Chapter 7: 101. Explain how bacteria aide in the nitrogen cycle.

The bacteria lives in a mutualistic relationship with many types of plants, including soybeans and legumes, providing them with nutrients by converting nitrogen to a usable form. Also bacteria causes Nitrification, in which ammonium ions are converted into nitrite ions, then into nitrate ions which can both be taken up by plants. Lastly, denitrifying bacteria converts nitrates in soil or water to gaseous nitrogen through a multistep process and completes the cycle by releasing nitrogen back into the atmosphere as a gas. 102. What is the origin of nitrogen in biological tissue? What is the usable form of nitrogen called? Origin: Atmospheric N2 Gas Usable form: Nitrogen gas must be fixed or combined with hydrogen in nature to form ammonia (NH3) whose water-soluble ions of ammonium (NH4+) can be taken up by plants. Ammonium ions are then converted into nitrite, then nitrate ions in nitrification. 103. How does plate tectonics account for mountains? For volcanoes? For earthquakes? - Transform plate boundaries cause earthquakes - Convergent plate boundaries cause volcanism when one plate is subducted beneath another, or mountain ranges form when plates are uplifted, 104. Differentiate between metamorphic, igneous, and sedimentary rock. Igneous: Rock that forms when magma cools Sedimentary: Formed when dissolved minerals seep through sediment layers and act as a kind of glue, crystallizing and binding sediment particles together. The formation of rock through these processes of compaction, binding, and crystallization is termed Lithification. Metamorphic: Forms when great heat or pressure is exerted on a rock, changing form, and becoming a metamorphic rock. 105. Differentiate between convergent, divergent, and transform plate boundaries. Convergent: Areas where crust is destroyed as one plate dives under another Divergent: Magma surging upwards to the surface divides plates and pushes them apart, creating new crust as it cools and spreads. Transform: Where 2 plates meet and they slip and grind alongside one another. 106. Which nutrients end up in oceans due to fertilizer runoff? Nitrogen and phosphorus 107. What is transpiration? The release of water vapor by plants through their leaves. 108. What is an ecotone? A transitional zone where ecosystems meet. 109. Explain the entire process of eutrophication which can lead to a dead zone. 1) Nitrogen input; 2) Phytoplankton flourish at the surface; 3) Dead phytoplankton and their waste drift to the bottom, providing more food for decomposers; 4) Decomposer population grows and consumes more oxygen; 5) insufficient oxygen suffocates fish and shrimp at the bottom, causing dead zone (hypoxic zone) to form

110. Compare and contrast positive and negative feedback loops. What type of feedback loop is most common in nature, and which type commonly results from human action? The negative feedback loop (Nature) is a system in which the output of one type acts as input that moves the system in the opposite direction. The input and output neutralize eac h others effects, stabilizing the system. The positive feedback loop (Human Nature) however is the opposite, in which the system moves in the same direction, driving it further toward one extreme. 111. Explain the entire carbon cycle? What is a major reservoir for carbon? In which form is Carbon found in sea water? Carbon Cycle: Producers, including terrestrial and aquatic plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, pull carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere and out of the surface water to use in photosynthesis. Photosynthesis breaks the bonds in CO2 and water to produce oxygen and carbohydrates. Autotrophs use these carbohydrates to fuel their own respiration, releasing some of the carbon back into the atmosphere and oceans as CO2. When producers are eaten by primary consumers, more carbohydrates are broken down in respiration, producing carbon dioxide and water. This also occurs when decomposers consume waste and dead organic matter. Organisms then use carbon for structural growth, so a portion of the carbon an organism takes in becomes incorporated into its tissues Major Reservoir: Sedimentary Rock Carbon in the sea: Found in the form of carbon dioxide, carbonate ions, and bicarbonate ions 112. Explain the entire water cycle. 1) Water enters the atmosphere through evaporation (conversion of a liquid to gaseous form) and transpiration (release of water vapor by plants through their leaves) 2) Water returns from the atmosphere to Earths surface as precipitation (water vapor condenses and falls as rain or snow). Precipitation is taken up by plants and used by animals, but much of it flows as runoff into streams, rivers, lakes, ponds, and oceans. 3) Some precipitation and surface water soaks down through the soil and rock to recharge underground reservoirs known as aquifers, sponge like regions of rock and soil that hold groundwater (water found beneath layers of soil). The upper limit of groundwater held in an aquifer is referred to as the water table. Groundwater becomes exposed to air where the water table reaches the surface, and the exposed water can run off tward the ocean or evaporate into the atmosphere. 113. What is an algal bloom? Rapid increase or accumulation in the population of algae (typically microscopic) in an aquatic system. Algal blooms may occur in freshwater as well as marine environments. Robs other aquatic organisms of oxygen, leading to shellfish die-offs and other significant impacts on ecosystems. Increases nitrate pollution and can also lead to human health effects 114. Compare and contrast cinder cone, composite, shield, and lava dome volcanoes? Cinder Cone: Composite (stratovolcanoes): Shield: Lava Dome: 115. What is a major sink for phosphorus? Rocks (sediments)

