UNESCO-NIGERIA TECHNICAL & VOCATIONAL EDUCATION REVITALISATION PROJECT-PHASE II

NATIONAL DIPLOMA IN CIVIL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

HYDROGEOLOGY
COURSE CODE: CEC 207

YEAR 2- SE MESTER I THEORY/PRACTICALS

Version 1: December 2008

CIVIL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY HYDROGEOLOGY CEC 207 COURSE INDEX WEEK 1 1.0 INTRODUCTION 1.1 SOUCES OF GROUNDWATER 1.2 1.3 USES OF GROUNDWATER

3 4 6

EFFECTS OF GROUNDWATER ON ENGINEER-

ING CONSTRUCTION 6 1.4 GROUNDWATER FLOW 7 WEEEK 2 2.0 FACTORS AFFECTING MOVEMENT OF WATER IN SOILS 8 2.1 DARCYS LAW 9 WEEK 3 3.0 GROUNDWATER BEARING FORMATIONS 13 3.1 AQUIFER GEOLOGIC FORMATIONS 14 3.2 CATEGORIZATION OF AQUIFERS 15 WEEK 4 4.0 FLOW PATTERN OF AQUIFERS 19 4.1 GROUNDWATER EXPLORATION 22 4.2 GROUNDWATER EXPLORATION TECHNIQUES 22 WEEK 5 5.0 SURFACE GEOPHYSICAL METHODS 26 WEEK 6 6.0 SEISMIC METHOD 33 6.1 SURFACE INVESTIGATION OF G/WATER 35 WEEK 7 7.0 RESISTIVITY LOGGING 39 WEEK 8 8.0 WATER TABLE AND G/WATER EXPLOITATION 42 8.1 FACTORS AFFECTING AQUIFER YIELD 43 WEEK 9 9.0 GROUNDWATER EXPLOITATION TECHNIQUES 48 9.1 DUG WELLS 48 9.2 BORED WELLS 49 9.3 DRIVEN WELLS 50 WEEK 10 10.0 DEEP WELLS 52 10.1 INFILTRATION GALLERIES 53 10.2 ARTESIAN WELLS 54 WEEK 11 11.0 GROUNDWATER QUALITY 55 11.1 SOURCES OF IMPURITIES IN G/WATER 56 WEEK 12 12.0 CAUSES OF SPECIFIC TYPES OF IMPURITIES 60 12.1 TOLERANCE LIMITS OF IMPURITIES 62 WEEK 13 13.0 EXAMPLE 13.1 69 WEEK 14 14.0 EXAMPLE 14.2 74 WEEK 15 15.0 COMMON G/WATER CONTAMINANTS 80

HYDROGEOLOGY (CEC 207) WEEK 1 1.0 INTRODUCTION Hydrology is the study of the Circuit of water occurrence. This is illustrated by the hydrologic cycle. Water occurring below the ground surface (sub surface water) is an integral part of the endless circulation of water. Hydrogeology is based on the subsurface aspect of the hydrologic cycle. Under ground water is made up of water in unsaturated zone (Vadose zone) and water in fully saturated zone. (Ground water phreatic water). The term ground water is used for subsurface

water existing below the point where pressure is equal to atmospheric and geologic formations that are fully saturated. This line differentiates between the two types of subsurface water. Hydrogeology is defined as the study of ground water or as the science of the occurrence, distribution and movement of water below the surface of the earth. It also involves studying the quality (the chemistry) and relation of ground water to the geologic environment.

The subdivision of underground water is illustrated below

Vadoze or water in unsaturated water zone Water table Ground water Zone of Saturation

Bed Rock

Fig. 1.1: General Distinction of Subsurface Water In the Vadose (aeration) zone the voids are filled with water and air and terminates at the ground surface. Water entrapped in this zone is of importance for agricultural purposes. Water in the zone of saturation is considered in engineering works, geologic studies and water supply developments. 1.1 SOURCES OF GROUND WATER Ground water is principally derived from the origin of the hydrologic cycle. Thus atmospheric precipitation is the main source of fresh ground water. Specific areas of the earth crust with water bearing capacity acts as conduits for transmission of and as reservoir for storage of water. Virtually all ground water originates as surface water.

The source of ground water can be either natural or artificial. The natural sources are: i. ii. iii. iv. Precipitation Stream flow Lakes Sea waters or marine water: This is water that has moved into aquifers from oceans. v. Juvenile water (primary water). This is subsurface water

which are not originally part of this hydrologic cycle and are formed within the earth and of a volcanic or magmatic origin. vi. Magmatic water are a derivative of magma and include volcanic water (shallow magma) and plutonic water (deep magma). vii. Metamorphic water, water that were in rocks during the period of metamorphism. Artificial Sources i. ii. iii. iv. Water from excess irrigation Seepage from canal Direct supply of water to shore up ground water supply. Reservoirs

There are referred to as sources of recharge of ground water. The motion of ground water through the saturated zone is in a direction determined by the surrounding hydraulic situation.
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1.2 USES OF GROUND WATER Ground water is an important water resource employed to meet water requirement in varied areas. The specific uses include: i. Irrigation: - This is the largest application of ground water. It involves the use of irrigation wells that are dug into zones of saturation. ii. Industrial Uses: - Due to its unique properties ground water is used in oil refineries, paper manufacturing, metal working plants, chemical manufacturing, air conditioning, refrigeration units and distilleries. iii. iv. Municipal water supply. Rural Water supply: This is meant by the use of hand dug, bored or driven wells. 1.3 EFFECTS OF GROUND WATER ON ENGINEERING

CONSTRUCTION For most Engineering construction work a basic understanding of subsurface water occurrence and flow pattern is necessary. Ground water, depending on the water table, affects the structural performance/integrity of most sub structures, foundations and basements. As an example, the foundation of most buildings are designed such that the depth of footing is taken to a suitable bearing stratum.

The design of buried utilities including pipelines, communication lines and cables are done to cut them off from interference of underground water. The amount of settlement/consolidation

expected of a given structure (foundation/footing) is influenced by the ground water level, there is increase settlement under saturated conditions with equal loading on the structure. 1.4 GROUND WATER FLOW Ground water is usually in a state of constant motion. The

movement of ground water is usually subject to surrounding hydraulic conditions and hydraulic theories. This is basically facilitated by the fact that most ground water bearing formation (aquifers etc) are porous media. The flow of water through soils which as typified by ground water flow is usually laminar.

WEEK 2 2.0 FACTORS AFFECTING MOVEMENT OF WATER IN SOILS The major factors affecting movement of water through soils are the permeability, porosity and hydraulic gradient. Permeability is the measures of the ease of flow through a given medium or the ability of the soil medium to conduct water. The hydraulic gradient, , is the difference in energy levels (heads) of water flowing through a soil mass. Thus ground water moves from levels of higher energy to levels of lower energy. Other factors which affect flow of water through soils include: Porosity: - The percentage of voids present in a material given by n = Where

Vv Vo

2.1

Vv volume of voids Vo total volume of porous medium

And Where

Vo Vs + Vv -------------------------------2.2 Vs volume solids.

