as 'electrical storage'. Batteries form an essential component of almost all photovoltaic and small wind electric systems, and there is steady development, of

115

battery powered vehicles. The most widely used storage battery is the lead acid battery, invented by Plante in 1860. When a storage battery is charged, by connecting it to a source of direct electric current, chemical changes occur in the battery materials. As a result, electrical energy is converted into stored chemical energy. When the battery is discharged, by connecting a load (e.g. a motor) between the terminals, the chemical reactions are reversed, and the stored chemical energy is reconverted into electrical energy. The energy recovery efficiency of a storage battery varies with the type of battery and the rate of discharge, but 75 per cent should be attainable. However the efficiencies are often lower. Batteries are modular in nature; that is to say, they are built up of individual units of moderate size. This means that the energy storage capacity can be varied over a wide range simply by varying the number of units that are connected together. Consequently, batteries are adaptable to any type of storage in which the energy input is in electric form. Potential applications are utility peak leveling, vehicle propulsion, and storage of electrical energy generated from wind energy or solar cells. The capability of rapid operation reversal, from charge to discharge, makes batteries especially convenient for electric utility applications. The battery requirements for stationary (utility) applications are low (or moderate) cost and a long life time; the mass is less important than for vehicle propulsion. For stationary storage, a battery should be capable of at least 3000 deep discharges over a life time of 10 to 15 years. The discharge time for peak power supply would be 8 to 10 hours and the charge time roughly 10 hours. No existing storage battery can meet these requirements, but there is hope that one or more of the new types will eventually do so. Central-station power plants usually generate and transmit alternating current (a.c.), but direct current (d.c.) is required for battery charging. Furthermore, upon discharge, the batteries produce dc which must be converted into ac for feeding into transmission lines. Hence, the battery test facilities will involve the testing of equipment for converting ac into dc, and dc back to ac in an efficient manner. Basic Battery Theory A battery is a combination of individual cells. A cell is the elemental combination of the materials and electrolyte constituting the basic electro-chemical energy storage. A generalized cell consisting of two electrodes called the anode and cathode immersed in a suitable electrolyte. When an electrical load is connected between the electrodes, charge separation occurs at the interface between one electrode and the electrolyte, freeing both an electron and an ion. The electron flows through the external load and the ion through the electrolyte, recombining at the other electrode. Ths polarity and magnitude of the cell terminal Voltage is, in general, a function of the electrode materials, electrolyte, cell temperature, and other factors. By combining appropriate numbers of cells in both series and parallel, the battery can deliver the desired voltage and current. An appropriate combinations of cells can provide the desired power output.

116

The lead acid battery is built up from cells, one of which is shown schematically in Figure. As in all electrochemical cells, there are two solid plates immersed in a conducting solution (electrolyte). In this case the plates are in the form of grids holding pastes of lead and lead dioxide respectively. The electrolyte is sulfuric acid, which ionizes as follows. 2 4 + + 4 During discharge, the reaction at the negative electrode is: + 4 4 + + + 2 Lead (Pb) is oxidized to Pb2+ which is deposited as PbSO4. The sulfate takes the place of the Pb paste in the plate. The electrons so liberated travel through the external circuit to the positive electrode, where they contribute to the reaction: 2 + 4 + 3 + + 2 4 + 22 This PbSO4 likewise replaces the PbO2 in that plate. The electrical current through the solution is carried by H+ and 4 ions from the sulfuric acid, which themselves take part in the plate reactions. Theoretical energy density of lead acid battery is about 0.50 MJ/kg of active material. The actual cell emf depends on the concentration of reagents, and can be calculated by standard electrochemical methods. In general, the voltage of a cell operating at low currents differs by only a few per cent from the theoretical cell voltage. In particular, lead acid batteries are usually set to give 2.0 V per cell. One important factor limiting the life of even a well-maintained battery is self-discharge of the positive electrode. This is particularly acute in vehicle batteries in which the grid is not pure Pb but a lead-antimony alloy, which is stronger and better able to stand the mechanical stresses during motion. Unfortunately antimony promotes the self-discharge reaction. Batteries for stationary applications (e.g. photovoltaic lighting systems) can use Sb-free plates and have longer life (upto 7 years) if not excessively discharged. The performance of a battery depends on the current at which it is charged and discharged, and the depth to which it is regularly discharged. 3. Chemical Storage

117

Energy can be held in the bonds of many chemical compounds and released by exothermic reactions, notably combustion. Sometimes it is necessary to apply heat or other catalysts (e.g. enzymes) to promote the desired reaction. Biological compounds are a special case. Here we discuss the most important inorganic compounds which have been suggested as practical energy stores by means of their combustion in air. (i) Energy Storage via hydrogen Energy can be both stored and transported in the form of hydrogen, which serves as a secondary fuel. The input energy, usually electrical but possibly thermal, serves to decompose water (H2O) by electro-chemical (or chemical) reaction into its constituents elements hydrogen and oxygen. These substances can then be recombined to release the stored energy as required. Instead of using the oxygen produced from water, the oxygen from the air is commonly employed. The pure oxygen from water can then be sold for industrial applications (e.g. in iron and steel fabrication). Hydrogen can be transported either as compressed hydrogen gas, as liquid hydrogen (at low temperature), or in the form of a solid compound with certain metals or alloys. Consequently, hydrogen maybe useful as a means of storing and transporting energy generated in remote locations far from load centers. The most convenient means for producing hydrogen and oxygen from water is by electrolysis, that is, by passing a direct electric current, through water containing an acid or alkali to make it an electrical conductor. The input energy is then in the form of electrical energy. It may also be possible to decompose water by heat (i.e., with thermal energy input) as a result of a series of chemical reactions. The chemical energy in hydrogen (and oxygen) can be converted into thermal, mechanical, or electrical energy. One possibility is to burn hydrogen in air in a manner similar to natural gas, to produce heat (thermal energy) for use in the home or in industry. Hydrogen can also serve as the fuel in place of gasoline in automobile truck, and even air craft engines. Electrical energy can be obtained from hydrogen in several ways. For example, steam from a water boiler heated by burning hydrogen could be used to drive a conventional steam turbine with attached electric generator. Alternatively, hydrogen can provide the fuel for a gas (combustion) turbine which in turn drives a generator. The maximum overall efficiency (possibly 55 to 60 per cent) for recovery of the input energy, however, would be obtained by means of a fuel cell; in such a cell, electrical energy is generated directly from hydrogen and oxygen. Fuel cells could also be used in homes and apartments houses, in industry, for peak saving by utilities, and in electric vehicles. Energy from various solar electric systems can be stored in hydrogen. A wind-electric or photovoltaic system, for example with a d.c. output, the power can be fed directly into an electrolyze tank which produces hydrogen and oxygen from ordinary water as already stated. The gases may be produced either under pressure or near atmospheric pressure and then via external pumps compressed to the desired pressure. The latter approach, however requires auxiliary energy. The hydrogen and oxygen gas produced can be stored either in gas or liquid forms for a long time. It can be quickly and easily converted again directly into electrical energy via the well known fuel cell. The system thus effectively stores the sun's energy as hydrogen

