Bt0063 Math

BT 0063
Mathematics for IT (with Solved Problems)

Contents
Unit 1
Set Theory 1
Unit 2
Mathematical Logic 28
Unit 3
Modern Algebra 53
Unit 4
Trigonometry 70
Unit 5
Limits and Continuity 110
Unit 6
Differentiation 145
Unit 7
Integrations 192
Unit 8
Differential Equations 231
Unit 9
Complex Numbers 250
Edition: Spring 2009
BKID B0947 3
rd
Jan. 2009

Unit 10
Matrices and Determinants 269
Unit 11
Infinite Series 306
Unit 12
Probability 326
Unit 13
Basics Statistics 366
Reference 415

Prof. V. B. Nanda Gopal
Director & Dean
Directorate of Distance Education
Sikkim Manipal University of Health, Medical & Technological Sciences (SMU DDE)
Board of Studies
Dr. U. B. Pavanaja (Chairman) Mr. Nirmal Kumar Nigam
General Manager Academics HOP- IT
Manipal Universal Learning Pvt. Ltd. Sikkim Manipal University DDE
Bangalore. Manipal.
Prof. Bhushan Patwardhan Dr. A. Kumaran
Chief Academics Research Manager (Multilingual)
Manipal Education, Bangalore Microsoft Research Labs India, Bangalore.
Dr.Harishchandra Hebbar Mr. Ravindranath.P.S.
Director Director (Quality)
Manipal Centre for Info. Sciences, Manipal Yahoo India, Bangalore
Dr. N. V. Subba Reddy Dr. Ashok Kallarakkal
HOD-CSE Vice President
Manipal Institute of Technology, Manipal IBM India, Bangalore.
Dr. Ashok Hegde Mr. H. Hiriyannaiah
Vice President Group Manager
MindTree Consulting Ltd., Bangalore. EDS Mphasis, Bangalore.
Dr. Ramprasad Varadachar Mr. Ashok Kumar K
Director, Computer Studies Additional Registrar
Dayanand Sagar College of Engg. Bangalore Sikkim Manipal University DDE, Manipal.
Mr. M. K. N. Prasad
Controller of Examinations
Sikkim Manipal University DDE, Manipal.
Content Preparation Team
Content Writing Content Editing
Mr. Deepak Shetty Dr. Kuncham Syam Prasad
Assistant Professor (Mathematics) Associate Professor-Dept. of Mathematics
Sikkim Manipal University DDE, Manipal Institute of Technology, Manipal.
Mathematical Content Editing
Mr. Deepak Shetty
Assistant Professor (Mathematics)
Sikkim Manipal University DDE, Manipal.
Edition: Spring 2009
This book is a distance education module comprising a collection of learning material for
our students. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form by
any means without permission in writing from Sikkim Manipal University of Health,
Medical and Technological Sciences, Gangtok, Sikkim. Printed and published on behalf
of Sikkim Manipal University of Health, Medical and Technological Sciences, Gangtok,
Sikkim by Mr.Rajkumar Mascreen, GM, Manipal Universal Learning Pvt. Ltd., Manipal
576 104. Printed at Manipal Press Limited, Manipal.

BLOCK INTRODUCTION

In this book Mathematics for IT we study the different concepts of
mathematics with well illustrated examples.
Unit 1: This deals with the concept of sets. The different ideas in set
theory is discussed in this unit in a simple manner.
Unit 2: In this unit we learn about statement, truth values of a
statement, compound statements, algebra of statement and use
Venn diagrams in logic.
Unit 3: This unit deals with the theory of groups which is a branch of
algebra and is very important in the development of
mathematics.
Unit 4: This unit deals with the concept of Trigonometry, where we
study Radian measure, Area of sector of a circle, Trigonometric
functions, standard angles, allied angles, compound angles and
other related concepts.
Unit 5: In this unit we are recalling the concepts of numbers and
studying the Limits of a Function of a discrete variable. We will
also be studying the concept of continuity which is essential for
describing a process that goes on without any change.
Unit 6: In this unit we study the rate of change of a continuous function.
The rate of growth of any object with respect to time can be
studied using derivatives.
Unit 7: In this unit we study integration as the inverse operation of
differentiation. It generalizes the process of summation. Also the
area under the graph of a function is discussed here.