For

consolidated

materials,

depends

on

degree

of

documentation, state of solution and fracturing of the rock.

For unconsolidated materials, n depends on packing of grains, shape, arrangement and size distributions. 2.1 DARCYS LAW It has been experimentally observed that the flow of water through a sand medium is accompanied by an energy/head loss. This loss has being proven to be proportional to the velocity of flow or discharge/flow rate, Q. This is more appropriately defined as Darcys Law which holds that the flow rate, through a porous media, or velocity of flow is proportional to the head loss and inversely proportional to the length of flow path. Simply the flow velocity is proportional to the hydraulic gradient and is given as: Q/A = K. h-----------------2.3 1 Where Q Discharge A X sectional area of porous medium K constant of proporationality h head loss 1 length of flow path. h 1 hydraulic gradient.
9

Q/A velocity of flow.

This is simulated by the experimental set-up shown below for flow through packed sand contained in a cylinder of cross-sectional area, A. having piezometers spaced 1 m apart.

h = h1 - h2 P1/ (1) (2) h1 Z1 L Z2 P2/ h2

Fig. 2.1: Head loss in flow through a sand column. We have that

h = h1 h2 are total energy heads at points 1 and 2 respectively. From Bernoulli we have that H1 = P1/ + Z1 And h2 = P2/ + Z2 Since we are connecting velocity head
10

V2/2g Total energy above the datum plane is given by P1 + Z1 = P2 + Z2 + h Y Y

h = (P1 + Z1) (P2 + Z2) Y Y h1 h2 From Darcy we have that Q/A h and Q/A 1/L Q/A = K. h/L Where K is the constant of proportionality or coefficient of permeability. Thus discharge through porous media is given by Q = KA h/L-------------------------------------2.4 h/L is defined as the hydraulic gradient and denoted by i or s

Table 2.1: Representative Values of K for Different Materials

Rock type Clean gravel App. Co-efficient of (cmls) permeability 5 10 Discharge Capacity

11

Coarse sand Fine sand Silt sand + gravel Silty sand Sandy clay Colloidal clay

0.4 0.02 10-5 10-4 10-6 10-9

Good

Fairly Good

Poor

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WEEK 3 3.0 Ground Water Bearing Formation Aquifers It has been shown that water beneath the water table or in the phreatic zone is termed ground water. The material in these zone must be formations having structures that permit appreciable water to move through them under ordinary field condition. The permeable geologic formations in which ground water occur are defined as aquifers. They are alternatively referred to as

ground water reservoirs or water bearing formation. Only small fractions of most phreatic zone will yield significant amount of water to wells. Aquiclude: Impermeable formation which may contain water but is incapable of transmitting significant water quantities e.g. clay. Aquifuge: An impermeable medium, like solid granite, which neither contains nor transmits water. Aquitard: Natural material that stores water but does not transmit enough to supply individual wells e.g. silty clay. Ground water retention and transmitting capabilities of most of the formation diversified is facilitated by the presence of spaces not occupied by solid mineral matter. These spaces retention and

transmitting capabilities of most of the formation diversified is facilitated by the presence of spaces not occupied by solid mineral
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matter. Theses spaces termed voids, interstices, pores or pore space acts as storage and conducts of ground water in aquifers. 3.1 AQUIFER GEOLOGIC FORMATIONS A significant proportion of all formed aquifer are made up of unconsolidated rocks, mainly gravel and sand. These occur as: Water Courses: These are the alluvium that underlie stream channels and form adjacent flood plains. Buried or Abandoned Valleys: Valleys no longer occupied by streams. Plains: There are usually underlain by unconsolidated sediments. The aquifers under such plains are composed of graved and sand beds. Intermontane Valleys: Aquifers made up of tremendous volumes of unconsolidated rock materials derived by erosion of bordering mountains. Alluvial: Made of sand and earth that is left by rivers or floods.

Generally, aquifers can develop from limestone in which a considerable proportion of the original rock has been dissolved and removed. Permeable aquifers can also be formed from volcanic rocks for which permeable zones might be due to flow breccias, porous zones between lava beds, lava tubes, shrinkage cracks and joints
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sand store aquifers develop occur from sands and gravel on which the constituent particles are partially cemented or in which water yield are from their joints. Clay aquifers only provide enough yield of water to meet small domestic demands. 3.2 CATEGORIZATION OF AQUIFERS Aquifers are classed as either confined or unconfined depending on the presence of a restraining medium or phreatic surface above the water bearing medium. Confined aquifers are restrained or overlain by comparatively impermeable strata. They are also referred to as artesian or pressure aquifers and they are usually confined at pressures greater than atmospheric. Free, phreatic or non artesian aquifer are unconfined aquifers in which water table serves as the upper boundary of the saturation zone. The water level coincides with the points at which the

pressure equals atmospheric and at varies according to areas of recharge and discharge, Pum page from wells and permeability. There are as idealized in the figure shown. Artesian well hole made in the ground through which water rises to the ground surface by natural pressure. Phreatic describes soil or rock below the water level, in which all the pores and inter-granular spaces are full of water.

Recharge area

15

Fig. 2.3: Confined and unconfined aquifers

Water table Ground surface Flowing well Water table Piezometric surface

Unconfined aquifer

Confined aquifer

Impermeable Strata

The following points should be noted i. The recharge area serves as the region of supply of water enters a confined aquifer in areas where the restraining bed rises to the surface. Where this bed ends under ground an unconfined aquifer results.

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ii.

The piezometric surface of a confined aquifer as an imaginary surface coinciding with the hydrostatic pressure level of the water in the aquifer.

iii.

A flowing well is the resultant effect of a piezometric surface which lies above the ground surface.

iv.

A perched aquifer results when a ground water body is separated from the main ground water by relatively impermeable stratum of small area extent. This is typified by clay lenses in sedimentary deposits which often have shallow perched water bodies overlying them.

Ground surface

Perched aquifer Perched aquifer

Impermeable strata

Water table 17

Unconfined aquifer

Fig 2.4: Perched aquifers within an unconfined aquifers.

Additionally the piezometric surface is to the surface to which water would rise in the confined aquifer if it could.