116. What is a trace element? List ALL the trace elements. Trace Element: A chemical element present only in small amounts in a particular sample or environment. List of trace elements: Iron, Cobalt, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Manganese, Selenium, Zinc, Molybdenum 117. What is subduction? One plate of crust slides beneath another. 118. What is diastrophism? The process of deformation that produces continents and ocean basins in the earth's crust 119. How do fossil fuels form? They are produced by the decomposition and compression of organic matter from ancient life. 120. What makes up the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere? Lithosphere: Rock and sediment beneath our feet Atmosphere: Composed of the air surrounding our planet Hydrosphere: Encompasses all water in surface bodies underground, and in the atmosphere Chapter 8: 121. What is TFR? What drives it down? Total Fertility Rate: The average number of children born per female member of a population during her lifetime What drives it down: 1) historically, people tended to conceive many children to ensure survival. 2) Increasing urbanization (settling in cities and towns) has driven TFR down; whereas rural families need children to contribute to farm labor, in urban areas children are usually excluded from the labor market, are required to go to school, and impose economic costs on their families. 3) If a government provides some form of social security, parents need fewer children to support them in their old age when they can no longer work. 4) With greater education and changing roles in society, women tend to shift into the labor force, putting less emphasis on child rearing. 122. Why has the human population continued to grow despite environmental limitations? There are still resources available and the population is still growing because of the availability of what is left. It takes a great deal of time to stop population growth or stabilize it, so it will likely continue to grow for a while more. 123. What is replacement fertility? The total fertility rate that maintains a stable population size 124. Explain why the replacement fertility for humans is approximately 2.1? Because this number of children would replace their parents in society when they are older. By children replacing their parents, the population stays relatively stable 125. What is demography? A social science that applies the principles of population ecology to the study of statistical change in human population 126. What is an age-structure diagram and describe the age-structure diagram of the U.S.? - Data on the age distribution of human populations which allows demographers to try and predict future dynamics of populations.

- The United States has large population ranging from 0 to 50, and a lower population from 60 to 100. 127. What is the worlds current population? 7 Billion 128. In which continent is AIDS a widespread epidemic? How does AIDS affect populations? About how many people have been infected by the AIDS virus since it was discovered in the early 1980s? - Africa - Mortality is increasing, it is unleashing a variety of demographic changes, and infant mortality in sub-Saharan Africa has risen to 9 deaths out of 100 live births. Life expectancy in Africa has dropped to 40 from 59. - 40 million are infected 129. Why do poorer societies have higher population growth rates than wealthier societies? Most third world countries still depend on manual labor to feed their families and bring income in the home. An extra set of hands to help out is always helpful. From a standpoint of evolution, the poorer the human, the more likely that some offspring will not make it because you can't afford healthcare, so you have to have more to make sure your name continues on. 130. Differentiate between type I, II, and III survivorship curves. Type 1: Characterized by high survival in early and middle life, followed by a rapid decline in survivorship in later life. Humans are one of the species that show this pattern of survivorship. Type 2: An intermediate between Type I and III, where roughly constant mortality rate is experienced regardless of age. Some birds follow this pattern of survival. Type 3: 131. Explain the IPAT model - It is a formula proposed in 1974 by Paul Ehrlich and John Holdren - I = P x A x T (x S) - Formula that represents how humans total impact (I) on the environment results from the interaction among 3 factors: population (P), affluence (A), and technology (T). - There might also be a sensitivity factor (S) to the equation to denote how sensitive a given environment is to human pressures 132. How is Europes TFR affecting its natural rate of population change? Every European nation now has a fertility rate below the replacement level, and populations are declining in 14 of 44 European nations. In 2007, Europes overall annual Natural rate of population change (change due to birth and death rates alone, excluding migration) was .1%. 133. Why have fertility rates fallen in many countries? The fertility rates have mostly fallen in industrialized countries, where children are less valuable; they are not needed to help meet family food needs and they are not needed to take care of elderly parents, because social security benefits can do this. Opportunities had opened up for women outside of the home and they began to make decisions on their own, and in many countries women received proper knowledge on sex and new contraceptives 134. How does poverty affect the environment? Poverty results in environmental degradation. People who depend on agriculture in an area of poor farmland may need to try to farm even if doing so degrades the soil and is not sustainable.

