Biology Dot point Summary 8.

3 Patterns In Nature
Outline the historical Development of the Cell Theory, in particular Robert Hooke and Robert Brown
Robert Hooke is credited as first person to observe cells in a piece of cork, though dead and only saw empty cell !irst to use the word "cell# Robert Brown is the first to discover structures inside the cell and observe the nucleus The Cell Theory $ Cells are the smallest units of life % &ll living things are made up of cells 'n $()( Rudolf *irchow added that+ &ll cells come from pre,e-isting cells

Matthias Schleiden Theodor Schwann

Describe evidence to support cell theory

The improvements in the microscopes The electron microscope could view more detail in the cells Discovery of cell division

Discuss the significance of technological advances to developments in cell theory

The construction and improvement of lens has enable a view of the cell.s internal structure and led to the development of the cell theory The $/00 creation of the electron microscope enables even more detailed observations of cells, because it has a higher resolution and magnification unlike the light microscope &llowed us to see fine details of cells and cell organelles and their functions

'dentify cell organelles seen with current light and electron microscopes

Organelles you can see through a+ Light microscope - *acuole - 1ucleus - Cytoplasm - Chloroplasts - Cell wall - Cell membrane Electron microscope - 2itochondria - 3olgi body - 4ndoplasmic reticulum 56 and R7 - Ribosomes - 8ysosomes - 1ucleolus - *esicles Light microscope :ses light to view 8ow resolution 8ow magnification Can view active organisms Cannot see internal structures Electron microscope :ses electron beams to view High resolution High magnification Organism must be dead Can see internal structures

Describe the relationship between the structure of cell organelles and their function

Nucleus: Control centra of the cell 2embrane bound organelle that contains the cell D1& 's surrounded by a double membrane that has pores that allows molecules to pass into cytoplasm Nucleoli: 6pherical regions inside the nucleus that manufacture ribosomal R1& and ribosomes Mitochondria: Oval shaped structures that carry out cell respiration and the process of energy production Has a double membrane that is folded on the inside and the mitochondria contain their own D1& and ribosomes The number of mitochondria within a cell is directly related to the energy re9uirements of it Chloroplasts: &re the site of photosynthesis and are part of the plastid family Only found in autotrophic cells, contain chlorophyll their own D1&

Golgi Apparatus: 6tacks of membrane sacs that receive, store, pack and deliver the end products of cell metabolism Lysosomes: 6acs of en;yme that break down macromolecules and unwanted cell material Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum: 'nvolved in the production of en;ymes Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum: Have ribosomes along it which synthesis proteins Vacuoles: 2embrane bound spaces that can be filled with water or food, and are used for storage, maintaining water balance and keeping cells turgid Cell wall: 2ade of cellulose, found only in plant cells and help then maintain their shape Cell membrane: Controls movement of particles in and out of the cell Cytoplasm: The <elly like li9uid that contains salts, ions, en;ymes, food molecules and organelles other than the nucleus
rganelle Mitochondria !iagram "unction 6ite of aerobic respiration #lant $ Animal cell =lant > &nimal

Nucleus

Controls cell activities

=lant > &nimal

Nucleolus

2anufacture of proteins

=lant > &nimal

Endoplasmic reticulum

Connects cell membrane with nuclear membrane, involved in the transport of material

=lant > &nimal

Ribosomes

=roduces protein

=lant > &nimal

Golgi body

=ackages proteins in its vesicles before

=lant > &nimal

secretion

Cell membranes

=rotects and supports organelles

=lant > &nimal

Chloroplast

6ite of photosynthesis

=lant

Lysosomes

Dissolves large food molecules to small molecules

&nimal

Cell wall

=rotects and supports the cell

=lant

Vacuole

6tores food, water and waste

=lant > &nimal

'dentify the ma<or groups of substances found in living cells and their uses in cell activities

4verything used by cells consists of % ma<or groups of substances 5chemicals7+ - 'norganic substances - Organic 6ubstances