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WEEK 4 4.0 FLOW PATTERN IN AQUIFERS Entrance of water into aquifers, which serve as underground reservoirs, is through natural or artificial recharge. The flow of

water through aquifers is under the influence of gravity and thus the flow is aligned along the induced hydraulic gradient. This owes to the differential created by water existing at different elevations which corresponds to pressure levels. Specifically for underground water flow in aquifers with defined extremes the flow pattern can be simulated by the use of flow rates. This is the resultant of the plot of the flow lines, depicting the direction of flow and the lines joining all points of equal pressure (equal-potential lines). There are mutually perpendicular (orthogonal) set of line and is as shown below

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h dh Equal potential

dm

dq

Line () Flow lines ()

dm

dq

ds

ds

Fig. 2.5: Part of a typical flow net developed from and

lines

Apart from illustrating the direction and pattern of flow in an aquifer flow rate are near accurate means of evaluating amount of discharge from a given waters bearing stratum as proved. For the flow net shown the hydraulic gradient is given by i = dh/ds

Where dh change in pressure across each square formed by the flow net ds = length of square The flow through each square, between two flow lines is dq = K dh/ds dm {: - Azdm x 1, Q = KIA = Kdh/ds x dm x 1

20

This for square thickness (Lar to page) as derived from Darcys (Q = KiA) For each of the squares of the flow net it is assumed that ds thus dq = K dh But dh = h/x {For a total head drop of h across n squares) dm

Thus for a flow net of m channel or m + 1 flow lines, total flow Q is given by Q = mdq = Km h/n-------------------2.6 = K x Nf/Nd x Hw------------------------------------2.7 Where K Permeability constant Nf of flow channels Nd Number of pressure drops Hw Total pressure head. For the special cases of flow through aquifers, flow nets are constructed using a contour map of static water table levels since flow is induced by the different level of water table, flow lines are direction of movement. Flow lines parallel impermeable

boundaries, for confined aquifers, because no flow crosses such extremes and no flow crosses the water table of an unconfined aquifer.

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4.1

GROUND WATER EXPLORATION Ground water exploration methods are used to determine the location, movement and quality of water in geologic formations. It also aids in determining thickness. Composition, permeability and yield of ground water for large scale usage. Proper exploration techniques is used to estimate the qualitative and quantitative parameters of water bearing zones within the earth crust and other impermeable and non-retaining geologic structures.

4.2

GROUND WATER EXPLORATION TECHNIQUES The main methods for investigating ground water are surface and subsurface techniques. Surface methods involve studying ground water occurrence by working from the surface while subsurface investigation entails a detailed underground survey of ground water and conditions governing its occurrence. The two methods

supplement each other and for a thorough investigation, surface survey can serve as a sort fo reconnaissance. 4.3 SURFACE INVESTIGATION OF GROUND WATER The various type of surface investigation are: i. ii. iii. Geologic methods Hydrologic methods Surface geophysical methods.

Geologic Methods

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This gives preliminary information of the occurrence of subsurface water in a short time. It is suited for areas of complex geology with difficulty in locating water bearing zones as opposed to areas of uniform water bearing formations (thickness and depth).

Investigation is carried out by the use of aerial photographs, regional geologic maps and rapid ground reconnaissance. The specific geologic methods are: 1. Petrography: - Involves appraising rock types with regards to porosity and permeability. These are the parameters

controlling the amount of water that can be stored and transmitted through different materials. It is complemented by hydrologic maps showing surface extent of various rock types (lithologic units) and their water bearing characteristics. 2. Statigraphy: - The study of the position and thickness of water bearing regions as well as presence and extent of confining strata (beds). 3. Structural Geology: - This gives an indication of displaced water bearing zones due to earth movement and fractured areas in dense brittle rock. 4. Geomorphology: - Used in locating areas of glacial sediments and studying occurrence of subsurface water in areas of recent deposits.

23

The specific information obtained from geologic work include extent and regularity of water bearing formation, magnitude of water yield from aquifers, occurrence of aquifers beneath unsuitable upper strata, continuity and interconnection of aquifers and aquifer boundaries. Basically, ground water occurrence is directly dependent on geologic structure. Hydrologic Methods This is used mainly to recharge, ease of recharge as well as location and quantity of ground water discharge at the surface. The probability of ground water discovery increases with available recharge. This is also a function of the ease of recharge because recharge is a measure of the infiltration capacity of the surface. Thus impermeable surface such as shale, clay and quartzite leads to rapid and high run off in place of infiltration and hence inadequate recharge. Hydrologic and geologic investigation should be done concurrently for enhanced result because a geologically adverse region may not be suitable for ground water development even with favorable hydrologic conditions.

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WEEK 5

5.0 Surface Geophysical Methods This is the scientific measurement of physical properties of the earths crust for the purpose of investigation ground water. This is based on the relationship between the values of measured physical properties and the presence of ground water in the formation for which physical measurement is done. difference of physical properties. The properties most commonly measured are density, magnetism, electrical potential and resistivity, elasticity, seismic refraction and electrical conductivity. The slight but distinct variation in the It involves detecting

measured quantities of these parameters are interpreted in terms of geologic structure, rock type and porosity, water content and water quality. The different geophysical methods are; Electrical resistivity method, electrical potential methods, seismic refraction method, gravity and magnetic methods. Electrical Resistivity Method This is used to establish measured resistivity values of rock types at different depths to give information on suitable water bearing rock types. It is a widely employed means of geophysical

25

exploration method due to ease of operation and portability of equipment. The electrical resistivity of a formation limits the amount of current passing through the formation and is given as Q = RA/L Where or 2 a R = 2 a V/I a electrode spacing (in units of length) A cross sectional area L length of material V potential I current Resistivity for rock formations vary over a wide range based on material, density, porosity, pore size and shape, water

content/quality and temperature. The resistivity (apparent) Ra, increases with increasing porosity of the material, decreasing water content and decreasing salt content of water in the formation. Resistivity Range for Different Materials
Resistivity (Ra) ( m) 102 108 >108 100 104 <1 Material type/characteristic Igneous/Metamorphic rocks Solid igneous rock/quartzite Sedimentary/unconsolidated rocks Clay with salty water

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15 600 15 20 300 600 <10 50

Sand/gravel aquifers with salt water Aquifers with high salt content Aquifers with salt free water Aquifers with brackish/saline water Fresh water.

For porous media depends largely on water content and quality and thus control the for aquifers. Specifically for aquifers can be expressed in terms of ground water resistivity Pw and porosity, in the relationship. /w = 3 /2 ------------------------------------------3.1 Where aquifer resistivity w ground water resistivity porosity Resistivity can be shown to vary with depth for different rock types, hence measured resistivity values can give relative extent of different rock formations. This is based on their distinct or range of resistivity values. Also since resistivity values of aquifers are distinct due to the porosity and moisture content, resistivity measurement are reliable methods of locating water bearing formations.
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Resistivity values are obtained from potential differences and current measurement. This is facilitated by placing electrodes in the ground surface and connecting the relevant meters to measure potential difference and current as shown in the arrangement below.
Ammeter I Potential electrode s P Voltmeter V Current electrode s C

Current electrode s C

Current lines Equi potential lines

Fig. 5.1: Electrical circuit for determining network of current and potential lines The network shown in formed from orthogonal current and potential lines. There is an observed variation of apparent resistivity with variation of electrode spacing. This is due to penetration of the electric field with increased electrode spacing. Thus apparent

resistivity vary with depth but is restricted to relatively shallow depth. There are two practical arrangement for measurement of resistivity; (a) Shlumberger arrangement (b) Wenner arrangement

I (i) 28

V C P P C Wenner a a a

I (ii)

V C P P C

b L

Shlumberger

Fig. 5.2: Electrodes arrangement for Ra measurements

For case (i) Qa = 2 a V/I------------------------------------------3.2 Where Qa apparent resistivity a electrode spacing V potential I current And for case (ii)
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Qa = (L/2)2 (b/2)2 V/I -----------------------------3.3 b A plot of measured apparent resistivity at varying electrodes spacing is made and can be interpreted to depict spacing approximately as depth of rock types. This is illustrated below

showing resistivities of various layers with precise interpretation of the geologic type as indicated.