118

and oxygen, and from this storage a reliable power output may be taken for a limited time set by the hydrogen storage capacity. To store hydrogen in large quantities, it can be liquefied and stored in Dewar vessels. Since its boiling point is 20 K these stores are very difficult to maintain. Chemical storage as metal hydrides, from which the hydrogen can be released by heating, is more manageable and allows large volumes of H2 to be stored. For example: 1.7 0.1 + 0.82 This reaction is reversible. The heat released in this process can be used for other purposes, and the portable hydride store can be used as the 'fuel tank' of a vehicle. The main difficulty is the weight and cost of the metals used. Hydrogen can also be distributed through the extensive pipeline networks used for natural gas in many countries. (iii) Reversible Chemical Reactions In general sense, a reversible chemical reaction is one that proceeds simultaneously in both directions. Of interest here are reversible reactions that occur predominately in one (forward) direction with the absorption of heat at a higher temperature, and predominately in the opposite (reverse) direction with the emission of heat, at a lower temperature. The products of the forward reaction store thermal energy (heat) as chemical energy which can be recovered as thermal energy when the conditions are changed to permit the reverse reaction to occur. This kind of energy storage may be useful for storing high-temperature heat obtained by concentrating solar energy. To be suitable for heat storage, the reaction system should involve materials that are inexpensive and not too difficult to handle. In addition, the forward and reverse reactions, as required, must be able to proceed at reasonable temperatures. A catalyst (or catalysts) may be needed to speed up the desired reactions, especially at the lower temperature. Thermo chemical storage systems are suitable for medium or high temperature applications only. For storage of high temperature heat, some reversible chemical reactions appear to be very attractive. Advantages of thermo chemical storage include high energy density storage at ambient temperatures for long periods without thermal losses and potential for heat pumping and energy transport over long distances. This type of storage is illustrated by a hypothetical reaction: + The forward reaction takes place with absorption of heat from heat source (may be solar energy), and the heat is stored in the form of products. When heat is desired, the products are to be remixed to allow the reversible reaction to take place with liberation of heat. The original reactant is regenerated completing the cycle. Both forward and reverse reactions take place at constant but different temperatures, the forward reaction occurring at a higher temperature than the reverse reaction. The basic measures of merit to be followed in the selection of thermo chemical reactions are the following: (i) The reaction should be nearly complete within the temperature range of available heat source or solar collectors.
50

119

(ii) The reverse reaction should be nearly complete at the temperature at which useful energy is to be extracted. (iii) The reaction should be able to release energy for the use at temperatures close to those supplied by the collector (in case of solar energy). (iv) The energy absorbed per unit volume of products stored should be as large as possible to minimize the volume of storage, and the products should be in liquid form. (v) The reaction should be completely reversible without any side reactions. (vi) Reactions should be rapid. (vii) Large enthalpy changes of reaction are desired. (viii) For an uncatalyzed reaction, the products must be readily separable prior to storage. For a catalyzed reaction, the products must be stable during the storage period and the catalyst should be easily separable from the products. In addition, it is obviously preferable that the chemicals required should be readily available at low cost and should be easy to handle. Following few chemical reactions are illustrated here from the stand point of their suitability based on the above criteria and are found suitable for use in solar applications.

Reaction 1 3 2 + 2 2 4 + 2 + 32 4 4 3 + 2 + 3

Temperature of Forward reaction (oC) 1025 780 498

Temperature of reverse reaction (oC) 590 610 435

Energy stored per unit volume of storage material (kJ/m3) 460.6 103 209.4 103 2143.7 103

The reversible reaction of methane and water is promising one. Suitably of the reaction is that the technology required is available. Moreover the reverse reaction is being commercially used for the manufacture of methane on a large scale. The main problem is that the products CO and H2 are gases and have to be stored at a pressure of about 100 bars. The decomposition of sulfur trioxide to sulphur dioxide and oxygen in the forward direction and recombination of sulphur dioxide and oxygen to form sulphur trioxide in the reverse direction, in the presence of a catalyst. This storage system has been suggested for use in 100 MW central tower solar power plant operating on the Brayton cycle with helium as the working fluid. A disadvantage associate with this system is that the although SO2 can be stored as a liquid, O2 has to be stored as a gas under a pressure of about 100 bars. Problems of corrosion and safety may also require careful attention. Several methods of getting heat energy into and out of a reaction vessel have been identified. For small systems such as might be considered for medium heating and cooling systems, a basic concept depicted in Figure given below. Incidentally the disadvantage of limited storage time before the energy is lost as a result of natural heat transfer processes of the sensible heat and latent beat methods is eliminated in the thermo chemical method.

120

4. Electromagnetic Energy Storage Electromagnetic energy storage requires the use of super conducting materials; these materials (metals and alloys) suddenly lose resistance to the flow of electricity when cooled below a certain very low temperature. The temperature below which they become superconductors is known as critical temperature. All superconducting metals have transition temperatures in the cryogenic (low temperature of the order of -273C to -150C or 0K to 123 K) range. If maintained below this critical temperature a superconducting metal (or alloy) can carry strong electric current with little or no loss. Useful superconducting materials available commercially are a niobium titanium (Nb-Ti) alloy at temperatures below -263C and a compound of niobium and tin (Nb3-Sn) below -255C. Superconducting magnetic energy storage is suitable for large-scale energy storage by an electric utility. The concept is based on the principle that energy can be stored in the magnetic field associated with a coil. If the coil is made of a material in a superconducting state, i.e. maintained at a temperature below its critical temperature, then once it is charged, the current will not decay and the magnetic energy can be stored indefinitely. The stored energy can be released back to the network by discharging the coil. Under ordinary conditions, losses result from the resistance of the wire, and energy must be supplied continuously to maintain the current. But if the wire coil is made of superconducting material and kept at the required low temperature, resistance losses would be very small and, once initiated an electric current would remain almost constant. Electrical energy supplied as direct current to the wire coil would then be stored in the electromagnetic field. By attaching the coil to a load, the stored energy could be recovered as electrical energy (direct current). This is the basis of the Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES) system which is under research for possible eventual use in electrical utility load leveling and/or peaking applications. A number of problems are associated with superconductivity storage. They include the operation and maintenance of a cryogenic plant for producing the liquid helium required for the

121

very low superconductivity temperatures. Furthermore, special structures would be needed to withstand the strong magnetic field of an SMES unit. The main mechanical design problem in magnetic energy storage arises because of the need of a very large structural mass to contain the magnetic field energy. This causes a large radial outward force from the solenoid. The mass is proportional to the material density and the stored energy, and is inversely proportional to the stresses. Such mass, if made of stainless steel, would amount to about 160 kg/kWh and result in unacceptable costs. This consideration led to the selection of bed rock as the structural material with an excavated circular tunnel that would bear the radial outward force and transmit to the surrounding bedrock. It appears at present that superconductivity storage would, at best, be economical only in large installations on the whole SMES is rated as being a promising but long term prospect for energy storage. Superconducting materials are classified as Type I and Type II. Those of type I are mostly pure metals; they have relatively low critical currents and magnetic fields and are of little practical value. Type II superconductors, which are either compounds of solid-solution alloys of two or more metals, have certain characteristics that make them potentially useful materials. As a general rule, Type II superconductors retain their superconductivity at high magnetic fields and high currents. However, the critical temperature above which superconductivity ceases is decreased as the magnetic field is increased. A solid solution alloy of 30 to 40 per cent of niobium (Nb) with titanium (Ti), represented by Nb-Ti; is one of the generally known type II superconductors. Its transition temperature is about 10K. Another compound of niobium and tin (Sn) formula Nb3Sn, with a transition temperature of 18K is also commonly used. Not only temperature, which is advantageous from the cooling stand-point, but the critical current and magnetic field are higher for Nb3Sn than for Nb-Ti. On the other hand, Nb3Sn is a brittle material that have proved difficult to fabricate, because direct wire drawing is impracticable. The problem, has been solved by producing filaments of niobium, which is ductile material, and converting them into Nb3Sn. 5. Thermal Energy Storage The need for storing thermal (or heat) energy arises in several situations, for example, in connection with the applications of solar and wind energy. The storage methods in common use are described in the sections dealing specifically with these applications. The discussion here will deal, therefore, with general principles of heat storage as either sensible heat or latent heat. Energy can be stored by heating, melting or vaporization of materials, and the energy becomes available as heat, when the process is revered. Thermal energy storage by rise of temperature of a material is called sensible heat storage. Storage by phase change, the transition from solid to liquid or from liquid to vapour is another mode of thermal storage, known as latent heat storage, in which no temperature change is involved. It is possible for both sensible and latent heat storage to occur in the same material, as when solid is heated, then melted, then raised further in temperature.