'norganic Compounds 2ostly water containing dissolved ions, salt, O% and CO% 2inerals including calcium, nitrate, phosphate, chloride, etc Organic Compounds Carbohydrates: Compounds consisting of Carbon, Hydrogen, and o-ygen 'mportant source of energy in cells and are broken down into glucose when energy is re9uired ?hen humans eat too many carbohydrates, it is stored as fat 6ome carbohydrates are used in plant structure Can be monosaccharide5$ sugar molecule7, Disaccharide5% sugars7, polysaccharide5many sugars7 2onosaccharides are simple sugars 3lucose is most common and is the product of photosynthesis Commonly used as an energy source for plants and animals Disaccharides consist of % monosaccharides They include lactose and sucrose 5table sugar7 Lipids: 8ipids 5fats7 contain carbon, hydrogen, and o-ygen as well but never in the same ratio as carbs 8ipids contain very little o-ygen They are usually insoluble in water 8ipids includes, fats, oils, wa-es and steroids !ats contain twice as much energy as carbohydrates 2ore energy efficient storage molecules 8ipid !ats Oils ?a-es 6teroids =roperties :sually solids at 68C Highly saturated :sually li9uids at 68C unsaturated 5plants7 2ore common in plants than animals 2any important roles in plants and animals :ses :sed as stores of energy eg !at tissue :sed as stores of energy eg Coconut oil :sed as waterproof coating on plants@fruit !orm part of membrane eg Cholesterol

#roteins: 2ade up of carbon, hydrogen, o-ygen, nitrogen and sulfur atoms :sed in structure, storage, movement and transport of cells =roteins are the most abundant organic molecules in cells They assist in growth and repair 4n;ymes are important proteins that control reactions in the cell =roteins are large molecules made up of smaller molecules called amino acids, <oined by peptide bonds to form a polypeptide =roteins are made up of one or more poly peptide bonds Nucleic Acids Hereditary material found in cells and viruses Consist of sub,units called nucleotides consisting of a sugar, a phosphate and a nitrogenous base The % kinds of nucleic acids - R1& 5ribonucleic acid7 - D1& 5deo-yribonucleic acid7 =lan, choose e9uipment ore resources and perform a first hand investigation to gather information and use available evidence to identify the following substances in tissues+ - 3lucose - 6tarch - 8ipids - =roteins - Chloride ions - 8ignin

4-periment+ Chemicals in Cellular Tissue

&im+ To use diagnostic tests to determine wether the following chemicals are present in apple, potato and tuna cellular tissue+ glucose, starch, lipids as oils, protein, sodium chloride salt, and lignin Hypothesis+ &pple, potato and tuna do not contain any of the above chemicals 2ethod+ $ The cellular tissue will need to be mashed into pulp & small amount of distilled water will need to be added to this pulp O18A !OR glucose sodium and chloride tests % record colour changes in a table

0 Test glucose by adding a few drops of benedict.s solution to a sample of apple in a test tube then lightly heat over flame &nd so onB Compound 3lucose Reagent Benedicts solution Treatment Result &dd a few drops to a Turns orange sample in a test tube and warm gently over a Bunsen flame &dd a few drops to sample Turns Black@purple in a testube Rub a small sample onto =aper turns clear@ the centre of the paper transparent and hold up to the light Danger+ Caustic > =urple poisonous &dd %,0 m8 of sodium hydro-ide to a small sample, then add a few drops of copper sulphate solution 3ently heat if no reaction &dd a few drops silver 2ilky white nitrate to sample Danger+ Caustic and 3oes red poisonous Cover sample with =hluoroglucinol solution and leave for a few minutes, then add a few drops of HCl solution

6tarch 8ipids

'odine solution Brown paper

=rotein

Biuret Reagents

6odium chloride 8ignin

6ilver nitrate =hloroglucinol and concentrated Hydrochloric acid

Organelle 1ucleus Cell membrane Cell wall 2itochondria *acuole Chloroplasts

Chemicals present 1ucleic acids 8ipids and proteins =olysaccharides eg Cellulose and lignin

3lucose, monosaccharides

Describe the current model of membrane structure and e-plain how it accounts for the movement of some substances into and out of cells

The cell membrane is a thin sheet composed of two layers of phospholipids The sheet is very fluid and fle-ible Other lipids such as cholesterol are also found within the membrane The fatty acid tails are hydrophobic and so face the inside of the membrane The phospholipid head if hydrophilic and so faces the outside of the membrane =roteins are scattered between the phospholipid bilayer =roteins are capable of movement between the membrane The membrane has been shown through the fluid mosaic model !luid 2osaic 2odel