1.5 Soil/Sandy 3.0 Electrode Spacing (m) Soil and gravel + till

1.5

3.0

15 Glacial till little sand and gravel 30

15

30 150 Precambrian Rock 150 100 500 100

Apparent resistivity, a ( 500 m) Fig. 5.3: Apparent resistivity of subsurface material determined by the expanding electrode method
30

Depth to ground surface (m)

WEEK 6 6.0 Seismic Method: - This method is based on the different velocity of travel of wave across different medium. The specific method suited for ground water investigation is the seismic refraction method which provides information on geologic formation at relatively shallow depth. Velocity of sound in underground material increases with increasing density and water content. Thus seismic survey result are used to interpret type, porosity and water content of the material. The wave velocities are indication of geologic formation. Alternation in seismic wave velocity are due to change in elastic properties and the contrasts indicate demarcation of material formation and boundaries. The waves generate in seismic studies are induced by small shocks applied at the earths surface either by the impact of a heavy instrument (sledge hammer) or a small detonator and measuring the time required for the resulting sound or shock wave to travel known distance. Consider the formation below with a saturated and unsaturated zones delineated as shown.

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Ground Surface S B Unsaturated E

Saturated

Fig. 6.1 Seismic wave front advance Shock wave is applied at S, the distance of separation between saturated and unsaturated layers is d. The velocity of the wave front in the unsaturated and saturated zones are V1 and V2 respectively. This is depicted by the refraction simulated below.

Path of reflection

V1

Boundary r V2 Path of reflection

The distance d is determined thus: Wave travel from S to B via path SB or Indirectly via SDEB Direct travel time

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t1 = SB/V1 = X/V1 {x distance from shot point to point of observation} indirect travel time t2 is t2 = SD/V1 + DE/V2 + EB/V1 But SD = EB = d/Cosi [d/SD = cosi SD = d/cosi] t2 = 2d/V1cosi + DE/V2 And t1 = t2 x/V1 = 2d/V1cosi + DE/V2 but DE = x 2d tani x/V1 = 2d/V1cosi + x/V2 2d tani/V2

d = x / 2 V 2 V 1 /V 2 +V 1
6.1 SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATION OF GROUND WATER

Subsurface investigation of ground water is conducted from the surface with equipment extending underground. It gives more

detailed and precise information of subsurface water occurrence. They are mainly classified as Test drilling (wells) and logging. Test drilling provides information on substrata in a vertical line from the surface. Logging gives data on properties of the formation, water quality, size of well cavity and rate of ground water movement. Test Drilling: - Test wells, made up of small diameter holes bored to ascertain geologic and ground water conditions before proper

33

well drilling. Subsequently, successful test holes are red riled or reamed to a larger diameter to form pumping wells. Observation wells are often test holes and are used for measuring water levels or for conducting pumping tests. Logging: - Logging is the method of stratifying the different kinds of geologic formation and their variation with depth from surface. It result in a graphical inventory of the different kinds of rocks within a certain station and their relative positions and extents. The following are the different forms of logging. Drilled well logs: - This is also referred to as geologic logs and is constructed from drilling samples of rocks strata encountered in boring the well. The log is precisely a record of phases of well drilling. Aquifers can be delineated from well logs and water quality is indicated by the water sample collected. Drilling - time log is a derivative of well logging which is due to changes in rock characteristics that are indicated by changes in drilling rate or by vibration in rotary drilling.

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A typical drillers well log is shown below

Depth mo Material Top soil and salt 4.5

Blue clay

22.5 Fine sand 28.4 Blue clay 32.6 34.2 38 Sand and gravel 42.7 45.1 46.4 Blue clay Sand and gravel Coarse gravel 51.2 Gravel 59.5 60.4 Cemented clay Gravel Yellow clay

Fig 6.1A Drillers well log

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Drilling rate
67 67 67 67 Pebbly Clay 0 3 6 9 12 15

Depth, m

67 67

Coarse Clean Sand Gray clay

67

Fig. 6.2 Drilling time Log and Strata Penetrated

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WEEK 7 7.0 Resistivity Logging It has been shown that the resistivity of different rock types vary depending on mineralogy and other properties. Resistivity logging is employed to establish a trace of the variation of resistivity with depth by measuring underground resistivity at several intervals. The resultant is a resistivity (or electric) log. The log is affected by fluid within the well, well diameter, character of surrounding strata and by ground water. The most commonly employed mode of measuring underground resistivity is the multi electrode method. It consists of four electrodes, two for emitting current and two for measuring potential. The curves that result can be either normal or lateral according to electrode arrangement.

Resistivity curves indicate the lithology of rock strata pentrated by the well and enable fresh and salt waters to be distinguished in the surrounding material. However an accurate interpretation of resistivity log is difficult and requires specialized know-how. Typical electrode arrangement for measuring resistivity and the resultant

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resistivity (or electric) curve are as indicated below.

Potentiometer

Ammeter

Ammeter

Potentiometer

A and B are current electrodes B A AM A M Fig. 3.9 (a): Electrode arrangement for Measuring normal resistivity logs B (b) Lateral resistivity will logs measuring arrangements M and N are Potential electrodes AM<<AB AO M AM<<AB

Spontaneous Potential muh voits 20 +

Resistivity hm m2/m( m)
500

1000

Depth

Normal

Normal

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Fig.7.1 Spontaneous Potential and Resistivity logs of a well.

Other modes of logging include potential logging.