122

Thermal energy storage is essential for both domestic water and space heating applications and for the high temperature storage systems needed tor thermal power applications. Storage is also required for process industries and horticulture. The choice of the storage material depends on the particular application and for many domestic applications, water and/or rock storage systems have been developed. Water and rock are typical examples of material which store energy as specific heat (sensible heat); but their use is limited by their comparatively low specific heats. The heat of fusion (latent heat) which is involved when a substance changes state from a solid to a liquid provides an attractive method of storing a given amount of heat within a much smaller volume. Glauber's salt (Na2SO4.10H2O) is the least expensive most readily available salt hydrate. For high temperature storage in the order of 200 to 300C, other salts have been used and the heat of hydration of inorganic oxides principally MgO and CaO. Sensible Heat Storage In general, thermal-energy storage systems can operate at many desired temperature levels depending upon the use and choice of the system and material, ranging from refrigeration temperature to 1250C. They have found wide use in many industrial applications, such as in the manufacture of cement, iron and steel, glass, aluminium, paper, plastics and rubber, and in food processing. Sensible heat refers to thermal energy that results in an increase of temperature when added to a material (or decrease of temperature when taken from it). For example, water at temperatures above the freezing point and below its boiling point can store energy as sensible heat. So also can other liquids, air and solids provided they do not chage their form (e.g. by freezing, melting or boiling). Water or ceramic bricks are used for heat storage on a large scale in industry, and either water or a combination of air and rock provide storage for heat derived from solar energy. Thermal energy storage as sensible heat in high temperature steam can provide utilties with a means for generating electric power to satisfy peak demands. If the temperature is too high for the use of water without pressurization, special hydrocarbon oils with high boiling points, either alone or mixed with rock, can serve to store sensible heat. Molten salt mixtures can be used for heat storage at very high temperatures. One such mixture is DuPont's HITEC, containing sodiurn nitrite and sodium and potassium nitrates, it melts at 142oC and can be used to store sensible heat upto about 550oC. Mixtures of sodium and potassium nitrates have been proposed for somewhat higher temperatures. For temperatures upto about 815C, molten fluorides (e.g. lithium fluorides and mixture of sodium and magnesium fluorides and of sodium and zinc fluorides) are possibilities. The ability to store heat depends upon the product Cp, water has the highest value. Materials which are generally used for this type of storage are: (i) water, (ii) rock, gravel or crushed stone, (iii) iron shot, (iv) concrete, (v) refractory materials like magnesium oxide, aluminium oxide (alumina) and silicon oxides. Thus any of the following devices could be employed as sensible energy storage. 1. Pressurized-water storage 2. Packed solid beds 3. Refractory materials

123

4. Organic solid beds Water storage:- The most common heat transfer fluid for a solar system is water, and the easiest way to store thermal energy is by storing the water directly in a well insulated tank. The optimum tank size for flat-plate collector system is usually about 2 gal/ft2 (70 kg/m2). As a storage medium, water has the following characteristics: (i) It is an inexpensive, readily available and useful material to store sensible heat. (ii) It has high thermal storage capacity. (iii) Energy addition and removal from this type of storage is done by medium itself, thus eliminating the temperature drop between transport fluid and storage medium. (iv) Pumping cost is small. (v) In case of solar energy storage, collectors and storage units may be operated by natural circulation in domestic solar water heater application, or forced circulation may be used. A schematic diagram of a power plant with pressurized-water sensible energy storage is given in Figure. The system can have a nuclear reactor or a fossil fueled furnace as a primary heat source. The base-load portion of the plant is capable of supplying more steam than needed during periods of low demand. The excess steam is extracted at high pressure via turbine extraction (as in feed water heating) during these periods of low demand. The extracted steam is fed to steam accumulators and mixed with water, thus producing saturated pressurized water. The accumulators are later discharged through a small peaking turbine during periods of high demand. Discharge continues until a low specified pressure is reached in the accumulators. It is observed that there is low and varying steam temperature entering the peaking turbine. Typical values of accumulator high and low pressures are 20 bar, corresponding to a saturation temperature of about 212C, and 2 bar, corresponding to a saturation temperature of about 120C. It is to be noted that while this steam involves steam condensing in water during accumulator charge and re-evaporating during discharge, the storage medium is the pressurized water in the accumulator and operates over a relatively wide temperature range. Hence it is an example of sensible rather than latent heat storage.

124

Pebble bed storages Pebble bed storages have been used in the solar houses or with hot air collector system. For sensible heat storage with air as the energy transport mechanism, rock, gravel, or crushed stone in a bin has the advantage of providing a large cheap heat transfer surface. Its thermal capacity, however is only about half that of water, and the bin volume will be about 3 times the volume of a water tank that is heated over the same temperature interval. Water is superior because of its lower material cost and lower volume required per unit of energy stored. Energy storage is required in solar-thermal electric power plants (and solar process heat application) because of normally variable solar insolation, non-solar periods, and abrupt insolation changes in inclement weather. Conventional (fossil-fired) backup system may, of course, be used during such periods, as in hybrid systems but thermal storage is another option that must be used in pure solar systems. There are two types of thermal storage that are considered with solar systems. These are: (a) Single-tank, or thermocline, and (b) Dual tank, or hot cold systems. The complete schematic of power plant storage system is shown in figure. In this storage takes place by circulating some of the hot primary coolant through the storage medium and returning the cooled primary coolant from the bottom of the storage tank back to the receiver for reheating. Heat extraction during times of need is accomplished by reversing the process. Cold primary coolant from the power plant is heated by the storage medium, drawn from the top of the tank to the power system, and then returned to the bottom of the tank. The thermal gradient of hot at top, cold at bottom maintains stratification, allowing the hot fluid to remain afloat on the top, and gives the tank thermal stability. In addition, a solid storage medium of low thermal

125

conductivity and high volumetric heat capacity, such as rock, is used to help impede, mixing of hot and cold fluids. A solid storage medium is a necessity in case the primary coolant is a gas (such as air or helium) because of the low heat capacity of gases. A porous solid makes a good storage medium for gases. A variation of the single tank system is one in which a separate storage fluid, other than the primary coolant, may be used. This would be a liquid of low thermal conductivity and high volumetric heat capacity, usually an oil. It may be used alone as a single medium or be assisted by a solid storage medium, such as rock in a dual medium system as above, to reduce the volume of costly storage liquid and impede its mixing. Heat would be added to and extracted from the primary coolant via intermediate heat exchangers.

The Solar one power plant uses a dual-medium thermocline storage system, shown in figure. The liquid is oil. The solid is composed of 2.5 cm diameter gravel plus sand. The oil is uniformly distributed over the rock bed and extracted uniformly from it by diffuser manifolds. The tank is large, being about 15 m high and more than that in diameter. The hot-cold system uses two tanks. The fluid, a liquid, is at a higher temperature in one tank and at a lower temperature in the other. The amount of sensible energy stored varies by varying the level of the fluids in a well insulated tanks. Thus during storage, cold fluid is drawn from the cold tank, heated, and added to the hot tank. During extraction the operation is reversed. This dual-tank technology is borrowed from refinery technology. It is suitable only for liquid coolants such as sodium (molten salt), or oil. The hot tanks used with sodium and molten salt need be made of high alloy material such as austenitic stainless steel.