Compare the processes of diffusion and Osmosis

!i%%usion: Diffusion occurs when molecules of a particular substance move from region of high concentration to region of low concentration and involves random movement of particles ?hen a substance is transported in this manner it is said to be the diffusion gradient

smosis: is the Diffusion of water across a semi,permeable membrane from a high concentration to region of lower concentration until even 6o imagine water moving from a dilute concentration to a higher concentration Osmosis is a passive process 5occurs slowly7 Diagram e-plaining Osmosis

Osmosis is the movement of only a solvent through a semi,permeable membrane However, diffusion is the spreading of any molecule, whether li9uid or gas, and diffusion occurs whether or not a membrane e-ists

=erform a first hand investigation to investigate the difference between osmosis and diffusion

Observing Diffusion Aim: To model diffusion of water in sugar &ypothesis+ The colour from the skittles will disperse throughout the petrii dish and will miMethod: 6et up the perti dishes in the following way 'n the first petri dish place one skittle in the centre of the dish and carefully fill with water Once filled with water do not move the dish 'n the second dish set up four different coloured skittles in each 9uarter of the petri dish and carefully fill with water Do not obstruct Skittle Water

Perti dish

Results: Colour slowly spreads throughout petri dish The whole perti dish for test one Colours spread until they meet another in test % and then slow right down They do eventually mi- but do not spread to the e-tent that test one did

Conclusion: The rate of diffusion is based on concentration Diffusion slows right down between the two dyes because they have a very similar concentration

Observing Osmosis Aim: To model the function of a cell membrane Method: $ Tie one end of a dialysis tube with string % !ill the dialysis tube with starch solution 0 Rinse outside of tube with water to remove any starch solution C =lace dialysis tube in a large beaker of water ) &dd $Dm8 of iodine to the water and observe what happens E Draw e-periment set up before and after e-periment Before &fter

Conclusion: Dialysis tube is semi,permeable therefore the iodine can pass through via osmosis Osmosis and diffusion are both passive processes

4-plain how the surface area to volume ratio affects the movement in and out of cells

?hen and ob<ect is small 5e g a cell7 it has a large surface area in comparison to its volume 6o as an ob<ect gets smaller its surface area to volume ratio increases &s an ob<ect becomes larger its surface area to volume ratio becomes smaller and diffusion is no longer efficient !or this reason cells need to be very, very small with the effectiveness of diffusion being the controlling factor Cells obtain their nutrients and release wastes by diffusion through the cell membrane, or the whole surface area of the cell & large 6&+* is better for cells because then there is enough surface area to supply the volume of the cell with nutrients and remove wastes at a rate that is fast enough to keep the cell alive %cm Cube

6&F %-%-CF%Ccm%

*F %-%-%F%Ccm0

6& to *F %C to (F 0+$

=erform a first hand investigation to demonstrate the effect of surface area to volume ratio on rate of Diffusion

Rate of Diffusion Test Aim: to determine the rate of diffusion in potato cubes of different si;es &ypothesis: the larger cubes should have less iodine diffuse through them than the smaller cube Method: $ Cut 0 cubes of potato 5no skin7 - $cm% - %cm% - 0cm% % =lace all cubes in a %)Dm8 beaker 0 !ill with iodine solution until it <ust covers the largest cube C Cover with watch glass to prevent evaporation ) 8eave for %C hours E Cut cubes in half to view how far iodine has diffused through potato Results:

Conclusion: The larger the 6&+* ratio is the more efficient diffusion is Therefore cells need to be small in order to gain the nutrients they need

'dentify some e-amples that demonstrate the structural relationship between cells, tissues, organs and organ systems in multicellular organisms

rganism rgan System

rgans

'issues

Cells
'n plants Organ system+ 6hoot system Organ+ vascular system Tissue+ vascular tissue 5vascular bundles7 transports food, water, hormones and minerals within the plant *ascular tissue includes -ylem, phloem, parenchyma, and cambium cells =hloem cells conduct food from leaves to rest of the plant !ound in veins along with Gylem

Distinguish between autotrophs and heterotrophs in terms of nutrient re9uirements

Autotrophs( make their own organic material 5energy7 from inorganic substances, typically using the energy from sunlight through the process of photosynthesis These include all plants, algae, and some bacteria &eterotrophs( all animal, fungi and some bacteria that e-ploit a wide variety of foods to provide their energy and organic matter needs This means they eat plants and@or other animals 'dentify the materials re9uired for photosynthesis and its role in ecosystems