135. Describe the pre-industrial stage. The first stage of Notesteins demographic model. It is characterized by conditions that have defined most of human history. In ore industrial societies, both death rates and birth rates are high. Death rates are high because disease is wide spread, medical care rudimentary, and food supplies unreliable and difficult to obtain. Birth rates are high because people must compensate for infant mortality by having several children. In this stage, children are valuable as workers who can help meet a familys basic needs. Populations within the ore-industrial stage are not likely to experience much growth, which is why the human population was relatively stable until the industrial revolution 136. If a city with a population of 100,000 experiences 6,000 births, 1,000 deaths, 1,500 immigrants, and 400 emigrants within the course of one year, what is the net annual percentage growth rate? 137. A country has a population of 400 million people and has an annual rate of growth of 1.55%. In one year, what would be the population of this country? 138. The worlds population in 2000 was approximately 6 billion. If the gro wth rate were 8%, in what year would the worlds population be 12 billion? 139. If a population roughly doubles in the course of 35 years, its growth rate would be close to _____%. 140. A country had a birth rate of 12 per 1,000 in 2011 and a death rate of 9 per 1,000 in the same year. Which of the following is the correct rate of growth for the year 2011? Chapter 9: 141. What is desertification? A loss of more than 10% of a lands productivity due to erosion, soil compaction, forest removal, overgrazing, drought, salinization, climate change, depletion of water sources, or other factors. Severe desertification can result in the actual expansion of desert areas or creation of new ones in areas that once supported fertile land 142. How do farmers protect soil from degradation? A number of farming techniques can reduce the impacts of conventional cultivation on soils. These techniques include contour farming, terracing, crop rotation, intercropping, shelterbelts, and reduced tillage farming. 143. How did the practices of selective breeding and human agriculture begin roughly 10,000 years ago? Hunter-gatherers brought back to fruits and nuts to their encampments. Some of these foods fell to the ground, were thrown away, or were eaten but survived passage through the digestive system. The plants that grew from these seeds likely produced fruits larger and tastier than those in the wild because they sprang from seeds of fruits that people had selected because they were especially large and delicious. These plants bred with others nearby that

