Anatomy & Physiology of the Respiratory System

The respiratory system is situated in the thorax, and is responsible for gaseous exchange between the circulatory system and the outside world. Air is taken in via the upper airways (the nasal cavity, pharynx and larynx) through the lower airways (trachea, primary bronchi and bronchial tree) and into the small bronchioles and alveoli within the lung tissue. The respiratory system is represented by the following structures The nose consists of the visible external nose and the internal nasal cavity. The nasal septum divides the nasal cavity into right and left sides. Air enters two openings, the external nares (nostrils; singular, naris), and passes into the vestibule and through passages called meatuses. The bony walls of the meatuses, called concha, are formed by facial bones (the inferior nasal concha and the ethmoid bone). rom the meatuses, air then funnels into two (left and right) internal nares. !air, mucus, blood capillaries, and cilia that line the nasal cavity filter, moisten, warm, and eliminate debris from the passing air.

The pharynx (throat) consists of the following three regions, listed in order through which incoming air passes"

The nasopharynx receives the incoming air from the two internal nares. The two auditory tubes that e#uali$e air pressure in the middle ear also enter here. The pharyngeal tonsil (adenoid) lies at the back of the nasopharynx. The oropharyrnx receives air from the nasopharynx and food from the oral cavity. The palatine and lingual tonsils are located here. The laryngopharynx passes food to the esophagus and air to the larynx.

The larynx receives air from the laryngopharynx. %t consists of several pieces of cartilage that are &oined by membranes and ligaments, "

The epiglottis, the first piece of cartilage of the larynx, is a flexible flap that covers the glottis, the upper region of the larynx, during swallowing to prevent the entrance of food. The thyroid cartilage protects the front of the larynx. A forward pro&ection of this cartilage appears as the Adam's apple (anatomically known as the laryngeal prominence). The paired arytenoid cartilages in the rear are hori$ontally attached to the thyroid cartilage in the front by folds of mucous membranes. The upper vestibular folds (false vocal cords) contain muscle fibers that bring the folds together and allow the breath to be held during periods of muscular pressure on the thoracic cavity (straining while defecating or lifting a heavy ob&ect, for example). The lower vocal folds (true vocal cords) contain elastic ligaments that vibrate when skeletal

muscles move them into the path of outgoing air. (arious sounds, including speech, are produced in this manner.

The cricoid cartilage, the paired cuneiform cartilages, and the paired corniculate cartilages are the remaining cartilages supporting the larynx.

The trachea (windpipe) is a flexible tube, )* to )+ cm (, inches) long and +.- cm () inch) in diameter The mucosa is the inner layer of the trachea. %t contains mucus.producing goblet cells and pseudostratified ciliated epithelium. The movement of the cilia sweeps debris away from the lungs toward the pharynx. The submucosa is a layer of areolar connective tissue that surrounds the mucosa. !yaline cartilage forms )/ to +* 0.shaped rings that wrap around the submucosa. The rigid rings prevent the trachea from collapsing during inspiration. The adventitia is the outermost layer of the trachea. %t consists of areolar connective tissue. The primary bronchi are two tubes that branch from the trachea to the left and right lungs.

%nside the lungs, each primary bronchus divides repeatedly into branches of smaller diameters, forming secondary (lobar) bronchi, tertiary (segmental) bronchi, and numerous orders of bronchioles () mm or less in diameter), including terminal bronchioles (*.- mm in diameter) and microscopic respiratory bronchioles. The wall of the primary bronchi is constructed like the trachea, but as the branches of the tree get smaller, the cartilaginous rings and the mucosa are replaced by smooth muscle. Alveolar ducts are the final branches of the bronchial tree. 1ach alveolar duct has enlarged, bubblelike swellings along its length. 1ach swelling is called an alveolus. 2ome ad&acent alveoli are connected by alveolar pores. The bronchioles or bronchioli are the first passageways by which the air passes through the nose or mouth to the air sacs of the lungs in which branches no longer contain cartilage or glands in their submucosa. They are branches of the bronchi. The bronchioles terminate by entering the circular sacs called alveoli.

The respiratory membrane consists of the alveolar and capillary walls. 3as exchange occurs across this membrane. 0haracteristics of this membrane follow"

Type % cells are thin, s#uamous epithelial cells that constitute the primary cell type of the alveolar wall. 4xygen diffusion occurs across these cells. Type %% cells are cuboidal epithelial cells that are interspersed among the type % cells. Type %% cells secrete pulmonary surfactant (a phospholipid bound to a protein) that reduces the surface tension of the moisture that covers the alveolar walls. A reduction in surface tension permits oxygen to diffuse more easily into the moisture. A lower surface tension also prevents the moisture on opposite walls of an alveolus or alveolar duct from cohering and causing the minute airway to collapse. Alveolar macrophage cells (dust cells) wander among the other cells of the alveolar wall, removing debris and microorganisms. A thin epithelial basement membrane forms the outer layer of the alveolar wall. A dense network of capillaries surrounds each alveolus. The capillary walls consist of endothelial cells surrounded by a thin basement membrane. The basement membranes of the alveolus and the capillary are often so close that they fuse.

Mechanics of Breathing
To take a breath in, the external intercostal muscles contract, moving the ribcage up and out. The diaphragm moves down at the same time, creating negative pressure within the thorax. The lungs are held to the thoracic wall by the pleural membranes, and so expand outwards as well. This creates negative pressure within the lungs, and so air rushes in through the upper and lower airways. 1xpiration is mainly due to the natural elasticity of the lungs, which tend to collapse if they are not held against the thoracic wall. This is the mechanism behind lung collapse if there is air in the pleural space ( pneumothorax).

Physiology of Gas Exchange

1ach branch of the bronchial tree eventually sub.divides to form very narrow terminal bronchioles, which terminate in the alveoli. There are many millions of alveloi in each lung, and these

are the areas responsible for gaseous exchange, presenting a massive surface area for exchange to occur over. 1ach alveolus is very closely associated with a network of capillaries containing deoxygenated blood from the pulmonary artery. The capillary and alveolar walls are very thin, allowing rapid exchange of gases by passive diffusion along concentration gradients. 04+ moves into the alveolus as the concentration is much lower in the alveolus than in the blood, and 4+ moves out of the alveolus as the continuous flow of blood through the capillaries prevents saturation of the blood with 4 + and allows maximal transfer across the membrane.