126

Latent Heat Energy Storage (or phase change energy storage) Latent heat is thermal energy that is stored in (and can be removed from) a substance or mixture when it goes a change of phase while the temperature remains unchanged. The heat that can be stored per unit mass (or volume) in this manner is usually several times greater than that for sensible heat storage.

The phase change from solid to liquid, taking place at the melting point of the solid, is accompanied by the absorption of latent heat without a change in the temperature. The heat is recovered when the process is reversed (i.e. the liquid is converted to solid) at the same temperature. Hence solid and liquid phases of the same material when present together can store thermal energy as latent heat. Saturated steam and freezing water can be used for latent heat storage.

127

Another type of phase change, involving a change in chemical composition, that has been used for latent heat storage, is the transition between solid sodium sulphate decahydrate (Na2SO4.10H2O) on the one hand and solid unhydrous sodium sulfate (Na2SO4) and an aqueous solution, on the otherhand. At a temperature of 32C, heat is stored when the Na2SO4.10H2O phase changes to Na2SO4 phase (plus solution) and can be recovered when the process is reversed. A somewhat similar phase transition between sodium thiosulfate pentahydrate (Na2S2O3.5H2O) and the anhydrous salt (Na2S2O3) plus solution occurs at 48C. It has been considered for latent heat storage of solar energy for space heating. Advantages of phase change energy storage (i) The storage density here is equal to the product of the latent heat of fusion (or vaporization) times the density of the storage material. The storage capacity is greater than that in sensible heat storage because the latent heat is much larger than the specific heat for a material. (ii) The system has the additional advantage of operating at essentially constant temperature with low volume changes during phase changes. (iii) It also has the advantage of a wide choice of materials with different fusion and evaporation temperatures, which allows a choice of operating temperatures and the ability to generate high temperature steam for the peaking unit. Some sensible heat storage may be added to latent heat storage by further raising the temperature of the resulting molten solid or vapour. Materials for phase change energy storage. Materials that undergo a change of phase in a suitable temperature range may be useful for energy storage if the following criteria can be satisfied: (i) The phase change must be accompanied by a high latent heat effect. (ii) The phase change must be reversible over a many of cycles without serious degradation. (iii) The phase changes must occur with limited super-cooling. (iv) Means must be available to contain the material and transfer heat into it and out of it. (v) The cost of materials and its containers must be reasonable. (vi) Its phase change must occur close to its actual melting temperature. (vii) The material must be available in large quantities. (viii) The preparation of phase changing material for use must be relatively simple. (ix) The material must be harmless (non toxic, non inflammable, non combustible, non corrosive.) (x) It should have low cost. If these criteria can be met, phase change energy storage systems can have high capacities (relative to energy storage in sensible heat type systems) when operated over small temperature ranges, with substantial reductions in volume and weight. No material meets all these requirements but some fluoride salts meet some of them. One of the salts considered most suitable for latent heat storage is the 70% NaF-30% FeF2 eutectic salt, which has a fusion temperature of about 680C and potentially possesses the high storage energy density of any thermal energy storage material about 1500 MJ/m3. ZnCl2 is another material with a fusion temperature of about 370C and a potential storage, energy density of about 400 MJ/m3.

128

There are several materials that undergo a change of phase. Glauber's salt (Na2SO4.10H2O), water, Fe(NO3)2.6H2O, salt eutectics etc. are commonly used.

High temperature latent heat storage:- We have discussed so for phase change material used in low temperature storage, such as organic compounds, inorganic salts and compounds. Heat of fusion system using inorganic salt mixtures have a distinct advantage for storing energy at high temperatures, since they can reduce storage volumes and produce more energy at constant temperatures. A system was developed at the Martin Marietta Denver Aerospace Centre, Colorado in 1982, to provide low cost thermal energy storage using molten salts. The system used molten nitrate salt (60% NaNO3 - 40% KNO3 by weight) and a dual tank approach with one to store the 'hot salt' at 566C and the second to store the 'cold' at 560C. The hot salt is heated to 566C in the solar receiver and pumped to the hot storage tank. This energy is used to produce steam at 538oC, which can be used to drive a turbine or used as industrial process heat. Other materials for energy storage being suggested are silicon germanium and sulfides of germanium. They have high heats of fusion, and like water, they expand upon freezing, so that they tend to float upon solidification, which has advantages in heat transfer. Silicon and germanium, however, have fusion temperature that are too high for power plant operation and are very reactive. Germanium sulfides have usable fusion temperatures but tend to solidify to a glassy consistency rather than crystallizing, thus posing an undesirable heat-transfer barrier. 6. Biological Storage Plants can produce biomass by photosynthesis. This energy is released in the combustion of biological and fossil fuel material. We may therefore consider the energy as stored in the material itself. Some of the bio fuels are liquids and gases that may be used in internal combustion engines, and are therefore important; these bio-fuels can replace conventional petroleum fuels. The generation of electricity by such fuels in small diesel engines is also possible. Distribution of Energy The methods of distribution of energy are categorized by whether they involve continuous flow (e.g. pipelines) or batch movement (e.g. transport by lorries, ships etc.), and by their suitability for use over long, medium or short distances. For renewable energy supplies short distance distribution is more important than long distance, because the sources themselves are usually widespread and of low intensity. In particular, short haul carriage of biomass, and movement of heat (e.g. through a building), are more significant. The renewable energy supplies that are mechanical in origin, e.g. hydro, wave and wind, are usually best distributed as electricity. In this way electricity is a carrier of energy, and not necessarily the main end-use requirement. Movement of gas, perhaps on a large scale, would be required if hydrogen becomes a common store of energy. 1. Gas Pipelines

129

In the pipelines usually used for carrying fuel gases, the flow is turbulent but not supersonic. In this case the pressure gradient along a small length of pipe of diameter D is given as (neglecting compressibility of the gas): 2 = 2 16 where = friction coefficient [= ] = kinematic viscosity = density of the fluid = mean velocity of the fluid In a steady flow of a gas, both and vary along the length of a long pipe, but the mass flow rate remains constant. The mass flow rate is given by, = where A is the cross-sectional area of the pipe. The density varies with the pressure. If the Reynolds number is large will not vary appreciably along the pipe, and we have the pressure difference between two sections of the pipe 1 and 2 is given by; 642 (2 1 ) 2 2 1 2 = 2 5 Thus the pressure falls off rapidly along the length of the pipe, and frequent pumping (recompression) stations are needed to maintain the flow. According to the above equation, larger pipes will require much less pumping. The most economical balance between pipe size (capital cost) and pump separation (running cost) depends largely on the accessibility of the pipe. Construction costs are extremely variable. The compressibility of the gas offers another benefit. The pipe itself can be used as a temporary store, simply by pumping gas in faster than it is taken out so that compressed gas accumulates in the pipe, such storage is very substantial. 2. Electricity transmission Consider two alternative systems transmitting the same useful power P to a load RL at different voltages V1 and V2 in wire of the same resistance per unit length. The corresponding currents are 1 = 1 and 2 = 2 , and therefore the ratio of power lost in the two systems is;
1 2
2 = 1 2 = ( ) ( ) = 2 2 2 1 1

Significantly less power is dissipated in the system working at high voltage. The low voltage system can have the same loss as the high voltage system only with thick, and therefore expensive, cable. This factor governs the design of all electrical power networks. Normal rotating generators work best at voltages 10kV. The fact that A.C. can be transformed up and down in voltage explains why A.C. transmission systems are now standard for all but the smallest networks. As indicated in figure, power is generated at low voltage, stepped up for transmission, and then down again to a safer level for consumption. The transmission voltage is limited by dielectric breakdown of the air around the overhead cables and by the insulation of the cables from the

130

metal towers (at earth potential). Improvements in insulation have allowed transmission voltages for long lines to increase from 6000 V in the year 1900 to over 200000 V today.