'n order to produce their own food, plants need a few raw materials H %O, CO%, light energy from the sun, and the pigment chlorophyll The chemical energy stored in this food fuels the reactions that sustain life 5metabolism7 Heterotrophs rely on producer either indirectly or directly for their energy The photosynthesis that occurs in the oceans is vital to the 4arth.s functioning providing o-ygen and absorbing carbon dio-ide 'dentify the 3eneral word e9uation for photosynthesis and outline this as a summary of a chain of biochemical reactions s!nlight %hlorophyll

C&RBO1 D'OG'D4 H ?&T4R ECO% H E H %O

38:CO64 H OGA341 H EO%

CEH$%OE

Radiant energy from sunlight is absorbed by the chlorophyll pigments in the chloroplasts of green plant cells and is converted to chemical energy 6ome of this is used to split water molecules to hydrogen and o-ygen

light Water Hydrogen + Oxygen Light independent reactions: Hydrogen released from light reactions com ines with car on dioxide to form s!gars" This process is a chain of iochemical reactions re#!ires energy" This energy is s!pplied y some of the energy a sor ed y light in light reactions or from energy stores $TP in the plant" light Hydrogen + %ar on &ioxide S!gars These reactions occ!r in the stroma"
)* Light reaction

Radiant energy is absorbed by the chlorophyll pigments and is converted into chemical energy 6ome of the energy is used to split water molecules into hydrogen and o-ygen This reaction occurs on the internal membranes of the chloroplast, the thylakoids +* !ar, reaction The hydrogen released from the first reaction combines with carbon dio-ide to form sugar, the energy used to form sugar is used from the absorption of light This reaction occurs in the stroma of chloroplasts

E-plain the relationship between the organisation o% the structures used to obtain water and minerals in a range o% plants and the need to increase the sur%ace area a.ailable %or absorption*

'n an a9uatic environment, water and minerals can be absorbed across the whole surface of the plant 'n most terrestrial plants, water and minerals, are obtained through the root systems, which also anchor the plants in the soil =lant roots need to increase the surface area over which absorption can occur They achieve this by having a branching structure, and root hairs <ust behind the root tips 'ap roots
Tap roots have a main root from which side roots emerge from

"ibrous roots
!ibrous roots form a network of roots close to the surface which help to bind soil and prevent erosion

Mycorrhi/a
Root systems that have association with fungi have additional mineral nutrients and the plant provides the fungus with carbon products

Aerial roots
Roots that are grown above the ground, help to support plant

4-plain the relationship between the shape of leaves, the distribution of tissues in them and their role The shape of the leaf and distribution of tissue depends on the environment in which the plant lives i e a dry terrestrial plant will have different distribution of tissues than an a9uatic plant 'errestrial plants have large numbers of chloroplasts in special photosynthesising cells called palisade cells, the arrangement of palisade cells vary in different plants to utilise the light available

Cuticle Epidermis Stomates #alisade Mesophyll Spongy Mesophyll Veins

Reduces water loss 8ayer protects cells =ores on leaves that permit e-change of gases Cells that photosynthesise 8arge spaces between them for gas e-change Transports material to and from the leaf

#alisades cells Lamina #etiole 0ylem #hloem

Cells that photosynthesise The blade of the leaf The thing that <oins the leaf to the stem Transports water and minerals ions upwards from the roots to the leaves Transports photosynthesis products from the leaves to the rest of the plant

Describe the role of teeth in increasing surface area of complefoods for e-posure to digestive chemicals Teeth grind and physically break up food in the mouth where the digestive process first begins 3rinding food into smaller pieces increases the rate of reaction and therefore saliva is absorbed faster, food can be swallowed easier and will break down faster throughout the digestive process =erform a first,hand investigation to gather information and use available evidence to demonstrate the need for chlorophyll and light for photosynthesis Aim: To demonstrate the effect of light and chlorophyll on starch production in leaves 5photosynthesis7 Method: =art &, Testing starch content $ Collect % soft green leaves form a plant in sunlight % =lace in a EDDm8 beaker half filled with boiling water Boil for % minutes to break down cell membrane the remove 0 =lace each leaf in a $DDm8 beaker of methylated spirits Remove and place back in large water beaker C Heat for ) minutes then remove, wash with cold water and place each leaf into a petri dish Describe ) Cover with iodine Describe =art B, the effect of chlorophyll on the production of starch