Unit 8: In this unit we study a branch of mathematics called as
Differential Equations. Here the technique of converting a given
problem into Differential Equations which is then solved and the
solution to the problem is found out is discussed.
Unit 9: In this unit the concept of complex numbers is discussed with
many illustrative examples. The idea of modulus of a complex
numbers, exponential form of a complex numbers and De
Moiveres Theorem is explained in a simple manner.
Unit 10: In this we study a powerful tool in mathematics called as
Matrices and Determinants. The concept is mainly developed for
solving equations.
Unit 11: This unit deals with the concept of Infinite Series. Here we study
Convergence and Divergence of Series. The concept of Binomial
Series, Exponential Series, Logarithmic Series is discussed here
in a simple manner
Unit 12: This unit deals with the concept of probability. The idea of
Conditional Probability and Independence of Events is discussed
here. Bayes theorem and its applications is also explained here.
Unit 13: In this unit of Basic Statistics we study Measure of Central
Tendency, Standard Deviation, Discrete Series and Continuous
Series. Also the idea of standard deviation and Variance is dealt
with examples wherever necessary.

Mathematics for IT Unit 1
Sikkim Manipal University Page No.: 1
Unit 1 Set Theory
Structure
1.1 Introduction
Objectives
1.2 Sets and Their Representations
1.3 The Empty Set
1.4 Finite and Infinite Sets
1.5 Equal and Equivalent Sets
1.6 Subsets
1.7 Power Set
1.8 Universal Set
1.9 Venn Diagrams
1.10 Complement of a Set
1.11 Operations on Sets
1.12 Applications of Sets
1.13 Cartesian Product of Sets
1.14 Summary
1.15 Terminal Questions
1.16 Answers

1.1 Introduction
The concept of set is basic in all branches of mathematics. It has proved to
be of particular importance in the foundations of relations and functions,
sequences, geometry, probability theory etc. The study of sets has many
applications in logic philosophy, etc.
The theory of sets was developed by German mathematician Georg Cantor
(1845 1918 A.D.). He first encountered sets while working on problems on
trigonometric series. In this unit, we discuss some basic definitions and
operations involving sets.

Objectives:
At the end of the unit you would be able to
understand the concepts of sets
perform the different operations on sets
write the Power set of a given set