Grids using even higher voltages are now being constructed, but will probably make only a marginal improvement in costs. The same is true for very high voltage DC systems, which have certain advantages, in transmission but require more expensive step-up equipment. Superconducting lines of zero resistance are attractive but can operate only at cryogenic temperatures. Maintaining such low temperatures is difficult over large distances and such lines are not yet commercially viable. Electrical power companies usually link power stations into a common national network (grid). Thus if one station shuts down for maintenance, repair or economy, its demand can be met by the others in the network. Power from variable renewable sources can be fed directly into such a grid. Since all major grid systems can cater for rapid demand fluctuations of about 20%, it is also possible for the same systems to cater for rapid supply fluctuations of 20%. Thus the inclusion of unpredictable supply e.g. wind power is possible. If hydro-power is available, then rapid control of the grid is easy whatever be the supply. 3. Batch transport Biomass and coal can be carried in suitable containers by hand, road, rail or boat. However, the low density and bulky nature of most biomass resources means that it is rarely economic to distribute it over large distances (> 1000 km). Even over medium distances (1 to 1000 km), it is unlikely to be economic to distribute biomass for its energy value alone. Economic, and ecological, use of biomass energy sources therefore depends on harnessing energy from a flow of biomass which is already occurring for some other purpose, e.g. the extraction of sugar from sugarcane often which the spent cane is used to fuel the factory. In this case the transport of fuel maybe regarded as 'free' or nearly so. Bio-fuels can however be transported over medium to long distances after conversion from raw biomass (e.g. by pyrolysis). Alternatively, the biomass can be used very close to its source. This is usually the case with firewood, which remains a fuel of major importance in most developing countries. 4. Heat The movement of heat within a building through hot air 'ducts' and through steam pipes is a major means of distributing energy over short distances. This is especially true in cold climates,

131

where space heating dominates energy use. Heat transport by steam is also used in many industrial processes. Heat transport is limited to short distances by heat losses from the sides of the duct. The major resistance to heat loss is by conduction through the insulation, the heat loss is given by relation = where k is conductivity of insulation material, A = area of cross section of pipe which delivers heat, = temperature difference of steam and ambient, = insulation thickness. The loss is independent of the flow rate in the pipe. Obviously very large heat flows ( 10MW) are needed if the losses are to be proportionately small. District heating is of this kind operating successfully in many cities. The heat pipe offers another way to move large quantities of heat over very short distances. It is a tube containing vapour with the condensate recycled by a wick, and offers an effective conductivity much greater than that of copper. Usually, heat pipe is a means for transporting heat efficiently from a source to a cooler receiver by utilizing the latent heat of vaporization of a liquid. In essence, a heat pipe is a closed space containing a suitable working liquid and its vapour. One part of the space is in contact with the heat source and another with the cooler material to which the heat is to be transported. The interior wall of the space is lined with a porous material called a wick. For high temperature operation, the wick can be made of several layers of a woven metal wire mesh. A simple form of heat pipe is shown in figure, but more complex arrangements which satisfy the basic conditions outlined above are possible. In the hotter (i.e., heat source) part of the heat pipe, the working fluid is vaporized, thereby taking up the latent heat of vaporization. The vapour diffuses toward the cooler region because the pressure is lower there and condenses to liquid. In doing so, it deposits the heat of vaporization taken up from the source. The liquid is returned to the heat source region by capillary action of the wick. There is thus a continuous movement of vapor from the heat source to the receiver and of condensed liquid back to the source, accompanied by the transfer of heat.

Since the working liquid is returned to the heated region by capillary action, the heat source maybe located above the heat receiver. However, if the receiver is at a higher level than the heat source, the return of the liquid is assisted by gravity. The vapour always moves from the higher

132

pressure (i.e. the heat source) region to the lower pressure (i.e. heat receiver) region regardless of their relative positions. A special feature of the heat pipe is its ability to transport heat at a high rate even when there is only a small temperature difference between the source and receiver. For other, methods of heat transport (i.e., conduction, convection, and radiation), the rate is highly dependent on the temperature difference, but in a heat pipe, the important consideration is the heat of vaporization of the liquid. Another advantage is that a heat pipe can serve as a concentrator; heat can be taken up by vaporization from a large area and deposited during condensation on a small area. For operation of a heat pipe at high temperatures, sodium, melting at 97C, has been used as the working fluid. Its large heat of vaporization and good thermal conductivity make it particularly suitable for this purpose. A sodium heat pipe might be used to transfer heat from a source, possibly stored heat, to a Stirling engine. ENERGY FROM WASTE Waste-to-Energy Incineration Process The energy route of the waste-to-electrical energy by incineration process is as follows: [ ][ ][ ][ ][ ] The incineration Process accepts a wide variety of biomass inputs including: (i) Semi dried wood, trees, tree residues, wood-chips, saw-dust (ii) Semi dried garbage (urban waste). (iii) Semi dried farm waste (dried cow-dung, straw, sugar bagasse, etc.) Waste incineration power plant is usually located near the source of waste thereby minimizing the cost of fuel transport.

133

Waste-to-energy by Incineration Process

The waste incineration plant has following process-sequence. 1. Receiving and storing of dry biomass and preparation of Refuse Derived by Fuel (RDF). 2. Shredding (Making pieces of about 2.5 cm diameter) 3. Air Classification: Passing air stream for segregation of Refuse Derived fuel (lighter, pieces) and non-combustible heavier matter (metal, glass pieces). These are reclaimed and recycled. 4. Combustion of Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF) in the furnace to produce steam in the boiler from feed water. 5. Steam turbine drives rotor of synchronous generator to produce electrical energy. 6. Electrical power is supplied to the network. 7. Flue gases are passed through Electrostatic Precipitators for removal of particulate or chemical treatment plant and scrubber for removal of CO, NOx, SOx.

134

Heat is recovered from flue gas by Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG). The recovered heat is used for heating feed water. The ash derived from furnace is sent to special landfills for disposal. Urban Refuse may be treated in a waste treatment plant before dispatching it to the power plant. Solid, treated dry biomass (Wood, Urban Waste, Agricultural or Aquatic Waste) is received and stored then passed through the Shredder to makes small pieces of the raw biomass. The air classifier has flowing air which separates dry light fuel pieces from heavy metal/glass and other by strong air stream. The lighter fuel pieces are sent to the furnace. The heavy metal pieces, glass pieces etc. are sent to material recovery chamber. The furnace burns the dry shredded biomass and the boiler produces steam. The superheated steam is supplied to the steam generator. The synchronous generator produces electrical energy from mechanical shaft energy.