$ Collect variegated leaves e-posed to sunlight % Draw patterns on leaves =redict where starch may be present 0 Repeat =art & Describe, compare =art C, effect of light on production of starch $ Collect leaves off % plants, one that has been e-posed to full sunlight and one that had been kept in a dark cupboard for C( hours % Repeat procedure in part & Describe appearance of leaves from each plant Compare the digestive systems of mammals, including a gra;ing herbivore, carnivore and a predominantly nectar feeding animal

)* !og Digestive system relatively small > simpler compared to herbivores 8arge stomach to produce en;ymes for the breakdown of meats !ast and efficient digestion process *ery little caecum +* Cow !ermentation occurs in caecum, the caecum is very large Ruminant herbivores 't is as if they have Ifour stomach. 2ore efficient than the hindgut fermentation in other herbivores 5eg rabbit7 1* &uman Omnivores Digestive system proportionally larger than a carnivore.s and smaller than a herbivores Teeth structure different *ery small caecum 2*&oney #ossum *ery specialised diet 6mall unspecialised and simple digestive system *ery small caecum and stomach

Compare the roles of a respiratory, circulatory and e-cretory systems

6ystem Respiratory

Circulatory

4-cretory

Role 3aseous e-change, to obtain o-ygen and get rid of Carbon Dio-ide Transport, to distribute nutrients and other substances around the organism.s body, providing for the need of cells and removing wastes ?aste removal, to rid the organism of unwanted substances, particularly those such as urea that become poisonous if they accumulate

4-ample in humans 2ade up of lungs, trachea and muscles that draw air into lungs 2ade up of heart and blood vessels that make a continuous circuit throughout the bodyJ blood carries o-ygen and nutrients as well as wastesJ blood also carries hormones that regulate body processes and components to fight disease :rinary system removes unwanted urea, salts and water 5in urine7J skin removes mainly salts and water 5in sweat7J respiratory system removes carbon dio-ide and some water 5e-haled in air7

'dentify and compare the gaseous e-change surfaces in an insect, a fish, a frog and a mammal Mammals have lungs and breathe atmospheric air The respiratory surface is called the alveoli is where most gaseous e-change occurs The alveoli provide a large respiratory surface area and gases readily diffuse across the thin cell layer "ish have gills that e-change dissolved gases with water around them !ish take in water through the mouth and release it out the gills The gill contains many stacked layers, which provides a large surface area !rogs and tadpoles have soft moist skin They have a good blood supply right under their skin so gases are efficiently e-changed directly through the skin surface 3nsects have a tracheal system that enables individual cells 5rather than a whole system7 to e-change gases &ir is passed through a network of tubes deep into the insect.s tissues &ir enters through openings called spiracles that are spaced along the insect.s body Trachea divide into tiny branches called tracheoles They have a large 6&+*R and are moist to allow diffusion The trachea is lined with chitin, which is impermeable and keeps the airways open

4-plain the relationship between the re9uirements of cells and the need for transport systems in multicellular organisms

'n multicellular organisms, cells have a range of difficulties in e-changing substances with the e-ternal environment Transport systems help cells to overcome this The circulatory system collects materials and delivers them to places within the organism where they are needed &t the same time, the circulatory system collects wastes and transports them to places where they can be e-creted Outline the transport system in plants - Roots &air Cells &bsorb water and minerals from the soil - 0ylem Takes water and mineral from surrounding cells and conducts it upwards - #hloem Carries food, mainly sugar, made by the leaves onto the root cells - Stomata 4 Lenticels 6tomata are important for gas e-change and transpiration 4ach stoma is surrounded by two guard cells which contain chloroplasts The guard cells control the si;e of the stomatal opening, and thus control the amount of gas e-change and transpiration 'dentify mitosis as a process of nuclear division and e-plain it.s role 2itosis is the process in which identical nuclei for new cells form The cell.s chromosomes in the nucleus replicate and two daughter cells are created 2itosis is essential in both unicellular and multicellular organisms for growth and repair The different phases of mitosis is e-plained on the ne-t page 4-plain the need for cytokinesis in cell division Cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm cell that usually accompanies a nuclear division &lthough mitosis divides a nucleus into two new nuclei, cytokinesis ensures that each new nucleus is embedded in cytoplasm containing essential organelles and surrounded by a cell membrane 6, 6horten chromosomes T, Thicken R, Replicate 4, 49uator 5line up7 6, separate 5chromosomes pull apart, nucleus divides7 6, 6plit