shared their characteristics, and eventually, people realized that they could guide this selection process through conscious effort. 144. What is a horizon? What can be found in each horizon (O, A, E, B, C, & R)? Horizon: A layer of soil O Horizon: Presence of large amounts of organic material derived from dead plant and/or animal residues which is in varying stages of decomposition A Horizon: Referred to as the topsoil, it is the Mineral horizon which accumulates humus (dark, spongy, crumbly mass of material made up of complex organic compounds) E Horizon: Leaching layer, Made up of mostly sand and silt B Horizon: Also referred to as the subsoil contains clay and mineral deposits (like iron, aluminum oxides, and calcium carbonate) that it receives from layers above it when mineralized water drips from the soil above. C Horizon: It consists of slightly broken-up bedrock, very little organic material is found in this layer. R Horizon: The unweathered rock (bedrock) layer that is beneath all the other layers. 145. How does salinization occur? Which areas are most affected by it? Salinization occurs when precipitation is minimal and evaporation rates are high, water evaporating from the soils A horizon may pull water from lower horizons upward by capillary action. As this water rises through the soil, it carries dissolved salts. When the water evaporates at the surface, those salts precipitate, often turning the soil surface whitish with encrusted salt. Areas most affected: Arid areas with irrigation, and dryland 146. What percentage of land on earth is used for agriculture? 38% 147. What is leaching and how does it affect soil? Leaching: the process whereby solid particles suspended or dissolved in liquid are transported to another location Effect on soil: Can result in the loss of much-needed nutrients such as nitrates and other minerals that are essential for plant growth. It can also contaminate groundwater, which can have negative effects on the health of animals and humans consuming it. 148. How does soil form? How does biological activity contribute to soil formation? Soil Formation: Soil is formed slowly as rock (the parent material) erodes into tiny pieces near the Earth's surface. Organic matter decays and mixes with inorganic material (rock particles, minerals and water) to form soil. Contribution of biological activity: Contributes to soil formation through deposition, decomposition, and accumulation of organic matter. As plants, animals, and microbes die or deposit waste, this material is incorporated into the substrate, mixing with minerals. For example, the deciduous trees of the temperate forests drop their leaves each fall, making leaf litter available to the detritivores and decomposers that break it down and incorporate its nutrients into the soil. In decomposition, complex organic molecules are broken down into simpler ones, including those that plants can take up through their roots. Partial decomposition of organ matter creates humus. Weathering, erosion, and the accumulation and transformation of organic matter and other processes that contribute to soil formation are all influenced by outside factors.

149. What is terracing? What is contour farming? Terracing: The cutting of level platforms, sometimes with raised edges, into steep hillsides to contain water from irrigation and precipitation. Terracing transforms slopes into series of steps like a staircase, enabling farmers to cultivate hilly land while minimizing their loss of soil to water erosion Contour Farming: The practice of plowing furrows sideways across a hillside, perpendicular to its slope, to help prevent the formation of rills and gullies the technique is so named because the furrows follow the natural contours of the land 150. What is rill erosion? Rill Erosion: the removal of soil by concentrated water running through little streamlets, or headcuts. Detachment in a rill occurs if the sediment in the flow is below the amount the load can transport and if the flow exceeds the soil's resistance to detachment. As detachment continues or flow increases, rills will become wider and deeper. Tillage loosens the soil making it more susceptible to rill erosion. 151. What is compost? List all the things that can be placed in compost. Compost: A mixture produced when decomposers break down organic matter, including food and crop waste, in a controlled environment. 152. What is intercropping? How does it slow erosion? Intercropping: Planting different types of crops in alternating bands or other spatially mixed arrangements It slows erosion by providing more ground cover than does a single crop. 153. What is topsoil made out of? It is made of organic matter, humus, clay particles and sand 154. What is crop rotation? Crop Rotation: The practice of alternating the kind of crop grown in a particular field from one season or year to the next 155. Why is no-till farming a good thing? - Conserves biodiversity in soil and in ecosystems - Produces sustainable, high crop yields - Heightens environmental awareness among farmers - Provides shelter and winter food for animals - Reduces irrigation demands by 10-20% - Crop residues act as a sink for carbon - Reduces fossil fuel use by 40-70% - Enhances food security by increasing drought resistance - Reduces erosion by 90% 156. Differentiate between clay, silt, and sand. Clay: Sediment consisting of particles less than .002 mm in diameter, sticky, like plastic Silt: Sediment consisting of particles .002-.005 mm in diameter, feels slippery Sand: Sediment consisting of particles .005-2.0 mm in diameter, very coarse, drains better 157. Why is erosion a destructive process? On the timescale of human lifetimes and for the natural systems on which we depend, erosion is generally perceived as a destructive process that reduces the amount of life that a given area of land can support

158. How do fertilizers boost crop yield? Plants require nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium to grow, as well as smaller amounts of over a dozen other nutrients. Plants remove these nutrients from the soil as they grow, and leaching likewise removes nutrients. If agricultural soils come to contain too few nutrients, crop yields decline. Therefore, a great deal of effort has aimed to enhance nutrient-limited soils by adding fertilizer (any of various substances that contain essential nutrients) 159. What major effect does the removal of vegetation have on soil? The surface is left exposed to water and wind that may wash or blow it away, causing erosion 160. What happens to soil as a result of acid rain and change in soil pH?