ENERGY PLANTATION Growth of plant material for their fuel value offers a renewable source of liquid fuel and organic chemicals. Energy plantations can be considered as long term alternatives to fossil and nuclear energy sources. When land plants are grown purposely for their fuel value, by capturing solar radiation in, is called "Energy Plantation". It is worth considering this possibility seriously because, plants as they grow, serve as a convenient single service disposal solar energy storage devices, from which the accumulated energy can be released, at will, at temperatures comparable with those achievable from fossil fuels. "Energy Plantations" by design are managed and operated to provide substantial amounts of usable fuel continuously throughout the year at the costs competitive with other fuels. Annual plants, typical of the important farm crops, are unsuitable for providing a year-round supply of fuel. Mature trees, as used by the forest products industry, grow too slowly to provide the high yields desirable for 'Energy Plantations'. Wild or unmanaged vegetations vary greatly in form and quantity between widely separated sites to be a reliable and manageable source of fuel. The form of the "Energy Plantation" fuel must be acceptable to its intended users. Soil Conditions and Species of Vegetations Choosing 'calorie plants' depend on the climate and soils, where the energy plantations are to be located. Lands that are primarily suitable for agricultural crops will not be devoted for growing fuels on large scale. However the 'calorie crops' will still require land and suitable climate for their growth like adequate moisture, a moderate growing season, a few cms of top soil capable of retaining moisture and being fertilized. Large hectares of land do exist in our country with climate and soil conditions suitable for such plantations. To identify such areas for a particular species of 'calorie crop' it may be necessary to do a survey. There are areas in our country where soils and climates are suitable for intensive culture of variety of soft and hard woods. Design and Management of Energy Plantation

135

Management of large scale energy plantation may require complete mechanisation or semimechanization. High yields of energy plantation fuels from trees are possible, where candidate trees are planted densely and harvested on shorter cycles. A computer model has to be developed with the existing data of the candidate tree and particular site to predict combinations of harvest cycles and planting densities, which will optimize the harvest of fuel and the operating cost. Typical calorie crops includes 12,000 to 24,000 trees/hectare. The plantation is harvested initially after one to three years and subsequently on two or four years cycle for five or six times. Advantages of Energy Plantation 1. Storage:- Fuels produced by plant growth will have two main advantages over directly harnessing the solar energy at the surface of the earth by thermal or photovoltaic means, i.e., neither of these two means can be counted upon for a continuous supply of energy unless it is equipped with elaborate storage units. Whereas plants, as they grow, they serve as their own energy accumulator. There are practically no storage losses. 2. Economics:- Economics of energy obtained through plantation will essentially depend upon; (i) Cost of fuel mass produced in the comparison to conventional fuel. (ii) Cost of processing required. Cost of fuel will depend on: (i) Cost of land used, in turn the yield of fuel per unit area/year. (ii) Cost of plantation per unit area/year. Cost due to land depends upon the duration of maturity cycle, i.e., smaller maturity cycle means less cost. Cost due to land can be considerably reduced in having multiple crops and denser plantation. 3. Air Pollution:- Vegetable matter contains less than 0.1% sulphur and the problem of SO2 pollution by the combustion of biomass is practically non-existent. 4. Ash:- Burnt vegetable matter leaves ash which is rich in plant nutrient-minerals unlike ash of fossil fuels. It can directly be used as a manure. 5. Ecological Condition:- Energy plantation will convert large tracks of semi-barren land into green belt and thus ecological conditions can be restored. 6. CO2 Balance of Earth:- Utilization of biomass for energy either by direct combustion or through production of liquid and gaseous fuels produces CO2. However CO2 thus produced does not disturb the CO2 balance in the atmosphere. Unlike combustion of fossil fuels, growth of biomass consumes CO2 as much as produced by consumption of biomass. Plants Proposed for Energy Plantation The key consideration in biomass energy farming is the choice of plant type and species to be cultivated. The choice of the species will depend on location, soil type, water quality and a host of other factors. Some of the plants are described below. 1. Casuarina:- It is a large evergreen tree that looks like a feathery conifer, and is hardly a plant well adapted to coastal areas. Casuarinas are commonly grown in tropical and subtropical areas throughout the world. The tree has delicate, slender ultimate branches and leaves that are no more than scales, making the tree look more like a wispy conifer. The plants are very tolerant of

136

windswept locations, and are widely planted as windbreaks, although usually not in agricultural situations. 2. Eucalyptus Plantation:- Eucalyptus plantation as a source for fuel wood has been practised for quite sometimes in India. It is normally included in the category of fast growing species for fuel wood. Species are abut 140, mostly Australian excepting a few in New Guinea and the Indian Archipelago. 3. Sorghums:- It is a good candidate for energy crops because it has very high yield. It requires less water for normal growth and resulting in lower irrigation costs.

POWER PLANT ECONOMICS When planning a power plant, the two basic parameters to be decided are: 1. Total power output to be installed (kWinst). 2. Size of the generating units. The total installed capacity required can be determined from: 1. First demand (kWmax) estimated. 2. Growth of demand anticipated. 3. Reserve capacity required. The size of the generating units will depend on: 1. Variation of load (load curve) during 24 hours (summer, winter, week-days, holidays, etc.) 2. Total capacity of units connected to the electric grid. 3. Minimum start-up and shut-down periods of the units. 4. Maintenance programme planned. 5. Plant efficiency Vs size of unit. 6. Price and space demand per kW vs. size of unit. Terms and Definitions (i) Connected Load:- It is the sum of ratings in kilowatts (kW) of equipments installed in the consumer's premises. If a consumer has connections for 4 lamps of 60 watts (W) each, and power point of 500W and a radio consuming 60 W; then the total connected load of the consumer = 4 x 60 + 500 + 60 = 240 + 500 + 60 = 800 W. (ii) Maximum Demand:- It is the maximum load which a consumer uses at any time. It can be less than or equal to connected load. If all the devices fitted in consumer's house run to their fullest extent simultaneously then the maximum demand will be equal to connected load. But generally the actual maximum demand is less than the connected load because all the devices never run at full load at the same time. Maximum demand of a power station is the maximum load on the power station in a given period. (iii) Demand Factor:- It is defined as the ratio of maximum demand to connected load.

137

(iv) Load Curve:- It is graphical representation between load in kilowatt (kW) and time in hours. It shows variation of load on the power station. When it is plotted for 24 hours of a day it is called daily load curve and if the time considered is of one year (8760 hours) then it is called annual load curve. The areas under the load curve represents the energy generated in the period considered. The area under the curve divided by the total number of hours gives the average load on the power station. The peak load indicated by the load curve represents the maximum demand on the power station. For estimating the expected maximum load, the most useful tool is the construction of a hypothetical load curve. Figure 1.1 shows the typical hourly load curve in a metropolitan area, from which the maximum demand can be estimated. Load curve give full information about the incoming load and help to decide the installed capacity of the power station and to decide the economical sizes of various generating units. They also help to estimate the generating cost and to decide the operating schedule of the power station i.e. the sequence in which different generating units should be run.