Temperature

logging caliper logging, radio activity logging, acoustic logging fluid resistivity and fluid velocity logs. Resistivity to determined aquifer porosity from the relationship. m Where = Qw/Qw

Porosity Qw Ground water resistivity Q Formation resistivity m Void distribution co-efficient

Which ranges from 0.97 2.71 Variation of Seismic Velocity for Materials Velocity Range 250mls 5000mls 300 1000mls 1500 25000mls 3000 5500mls Material type Loose unsaturated material Dense crystalline rock
Deep unconsolidated unsaturated material

Deep saturated unconsolidated material Bed Rock

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WEEK 8 8.0 WATER TABLE AND GROUND WATER EXPLOITATION Water existing beneath the ground surface has been classified as vadose water and ground water. The dividing line between these zones is the water table which is the limiting surface of the saturation zone. The groundwater zone, usually extend

downwards to an underlying impermeable strata like clay beds or bedrock. Thus, the upper surface of the zone of saturation is the water table and is technically defined as the surface of atmospheric pressure. It is usually revealed as the level to which water stands in a well penetrating the aquifer. The water table is technically defined as the surface in unconfined material along which the hydrostatic pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure. This is practically manifested by the equalized level f observed for both arms of manometers placed at the water level in a hypothetical well.

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Manometer X - Atmospheric

For manometer at Y Pressure = Atmospheric/ pressure at X

Fig. 8.1: Water table in a uniform water bearing medium as indicated by the inverted U tubes. The above definition of water table assumes horizontal pattern of ground water flow. 8.1 FACTORS AFFECTING AQUIFER YIELD The yield of a typical aquifer is the amount of water which can be drained from the bearing formation under the effect of gravity. The water retaining and water discharging capabilities of subsurface strata are of overriding importance in evaluating the yield of water bearing formations. Specifically the major factors which influence aquifer yield are the rock properties, porosity and permeability. Aquifers should process structures that make for appreciable water to move through them thus the rock properties are of paramount importance.
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Porosity is the amount of voids present in a given rock or soil body. It is the portion of the material not occupied by solid mineral matter. Voids are usually occupied by ground water. These void also

called interstices, pores or spaces act as water conducts. Porosity is a measure of contained interstices and expressed as the percentage of void space to the total volume of the mass thus. w spaces. v total volume of soil/rock. = 100w/V porosity volume of water required to saturate all pore

Porosity is characterized by size, shape, irregularity and distribution and can be original interstices, created by geologic processes governing the origin of the rock. Secondary interstices are

developed after the rock was formed like joints, fractures, openings by plants and animals. Permeability is the ability of is given soil body/rock type to discharge/conduct water through its pores. Permeability is given as K (cm/s) and though dependent on porosity it is not a direct function of the pore spaces present. All the voids in a saturated zone are filled with water, but not all the water held in the interstices can be discharged/conducted (under

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the influence of K). This water retained is held in place by gravity and is the retentive ability of the rock/soil type. The specific retention Sr. is given by Sr = 100wr/v wr - volume occupied by retained water v gross volume of the rock/soil. The water that can be drained is specific yield and is defined as the rates expressed as a percentage of the volume of water which can be drained by gravity to volume of the formation given by Sy = 100wr/v wy - volume of water drained v gross volume of the rock/soil. Since w = wy + wr Then = Sr + Sy = void ratio Specific yield is a fraction of porosity of an aquifer. For uniform sand Sy 10 30% For alluvial aquifer Sy 10 20% Specific yield of an aquifer can be determined by saturating samples in the laboratory and allowing them to dawn or saturating in the field a considerable body of material situated above. Explain safe yield and overdraft.

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The water table and above the capillary zone and allowing it to drain downward naturally. Range of yield for different formation are as given below.

45 40

Porosity

PERCENT

35 30 25 20 15 10 5 Specific yield Specific retention

Medium Sand Coarse Sand

Fine gravel Medium gravel Medium gravel Medium gravel

Clay & silt Sandy Clay Fine Sand Sand

Gravely

/16 1/8

16

32 64 128 256

Maximum 10% grain size

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Coarse gravel Coarse gravel Boiler

Fig. 4.2: Porosity, specific yield and specific retention variation with grain size. WEEK 9 9.0 GROUND WATER EXPLOITATION TECHNIQUES The common method for exploiting ground water is by the use of wells. A water well is the universal term used for holes or shafts, usually vertical, excavated in the earth for bringing ground water to the surface. Wells are broadly classified as either shallow or deep wells. Other categories of wells include boreholes, sunk wells, infiltration galleries and artesian wells. Dug. Bored, driven or felted wells are all types of shallow wells and deep wells are drilled by mechanical methods. Deep wells are usually for optimum yield and are tested before installing a pump. Which ever method is employed for tapping ground water depends on the water supply requirement, quantity of water required, depth of ground water, geologic conditions and economic consideration. Shallow wells are usually less than 15m in depth. 9.1 DUG WELLS The most common method of furnishing water supply is the Dug well which is a form of shallow wells. Basically dug wells are

excavated by simple hand implements but large dug wells are

45

constructed with portable excavating equipment (clean shell and peel buckets). Walls of the wells are braced against caving by lining/casing is provided using termed curb. The curb should be perforated to permit water entrance. considerable depth beneath. The water table (4.5 6m below water table). 9.2 BORED WELLS For low lost supply of relatively small quantities of water bored wells are used where water table exists at a shallow depth in an unconsolidated aquifer. Boring implement can be either hand The dug should extend a

operated or power driven earth augers the boring operation of hand augers are facilitated by the use of cutting blade at the bottom which bore into the ground. Power operated driven augers consists of cylindrical steel buckets with a cutting edge projecting from a slot in the bottom. Reamers are used to enlarge holes to diameters exceeding the auger size. Augers are well suited for formation of loose sand and gravel and supplementing drilling methods where sticky clay is encountered. Hand bored wells vary between 6 8 in diameter and 15m in depth while wells bored using power assisted methods are usually up to 36 in diameter and 30m deep. 9.3 DRIVEN WELLS

46

A driven well is developed by connecting a series of pipe lengths and driving them into the ground below the water table. Driving is done using a maul, sledge hammer, drop hammer or air hammer. Entrance of water into the well is through drive (sand) point at the lower end of the well. Driven wells are between 1 4 in diameter and usually do not exceed 15m in depth. Extraction of water from driven wells is by suction type pumps and for continuous water supply the water table should be near the ground surface. Driven wells can be used for domestic supplies, temporary supplies, exploration (observation wells) and for dewatering excavation for foundations and other subsurface construction work. Unconsolidated formations with no large gravel or rocks that can damage well point are areas well suited for driven well. 9.4 JETTED WELLS Wells that are constructed through the action of high velocity steam of water directed downward are jeffed wells. The speed of the water stream washes the earth away. Water and formation The

material cuttings are conducted up and out of the well.

diameter of such wells are usually (1 3 inches) and depth might exceed 15m. These wells are easily constructed in unconsolidated formations and the yield is small. They are suited for investigative exploration purposes and well point system.
47

WEEK 10 10.0 DEEP WELLS These are large high-capacity (high yield) wells developed to extensive depths and constructed by drilling. construction (Drilling) method are employed. (i) (ii) (iii) (i) Cable tool (also known as percussion or standard) Hydraulic rotary method Reverse rotary method. Cable too method This is adapted for drilling wells through consolidated rock materials. The method is less effective in unconsolidated sand, gravel and quick sand as the loose materials slumps and cave around drilling bits. component The entive There main

comprises of a standard well drilling rig,

percussion tools includes a rope socket which attaches drilling rope to string of tools, set of jars which are connecting links to loosen entire tool when stuck, drill stem which adds weight and length to the drill for raped and vertical cutting. The drilling bit does the actual drilling and is of various sizes shapes and weights. The bailer removes excavated

materials/cuttings from the well.