138

Fig 1.1 Typical hourly variation in energy demand for different types of electrical load and curves of total load in a Metropolitan area load

(v) Load factor:- It is defined as the ratio of average load to maximum demand. Load factor, = =
(.) 8760

(one year = 8760 hr)

The average load is estimated by dividing the area under the daily load curve by the time period considered () = 24 () Load factors and demand factors are always less than unity. Load factors play an important part on the cost of generation per unit. The higher the load factor the lesser will be the cost of generation per unit for the same maximum demand. Thus, if a plant has a peak load of 1000 MW but the average annual load is 350MW, its annual load factor would be only 0.35. Most of its capacity remains unutilized for major part of the year, and so the cost would be high. Load factors for different types of consumers are as follows: a) Residential load 10-15% b) Commercial load 25-30% c) Municipal load 25% d) Industrial load 1) Small scale industries 30-50% 2) Medium size industries 55-60% 3) Heavy industries 70-80% Base load plants run on a high load factor whereas the load factor of peak load plants is usually low. (vi) Base Load and Peak Load Power Plants:- The power plants work at different load factors. The power plants used to supply the load of the base portion of load curve are called base load power plants. Base load power plants run throughout the year, are of large capacity and run at high load factors and are highly efficient. The fixed and semi-fixed cost of these plants is usually high. The power plants which supply the load on the top portion of load curve are called

139

peak load plants. They are of smaller capacity, run for a short period in the year and work at low load factors. Peak load plants should be capable of quick starting. Hydro and nuclear power stations are usually classified as base load power stations. Thermal power stations may be taken as intermediate power stations whereas diesel power stations are usually classified as peak load stations. Parallel operation of different power stations and the coordination in generation of electricity leads to considerable saving in comparison with the same load fed by independent power stations. To meet the fluctuating power demand the power should be produced conforming to the demands. These days except a few isolated projects hydel power is used along with conventional steam power plant. In hydel power, regulation can be easily achieved by restricting the discharge through the water turbine and this can be achieved without much trouble. Time taken to activate a hydro power station is 5 to 15 minutes. The time of heating up a boiler of steam power station varies from 2 to 10 hours depending upon size. Therefore, it is now accepted practice that power system should consist of steam and hydel power each supplementing the other. During combined working of hydro-power plant and steam power plant, the hydro plant with ample water storage should be used as base load plant and steam power plant should be used as peak load plant. If the amount of water available at hydro power plant site is not sufficient then steam power plant should supply the base load and hydro power plant should supply peak load. The major advantage of steam power plants is that they can be located near the load centre. This reduces the transmission losses and cost of transmission lines. In hydro-power plants there is more or less dependence on the availability of water which in turn depends on the natural phenomenon of rain. Although the operating cost of a hydroelectric power plant is very less, the excessive distance from the load centre may sometime prohibit the use of such a plant in favour of a thermal power plant. Some hydro-power plants are supplemented by steam power plant or diesel engine power plant. The requirements of a base load power plant are as follows: a) Its capital cost should be low. b) It should be able to supply the load continuously. c) Its operation cost should be low as it has to operate most of the time. d) Its maintenance cost should be low. The requirement of a peak load plant are as follows : a) It should be capable of being started from cold conditions within minimum time. b) Its operating cost should be low. c) Capital cost involved should be minimum. (vii) Capacity factor (or plant factor):- It is defined as the ratio of actual energy produced in kilowatt hours (kWh) to the maximum possible energy that could have been produced during the same period. Capacity factor, = = () = 24 365 8760

140

If the rated capacity of the plant is equal to the peak load, then the load factor and capacity factor will be numerically equal. The difference between load factor and capacity factor is an indication of the reserve capacity. (viii) Reserve factor, = =

Each consumer has a "connected load" which is the sum of the continuous ratings of all the equipment and outlets on the consumer's circuits. The maximum demand is the maximum load which a consumer uses at any time. It is always less than, or equal to, the connected load. (ix) Demand factor, =

The time distribution of maximum demands for similar types of consumers is measured by a term called "diversity factor". It is the ratio of the sum of the maximum demands of the individual consumers and the simultaneous maximum demand of the whole group during a particular time. (x) Diversity Factor:- It is defined as the ratio of sum of individual maximum demand to the simultaneous maximum demand of a system. Usually the maximum demand of various consumers do not occur at the same time and simultaneous maximum demand is less than their total maximum demand. Power station should be capable of supplying the simultaneous maximum demand. Diversity factor is more than unity. Diversity factor, =

141

The diversity factor is illustrated in Fig. 1.3(a). It is given to be + + =

Diversity helps to improve the load factor and economic operation of the power plant. Fig. 1.3(b) shows the load curves of an industrialized country, the actual peak occurring in winter. The seasonal variation in the load influences the maintenance programme of the power plants. Major maintenance work (cleaning, overhauling, etc.) has to be done during the off-peak season. A high load factor is, in general, an indication of balanced load curve with relatively small load changes. High values of demand factor, load factor, diversity factor and capacity factor are desired for economic operation of the plant and to produce electricity at less cost. (xi) Plant Use Factor:- It is defined as the ratio of energy produced in given time to the maximum possible energy that could have been produced during the actual number of hours the plant was in operation. Plant use factor, =

If the operating time is 1 year or 8760 hrs, the plant use factor is equal to the capacity factor. As the plant-use factor approaches 1, it indicates the need for additional capacity of the plant. The plant capacity is always designed to be greater than the peak load to take extra loads coming in future. The high value of the plant use factor indicates that the plant is operating quite efficiently. In some interconnected systems, the plant use factor may exceed unity indicating

142

that the loads carried are in excess of the rated capacity since equipment is always designed to take 10 to 20% more load than rated. The different factors are indicated in Fig. 1.3 (c).

It can be seen that = Larger the unit size, less is the cost of electricity produced. Therefore, larger units are more economical than smaller units as regards investment per kW and operating expenses per kWh. Investigations should be made in each individual case, considering all operational, technical and economic factors involved, to determine the maximum unit size admissible. A reserve factor of 1.2 to 1.25 is often found to be satisfactory. The unit size must not exceed 20 to 25% of the total generating capacity of the plant. In order to obtain a basis for economical operation of the various types of generating units normally connected to a grid and also for planning of tariffs, it is useful to construct load duration curves for typical days which indicate the power demands at different intervals of time. There can be residential loads (domestic lights, heaters, refrigerator, TV, audio and video cassette recorders, etc.), commercial loads (shops, offices, advertisements, restaurants, etc), industrial loads (various mills and factories), municipal loads (street lighting, power for water supply and drainage), irrigation loads and traction loads (railways, trams, trolleys, etc.) (xii) Load Duration Curve:-

143

Load duration curve represents re-arrangement of all the load elements of chronological load curve in the order of descending magnitude. This curve is derived from the chronological load curve. Consider typical daily load curve for a power station as shown in figure. It is observed that the maximum load on power station, is 32 kW from 2 to 6 P.M. Similarly other loads of the load curve are plotted in descending order in the same figure. This is called load duration curve. The area under the load duration curve and the corresponding chronological load curve is equal and represents total energy delivered by the generation station. Load duration curve gives a clear analysis of generating power economically. Proper selection of base load power plants and peak load power plants becomes easier. Power Plant Capacity The capacity of a power plant must be equal to at least the peak load. In smaller power plants it is desirable to install two generating units each being capable of supplying maximum demand so that if one unit is not working due to repair or breakdown the other is able to maintain uninterrupted supply of energy. In case of large power plants using several generating units, the total installed capacity is kept equal to the expected maximum demand plus the capacity of the two largest generating units. The number of generating units should be kept two or more than two so that in the event of breakdown or maintenance etc. of a unit the power can be supplied by other unit without interruption. While designing the power station, provision should be made for the installation of more generating units depending upon the expected rate of increase of maximum demand over the next few years. In a power plant with several generating units most of the units needed to indicate the variation of load so that the different generating units can be