48

(ii)

Hydraulic rotary include In this method drilling is facilitated by a hollow rotating bit through which a mixture of clay and water (drilling mud) is forced. The rising mud serves the purpose of lifting loosened material upward in the hole. All category of drill bits have hollow shanks and one or more centrally located orifices for jetting mud in to the bottom of the holes. The bit is attached to a rod/shaft, turned by a rotating table that allows the drill rod to slide downward as the hole deepens. This is a fast method for drilling in unconsolidated strata and deep wells of up to 18 dia can be developed.

(iii)

Reverse Rotary method This is a variation of the hydraulic rotary method but the cuttings are removed by suction pipe. The procedure is thus a suction dredging method. The main components include a large capacity centrifugal pump, a 6 dia drill pipe and a bit similar to a dredge cutter head.

10.1 INFILTRATION GALLERIES (Horizontal wells) An infiltration Gallery is developed within a permeable aquifer and as a horizontal permeable conduit for intercepting and collecting ground water which flows by gravity. High yield galleries should be located within conducting aquifers with a high water table source. Thus many infiltration galleries are laid parallel to river beds where induced infiltration ensures adequate and consistent water supply is assured.
49

10.2 ARTESIAN WELLS These are wells that are developed to penetrate a confined aquifer in which water is confined under a pressure greater than atmospheric. The water level in artesian wells rises above the

bottom of the confining strata. Some artesian wells create enough pressure to generate an upward flow greater than 45m high and discharge of 1000 gallons per minute (gpm).
Artesian well

Water table well

Unconfined aquifer

Impermeable strata

Confining strata aquifer

Fig 10.1 Artesian Well

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WEEK 11 11.0 GROUND WATER QUALITY The quality of ground water is a measure of the amount of impurities as well as chemical and biological characteristics of the water. Specifically the impurities in ground water are soluble salts which originate primarily from solution of rock materials. The term salinity is used to describe the Concentration of salt in ground water. Criteria of ground water quality are established

based on physical, chemical and bacterial constituents. Limits of water quality are established for proper safeguard and

improvement of ground water storage. The quality of ground water depends on its use. Thus, requirement for drinking, (domestic) industrial and irrigation are markedly different. Development of Ground Water Salinity: - The concentration of salts in ground water is due to the reaction of precipitation, which contains trace amount of dissolved mineral matters of the soils and rocks of the earth. This is further illustrated sinematically.

Precipitation

Rain Water + Small amount of mineral

Soil and Rock of the Earth/aquifers

Saline ground water 51

Resulting from the solvent action of water on rocks and mineral matters in earth and aquifers. Reaction results in dissolution of the mineral matter and the amount dissolved depend on the chemical composition and physical structure of the rocks as well as pH and redox potential of water.

11.1 SOURCES OF IMPURITIES IN GROUND WATER The various source of impurities can be grouped into three: a. Diffuse Sources which impair ground water quality over large areas like percolation from intensely farmed filed. b. c. Point source like septic tunk and garbage disposal sites. Line sources of contamination like seepage from polluted streams. The specific sources of ground water contaminants are varied and affect quality to certain extents. The major form are dissolved salts which are carried in solution and these are more in ground water due to exposure to soluble material in geologic strata. The main source are: i. Infiltrating surface water which are saline enough to alter ground water quality. This occurs mainly in areas recharging large volume of water underground like alluvial streams. Channels and artificial recharge area.

52

ii.

Dissolved mineral product which are due to absorbed gases of magmatic origin.

iii.

Imparities that are product of weathering and erosion by rainfall and flowing water.

iv.

Excess irrigation water which might contribute substantial quantity of salt.

v.

Ground water of arid regions contain high amount of impurities due to lack of leaching by inadequate rain which affects dilution of salt solutions.

vi.

Ground water formations (aquifers) dissolve and form solution depending on their solubility lead to impurities in ground water. This is exemplified by ground water flowing through sedimentary or igneous rock aquifer.

vii.

Salt water intrusion, which occurs in coastal aquifers is an invasion of saline water into fresh ground water. This is the movement of seawater inland when ground water level declines.

viii.

Direct entry of sewage/sludge into the ground from septic tanks, cesspools and sewage systems leads to impairment of quality of surrounding ground water. This can also result

from unintended infiltration of sewage into underground water from leakage of sewers and seepage and industrial waste

53

disposed in land fills upon decomposition contaminate underlying ground water. ix. Petroleum leakage and spills: This is the impairment of ground water quality by petroleum products which are accessible to soils and aquifers from leaking pipelines and burned steel gasoline storage tanks in gasoline stations. x. Excessive repeated exploration of ground. This might be due to construction of shafts and tunnels that other ground water courses, coal mining in which oxidation of pyrite resulting in sulphuric acid and the tailings and processing waste from mining and milling metal ores which affect proximate local ground water quality. xi. Deep well storage of liquid waste which is adopted for waste fluids that are difficult to dispose pose serious hazards to ground water quality. This is due to the migration of the

waste fluid over long distance into fresh water aquifers. xii. Underground disposal of radio active waste leads to the formation of radio nuclides which are completely undesirable in ground water.

54

WEEK 12 12.0 CAUSES OF SPECIFIC TYPES OF IMPURITIES The impurities, like dissolved solids and sediments in ground water are elements molecules and compounds which on dissolution in water alters its chemical composition. These include Na, Ca, Mg, K, Cl, SO4, HCO3, CO3, Fe, N, NH3, and other elements as well as deleterious substance in trace amounts. These result in increased hardness of ground water alkalinity and change of pH which alters the acidic content of water. The trace elements in ground water, which occur from the various sources of ground water impurities, constitute a minor proportion of dissolved solids. They are present at concentration below 0.1mg/L because of the level of solubility of minerals. The include Arsenic, Barium, Chromium, Copper, Lead, Mercury and Zinc. These have the effect of increasing the toxicity of ground water especially when used for human consumption. Most of the mentioned trace elements have been proven to seriously impair the function of vital human physiology. Radioactive nuclides lead to serious degradation of ground water especially where they exceed the concentration guide limits.

55

Dissolved gases entrapped in rain water, upon percolation result in allied chemical compound which changes the taste of ground water. Pathogenic organisms, from sewage/sludge and solid waste lead to serious contamination of ground water. This is because microbial thrive in most underground materials as aquifers and other deep formation are known to be conducive for most microbes lives. The colour of ground water is altered by certain types of acidic impurities and protein compounds made up of stable organic matter (humus). The colour and taste of ground water is altered by infiltration of gasoline and other petroleum products. Importantly the alteration of ground water quality due to petroleum product contamination is taste. This is apparent at concentration less than 0.005mg/L. Solids suspended in ground water result in turbidity of ground water impurities that might cause increased turbidity include clay, silt and other fines. 12.1 TOLERANCE LIMITS OF IMPURITIES The salt concentration of ground water is given in terms of the Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) contents. It is measured in Parts Per

Million (PPM) or Milligrams per liter (PPM) or Milligrams per litre (mg/L).

56

One PPM indicates one part by weight of the ion to a million parts by weight of water. The standard limits for classifying ground water in terms of concentration of solids are Fresh < 100mg/l Moderately saline Very saline Briny > 35,000mg/l The other kind of elements/compounds present in ground water has lesser tolerable amounts allowed in ground water. Iron: Recommended to a maximum of 0.03mg/l in drinking water. Manganese: Maximum concentration is set at 0.05m/l Aluminum: Rarely exceeds 0.5mg/l Carbonate and Bicarbonate: Concentrations are not more than 10 and 200mg/l respectively. Chloride: Recommended as a maximum of 250mg/l in drinking water. Silica: In the range of 20mg/l Sulphate: Concentration in drinking water < 250mg/l Fluorine: Exceed 10mg/l in ground water but it limit in drinking water is pegged at 1.4 2.4mg/l. Most natural ground waters contain less than 0.1mg/l of phosphorous which is considered safe. Most of the trace elements should not exceed 0.1mg/l in ground water.
57

3000 10,000mg/l 10,000 35,000mg/i

Consider the case shown below with ground water elevation known from wells, an estimated ground water contour (lines joining pts of equal pressure head/water level) and flow directions are as indicated.
105 102.5 Ground water 100 contours 97.5 95 Direction of Ground water flow

Water table Elevation 100 (AHGSD)

Fig. 12.1: Ground water Contours

An enlarged case for a wider network is as depicted below

260 350.5 350 349.5 348.5 348 347.5 346.5 346

0.5m contours of ground water surface

Fig. 12.2: Contour map of ground water Surface showing flow lines.

58

For special cases of flow through aquifers consider the following cases. 1. Flow through a phreatic aquifer. With a free water surface resisting on an impermeable base as shown.

Ground surface dx Potential line dl h

dh = d

Phreatic surface

Impervious horizontal base Fig. 12.3: Flow in a Phreatic aquifer From Darcys we have that

V = K

d de
d d d1 dx

Assume small d, such that

And that Then: q = - KH

d dh = dh dx

dh [Flow/unit width]-----------------------2.8 dx

dq k -1/2 d 2 (h 2 ) = dx dx 2
n

59

(V )
dx

= nv n-1

dv dx

(h 2 ) dh d = 2h dx dx d (h 2 ) dh = h dx dx
Since flow is uniform

dq = 0 2.9 dx
Thus d
2

(h2 )
dx 2

= 0 2.10

q = kh q=

dh dx

-1/2

(h2 )
dx

(h2 ) dq 2 -1/2 K d2 dx dx 2

2.

Flow in a confined aquifer with permeability K as shown in fig below with ground water flowing from left to right line of potential head (Energy grade line) is declining as indicated by piezometers.

60

Piezometers Potential head

Flow H

Fig. 12.4: flow in an artesian aquifer

From Darcys

Vx = K

d dx

Thus flow per unit width

q = KH

d dx

dq d 2 = KH 2.11 dx dx 2
Since flow is assumed to be uniform

dq = 0 2.12 dx
2

61

Thus

d = 0 2.13 dx 2

These are fundamental equation for flow through a confined aquifer. For case 1 assume that the aquifer is being recharged at a net infiltration rate N units (rain failing on the ground, then. dq = N. dx

dq = - 1/2 dx d
2

K d 2N K

(h 2 )
dx 2

=N

(h 2 )
dx

Net infiltration N.

q d q + dq

Fig. 2.10: Flow in a Phreatic aquifer with rainfall

62

WEEK 13 13.0 Example 13.1 Given two canals at different levels separated by a strip of aquifer 1000m wide, of permeability K = 12m/day as shown in fig below. The aquifer is 20m in depth is an impermeable base and the higher canal is 2m higher than this with the lower canal exactly coincides with the top of the aquifer. Find the inflow or discharge from each canal per meter length of aquifer assume annual rainfall is 1.20m per annum and assume 60% infiltration.
N

2m

K = 12m/day 1000m h

20m

Impermeable base

From reference origin x = 0, h = 20m And x = 1000m, h = 22m N = 1.2m x 0.6/year = 0.72/365m/day

2N d 2 (h 2 ) = K dx 2 2 Nx + C1 d (h 2 ) = K dx
2

63

h =
2

Nx + C1x + C 2 K

At x = 0, h = 20 202 = C2 C2 = 400 At x = 100, h = 22

0.72 x 106 , 22 = 1000C1 + 400 365 x 12

2

C1 = 0.248 We have that q = - Kh

dh dx

h = ( Nx 2 + 0.248x + 400)
K

Nx 2 Let + 0.248 + 400 = u K

h2 U1/2

1 1 ( 2 Nx + 0.248) dh du = = 2u 1/2 dx 2u 1/2 K dx

at x = 0

q = Ku 1/2 12u 1/2 q = 1/2 2u

1 2u 1/2

(0.248)

= 1.49m3 / day1m

(0.248)

= 6(0.248) = 1.49

at x = 1000

64

q=

K ( 2000 x 0.72 + 0.248) 2 365 x 12

= 6

( 1440 + 0.248)
4380

6(-0.08076) = - 0.48 m3/day Thus there is a discharge into both canals from the aquifer of 1.49m3/day to the lower canal and 0.48m3/day to the upper canal per meter length of aquifer. Example 2.2 Two observed wells were used to evaluate underground water flow pattern through an unconfined aquifer. If the aquifer is made up of permeable material of K 3 x 10-3cm/sec calculate the seepage loss to the well at the upstream per meter width of aquifer end of flow using flow net for which nf = 4 and nd = 10. The sketch of the stated condition is as shown.

h=1.02 10.2m 12m 1.8m

65

Given

Hw = 12 1.8 = 10.2m M = 4, n = 10

Flow from flow net discharge equation is q = Km Hw = (3 x 10-4 x 10-2 x 24 x 60 x 60m/day) x 4 x 10.2 n = 1.08m3/day. Example 2.3 A well was sunk into a confined aquifer to augment water supply for a small rural set-up. The aquifer is 1.8m thick, 2.5m in x-section and extends 250m from the area of recharge to the well. The well is 10

developed such that water rises to an elevation of EL + 248m and the water table at the recharge area is at elevation EL 256m. If the aquifer is made up of material with a K of 1.7cm is calculate: i. The total discharge, Q expected into the well assuming water for the well is to be sourced from precipitation trapped in the recharge area. ii. If water supply requirement for the area is 50,000gal/day, is the aquifer yield sufficient? Solution Aquifer: = 1.8m X-section = 2.5m

Length between recharge area and well = 250m Head of water, h = E1 + 256 El + 248 = 8m Hydraulic gradient = h = 8/250 = 0.032m/m
66

L X sectional area of aquifer = 1.8 x 2.5 = 4.5m2 Discharge from aquifer into the well is computed from Darcys as Q = KiA = K x h x A L = (1.7 x 10-2 x 24 x 60 x 60m/day) x 0.032 x 45 = 212m3/day (1m3 = 264 172gal) 56,001 gal/day.