144

placed in operation at the desired time. Plant capacity can be decided by studying the load duration curve and the anticipated future demand. Power plant capacity depends upon the following factors: (i) Maximum demand of consumers at present. (ii) Type of load: such as (a) Private (6) Public (c) Industrial (d) Commercial (e) Domestic (f) Railways (iii) Future load conditions: Expected future electric power demand for at least next five years should be known. (iv) Availability of fuel. (vi) Possibility of inter connecting the power plant to other power plants. The advantage of having big power-plants is that it can directly generate high voltage required for long distance transmission. In this case, the loss of energy is in two ways: (i) long distance transmission, and (ii) transformation from high voltage into low voltage before use. In case of smaller plants, transmission loss is lesser because of short distance transmission, but the transformation needs to be done twice, viz., (i) from low voltage into high voltage before transmission, and (ii) from high voltage into low voltage before use. Additionally, construction of a number of smaller power-plants may, combined together, require more capital and infrastructure investments. Thus, a relative economic analysis along with other considerations like regional resource availability, socio-economic development, etc. would lead to an optimum capacity of a power-plant. Following factors should be considered while installing a new power plant: (i) Estimate of probable load (ii) Future load conditions (iii) Power plant capacity (iv) Total cost of power plant (v) Annual running cost (vi) The rate at which power will be sold to the consumer (vii) Type of fuel to be used. Principles of Power Plant Design While designing a power plant the following factors should be considered: i) Low capital cost ii) Reliability of supplying power iii) Low maintenance cost iv) Low operating cost v) High efficiency vi) Low cost of energy generated vii) Reserve capacity to meet future power demand

145

viii) Simplicity of design. The above factors depend upon power plant site, availability of raw material, availability of water, type of load, maximum power demand, generating equipment etc. LOCATION OF POWER PLANTS The location of hydroelectric power plants in usually predetermined by the availability of water and the water head which is utilized. For conventional base load thermal power plants, the following factors are to be considered: 1. Availability of cooling water (if cooling towers are used the possibility of adequate make-up water). 2. Availability of fuel (water, rail or pipe connection to the fuel source, and the cost of fuel transport). 3. Distance from the centre of gravity of load demand. 4. Cost of land (including space for extension, maintenance workshop and storage yard). 5. Character of soil. 6. Main wind direction and water currents in cooling water source (sea, lake or river) in order to minimize air and water pollution, and other ecological considerations. 7. With coal-fired stations, disposal of ash. 8. If the plant is erected far from a town, accommodation for staff. 9. Rail and road connections. 10. Security considerations. 11. Density of population in the vicinity. 12. Danger of earthquakes. Economics of Power Generation Economy is the main principle of design of a power plant. Power plant economics is important in controlling the total power costs to the consumer. Power should be supplied to the consumer at the lowest possible cost per kWh. The total cost of power generation is made up of fixed cost and operating cost. Fixed cost consists of interest on capital, taxes, insurance and management cost. Operating cost consists of cost of fuel labour, repairs, stores and supervision. The cost of power generation can be reduced by, (i) Selecting equipment of longer life and proper capacities. (ii) Running the power station at high load factor. (iii) Increasing the efficiency of the power plant. (iv) Carrying out proper maintenance of power plant equipment to avoid plant breakdowns. (v) Keeping proper supervision as a good supervision is reflected in lesser breakdowns and extended plant life. (vi) Using a plant of simple design that does not need highly skilled personnel. Power plant selection depends upon the fixed cost and operating cost. The fuel costs are relatively low and fixed cost and operation and maintenance charges are quite high in a case of a nuclear power plant. The fuel cost is quite high in a diesel power plant and for hydro power plant the fixed charges are high of the order of 70 to 80% of the cost of generation. Fuel is the

146

heaviest items of operating cost in a steam power station. A typical proportion of generating cost for steam power station is as follows: Fuel cost = 30 to 40% Fixed charges for the plant = 50 to 60% Operation and maintenance cost = 5 to 10% The power generating units should be run at about full load or the load at which they can give maximum efficiency. The way of deciding the size and number of generating units in the power station is to choose the number of sets to fit the load curve as closely at possible. It is necessary for a power station to maintain reliability and continuity of power supply at all times. In an electric power plant the capital cost of the generating equipments increases with an increase in efficiency. The benefit of such increase in the capital investment will be realised in lower fuel costs as the consumption of fuel decreases with an increase in cycle efficiency. Fig. 2.15(a) shows the variation of fixed cost and operation cost with investment.

Fig. 2.15 (b) shows the variation of various costs of power plant versus its capacity. Graph A shows variation of engineering and labour cost where as graph B indicates material cost and graph C indicates total cost. = Plant Performance and Operation Characteristics Boilers, turbines, generators etc. of a power stations should work efficiently. Some curves are plotted to observe their performance. The various curves used are as follows: 1) Input output curve:- Performance of a power station is most precisely described by the inputoutput curve which is a graphical representation between the net energy output (L) and input (I).

147

The input is generally expressed as millions of BTU/hr or kcal/hr and load or output is expressed in megawatts. The input to a hydro plant is measured in cubic metre per second of water.

Fig. 2.16 Fig. 2.16 (a) shows input-output curve. In order to keep the apparatus functioning at zero load a certain input (Io) is required to meet frictional and heat losses. 2) Efficiency curve:- The ratio of output of power station to input is called efficiency. The efficiency curve is obtained by plotting efficiency against output. It is shown in Fig. 2.16 (b). 3) Heat rate curve:- The ratio of input to output is known as heat rate (HR). = Heat rate curve is obtained by plotting values of heat rate against corresponding value of output. Fig. 2.16 (c) shows heat rate curve. 4) Incremental rate curve:- Incremental rate (IR) is defined as = Incremental rate is obtained by plotting values of I.R. against corresponding values of output. Fig. 2.16(c) shows I.R. curve. This curve expresses additional energy required to produce an added unit of output at the given load. Choice of Power Station In a power station energy is converted from one or another form into electrical energy. The power plant should be able to meet power demand efficiently. The various factors to be considered while choosing the type of power plant are as follows:

148

(i) Type of fuel available:- If the site where power plant is to be installed if near the coal mines then steam power plant is preferred whereas a hydro power plant is chosen if water is available in larger quantity. Nuclear power plants are located near river or sea so that nuclear waste can be disposed off easily. Diesel power plant is used for supplying smaller loads. ii) Power plant site:- The power plant site should satisfy the following requirements: (a) Cost of land as well as taxes on land should be low. (b) It should be nearer to load centre so that cost of transmitting energy is low. (c) It should be accessible by road, rail or sea so that transportation of fuel etc. is easier. (d) The site selected should be away from thickly populated areas in order to avoid atmospheric pollution and to reduce noise. (e) Sufficient space for future expansion of power station should be available near the site. (f) Site sub-soil conditions should be such that foundation can be made at reasonable depth. (iii) Type of load:- It is essential for a power plant to maintain reliability and continuity of power supply at all times. If the load varies and the variation is not large a diesel power plant should be chosen. If a hydro power plant of small or suitable capacity is made available it can also be used for supplying varying load as it can be started in shorter period and can take up load quickly. The large base load is supplied by hydro power plant, steam power plant or nuclear power plant. The nuclear power plants cannot be operated efficiently at varying loads. Power plant capacity must be equal to at least peak load. (iv) Generating units:- There should not be only one generating unit nor there should be large number of small generating units. It is economical to use a few generating units of larger size than using number of small size generating units for the same total capacity. The aim should be to have generating unit of different capacities which will suitably fit in load curve so that most of the generating sets, when in use, can be operated at nearly full load. There should be at least two generating sets whatever the total capacity of power plant may be. Steam generators of 80 to 200 MW are in use in big power plants whereas hydro-electric generators sets up to 200 MW are in use. (v) Cost:- The initial cost of hydro power plant is high although its operating cost is low. The capital cost of a nuclear power plant is also high. But higher capacity of a nuclear power plant is an advantage. A gas turbine power plant is less expensive in initial plus operating costs than the equivalent steam power plant. The total cost of a diesel power plant per kW of the installed capacity is about 20 to 30% less than that of a steam power plant of equivalent size. It is always desirable to run the power station at high load factor so that the installed capacity of power plant is used to the best possible extent and maximum possible amount of energy is produced which will lower the total cost; both fixed and operating cost. A poor load factor increases cost per kilowatt hour.