67

WEEK 14 14.0 Example 14.1 A hillside underlain by an aquifer drains into a stream at its lower end as shown. The aquifer is composed of permeable material 20m thick and with a permeability of 0.5m/day. Calculate the seepage into the stream per unit length of stream assuming the stream is located 1000m away from the idealized recharge area of the aquifer and the top water level is 50m lower than this point. From Darcys h2 50m, h = 1000m A = 20m x 1 (per unit length of stream)

Q = K x

h x A h

Q2 = 0.5 x
Example 2.5

50 x 20 x 1m3 / day 1000

A confined aquifer has a transmissivity of 40m2/day. The slope of the piezometric surface is 0.25m/km. How much water per day flows through the aquifer per kilometer width of the aquifer? Q = KiA I = 0.25/1000m2/m But transmissivity = 40m2/day
68

= K x depth of aquifer Q = 40m2/day x 0.00025 x wdith of aquifer = = 40m2/day x 0.00025m/m x 1000m 10m3/day

Example 2.6 The horizontal contour of ground water elevation for an unconfined aquifer is as shown with a coefficient of permeability K = 5.79 x 10-5cm/s. Assuming the aquifer is bordered by a steam at the upstream end and a hypothetical well is located as indicated on the figure into the well in ms/day. Take the piezometric elevation between the stream and well as 10m.

55

50

45

40

35

30 25

15

Equipotential line 10 5 Stream line Well

Stream

Solution K = 5.8 x 10-5cm/s Hw = 10m, m = 4, n = 12

69

20

Q = K Hw m n = (5.8 x 10-5 x 24 x 60 x 60 x 10-2m/day) x 10 x = 0.17m3/day/unit depth of aquifer Example 2.7 In an area of 1,011,725m2, the water table drops by 5m. If the porosity is 0.30 and the specific retention is 0.10, compute the specific yield and change in storage in m3. Solution Specific yield = porosity specific retention pg 30( = Sr + Sy) = 0.30 0.10 = 0.2 Change in storage = 0.2 x 5 x 1, 0011, 725 = 1,011,725m3 Example 2.8 A water table drop of 5m occurs during a certain year. Lab analysis shows that the specific yield of the alluvial material is 0.20. What is the amount of storage during the year if the area of the region is 4046.9m2? what is the area retention of the material if lab sample shows a porosity of 0.3 Solution Sy = 0.20 Area = 4046.9m2 Water table drop = 5m
70

4 12

Amount of storage = 0.2 x 5 x 4046.9m2 = 4046.9m3

= 0.3, = Sy + Sr

Sy = 0.2

Sr = ?

0.3 = 0.2 + Sr

Sr = 0.1

Example 2.9 A 500m wide aquifer (unconfined) has a permeability of K = 6m/day and is bordered on both sides by two canals at different levels. The aquifer is 15m deep to an impermeable base and the higher canal is 1.2m higher than this which the lower canal coincides exactly with the top of the aquifer. Find the inflow or discharge from each canal per meter length/width of aquifer assuming annual rainfall is 1.8m per annum and 80% infiltration rate. From reference origin x = 0, h = 15m And x = 500m, h = 16.2m N = 0.8m x 1.8/year = 1.44/365m/day

2N d 2 (h 2 ) = K dx 2 2 Nx + C1 d (h 2 ) = K dx h =
2

Nx 2 + C1x + C 2 K
71

At x = 20, h2 = 15m 152 = C2 C2 = 225m At x = 500m, h = 16.2m

1.44 x 5002 , 16.2 = + 500 C1 + 225 365 x 6

2

C1 = 0.404 We have that q = - Kh

dh dx

h = ( Nx 2 + 0.404 x + 225)
K

Nx 2 Let u = + 0.404 x + 225 K

h2 u/2

1 1 ( 2 Nx + 0.404) dh du = = 2u 1/2 dx 2u 1/2 K dx

at x = 0

q = Ku 1/2

1 2u 1/2

( 2 N10)

+ 0.404)

= - 1.212m3/day/m

at x = 500

q=

K ( 2 x 1.44 x 500 + 0.404) 2 365 x 6

72

0.76m3/day/m Thus there is a discharge into both canals of 1.2 12m3/day to the lower canal and 0.76m3/day into the higher canal.

73

WEEK 15 15.0 COMMON GROUNDWATER CONTAMINANTS Most groundwater contaminants are derived from agricultural, urban and industrial land uses. As recharge percolates through the soil to the water table it transport a variety of contaminants derived from land uses within the recharge area. Point sources of contamination such as landfills and industrial seepage pits, release large quantities of

contaminants which often forms an underground plains. Non point sources of pollution include;
Septic systems Fertilizers Pesticides and street drainage

The following are common groundwater contaminants: 1. Nitrates- Dissolved nitrogen in the form of NO3 is the most common contaminant in groundwater. High level contaminant can cause methaeoglobinaemia (baby syndrome) in infants, may form carcinogens, and eutrophication of surface waters. Sources of nitrates- includes sewage, fertilizers, air pollution, landfills and street drainage. 2. Pathogens-are bacteria and viruses which causes accelerate the

74

3.

waterborne diseases such as typhoid, cholera, dysentery, polio and hepatitis. Sources includes sewage, landfills, livestock and wild life.

3.

Trace metals-include cadmium, chromium, copper, mercury and lead. These metals can have toxic and effects. Sources include industrial discharge, pesticides and street drainage. carcinogenic

4.

Organic compounds-includes volatile and semi volatile organic compound (e.g. petroleum, derivatives, and

pesticides, Sources include agricultural activities, steel drainages, sewage, landfills, industrial discharges, spills, air pollution, leaking underground storage tanks, car exhausts. 15.1 Possible prevention of groundwater pollution

Water treatment by chloride to get rid of bacteria germ. Boiling the water filtration/settlement of water reduces turbidity of water

Proper grouting of wells will prevent surface drainage/septic tank pollution.

75

REFERENCES

1.

Essentials of Geology, Frederick K. and Edward J., (2000), Prentice Hall.

2. 3.

Hydrogeology, Wister G. O., (1959). John Wiley. Hydrogeology, Davis S. W., (1956). John Wiley.

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