1.2 Sets and their Representations
In every day life, we often speak of collection of objects of a particular kind
such as pack of cards, a herd of cattle, a crowd of people, cricket team, etc.
In mathematics also, we come across various collections, for example,
collection of natural numbers, points in plane, prime numbers. More
specially, we examine the collections:
i) Odd natural numbers less than 10, i.e., 1, 3, 5, 7, 9
ii) The rivers of India
iii) The vowels in the English alphabet, namely a, e, I, o, u
iv) Prime factors of 210, namely 2, 3, 5 and 7
v) The solutions of a equation x2 5x + 6 = 0 viz, 2 and 3
We note that each of the above collections is a well defined collection of
objects in the sense that we can definitely decide whether a given object
belongs to a given collection or not. For example, we can say that the river
Nile does not belong to collection of rivers of India. On the other hand, the
river Ganga does belong to this collection. However, the following
collections are not well defined:
i) The collection of bright students in Class XI of a school
ii) The collection of renowned mathematicians of the world
iii) The collection of beautiful girls of the world
iv) The collection of fat people
For example, in (ii) above, the criterion for determining a mathematician as
most renowned may vary from person to person. Thus, it is not a well
defined collection.
We shall say that a set is a well defined collection of objects. The following
points may be noted:
i) Objects, elements and members of a set are synonymous terms. These
are undefined
ii) Sets are usually denoted by capital letters A, B, C, X, Y, Z etc.
iii) The elements of a set are represented by small letters a, b, c, x, y, z etc.
If a is an element of a set A, we say that a belongs to A. The Greek symbol
is used to denote the phrase belongs to. Thus, we write A. If b is not
an element of a set A, we write b A and read b does not belong to A.
Thus, in the set V of vowels in the English alphabet, a V but l V. In the
set P of prime factors of 30, 3 P but 15 P.
There are two methods of representing a set:
i) Roster or tabular form
ii) Set builder form.
i) In roster form, all the elements of a set are listed, the elements being
separated by commas and are enclosed within braces { }. For example,
the set of all even positive integers less than 7 is described in roster
form as {2, 4, 6}. Some more examples of representing a set in roster
form are given below:
a) The set of all natural numbers which divide 42 is {1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 14, 21, 42}.
Note that in roster form, the order in which the elements are listed is
immaterial. Thus, the above set can also be represented as
{l, 3, 7, 21, 2, 6, 14, 42}.
b) The set of all vowels in the English alphabets is {a, e, i, o, u}.
c) The set of odd natural numbers is represented by {1, 3, 5,. . .}. The
three dots tell us that the list is endless.
It may be noted that while writing the set in roster form an element is
not generally repeated, i.e., all the elements are taken as distinct.
For example, the set of letters forming the word SCHOOL is
{S, C, H, O, L}.
ii) In set builder form, all the elements of a set possess a single common
property which is not possessed by any element outside the set. For
example, in the set {a, e, i, o, u} all the elements possess a common
property, each of them is a vowel in the English alphabet and no other
letter possesses this property. Denoting this set by V, we write
V = {x : x is a vowel in the English alphabet}.
It may be observed that we describe the set by using a symbol x for
elements of the set (any other symbol like the letters y, z etc. could also be
used in place of x). After the sign of colon write the characteristic property
possessed by the elements of the set and then enclose the description
within braces. The above description of the set V is read as The set of all
x such that x is a vowel of the English alphabet. In this description the
braces stand for the set of all, the colon stands for such that.
For example, the following description of a set
A = {x : x is a natural number and 3 < x < 10)
is read as the set of all x such that x is a natural number and 3 < x < 10.
Hence, the numbers 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 are the elements of set A.
If we denote the sets described above in (a), (b) and (c) in roster form by A,
B and C, respectively, then A, B and C can also be represented in set
builder form as follows
A = {x : x is a natural number which divides 42}
B = {y : y is a vowel in the English alphabet}
C = {z : z is an odd natural number}.
Example: Write the set of all vowels in the English alphabet which precede q.
Solution: The vowels which precede q are a, e, i, o. Thus A = {a, e, i, o} is
the set of all vowels in the English alphabet which precede q.
Example: Write the set of all positive integers whose cube is odd.
Solution: The cube of an even integer is also an even integer. So, the
members of the required set can not be even. Also, cube of an odd integer
is odd. So, the members of the required set are all positive odd integers.
Hence, in the set builder form we write this set as {x : x is an odd positive
integer} or equivalently as
{2k + 1 : k 0, k is an integer}
Example: Write the set of all real numbers which can not be written as the
quotient of two integers in the set builder form.
Solution: We observe that the required numbers can not be rational
numbers because a rational number is a number in the form
q
p
, where p, q
are integers and q 0. Thus, these must be real and irrational. Hence, in set
builder form we write this set as
{x : x is real and irrational}
Example: Write the set
7
6
,
6
5
,
4
3
,
3
2
,
2
1
in the set builder form.
Solution: Each member in the given set has the denominator one more
than the numerator. Also, the numerators begin from 1 and do not exceed 6.
Hence, in the set builder form the given set is
6 n 1 and number natural a is n ,
1 n
n
x : x

Example: Match each of the sets on the left described in the roster form
with the same set on the right described in the set builder form:
i) { L, I, T, E) a) {x : x is a positive integer and is a divisor of 18}
ii) {0) b) {x : x is an integer and x
2
9 = 0}
iii) {1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18} c) {x : x is an integer and x + 1 = 1}
iv) {3, 3} d) {x : x is a letter of the word LITTLE}
Solution: Since in (d), there are six letters in the word LITTLE and two
letters T and L are repeated, so (i) matches (d). Similarly (ii) matches (c) as
x + 1 = 1 implies x = 0. Also, 1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18 are all divisors of 18. So,
(iii) matches (a). Finally, x
2
9 = 0 implies. x = 3, 3. So, (iv) matches (b).
Example: Write the set {x : x is a positive integer and x
2
< 40} in the roster
form.
Solution: The required numbers are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. So, the given set in the
roster form is {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.

1.3 The Empty Set
Consider the set
A = {x : x is a student of Class XI presently studying in a school}
We can go to the school and count the number of students presently
studying in Class XI in the school. Thus, the set A contains a finite number
of elements.
Consider the set {x : x is an integer, x
2
+ 1 = 0}. We know that there is no
integer whose square is 1. So, the above set has no elements.
We now define set B as follows:
B = {x : x is a student presently studying in both Classes X and XI}.
We observe that a student cannot study simultaneously in both Classes X
and XI. Hence, the set B contains no element at all.
Definition: A set which does not contain any element is called the empty
set or the null set or the void set.
According to this definition B is an empty set while A is not. The empty set is
denoted by the symbol . We give below a few examples of empty sets.
i) Let P = {x: 1 < x < 2, x is a natural number }.
Then P is an empty set, because there is no natural number between
1 and 2.
ii) Let Q = {x : x
2
- 2 = 0 and x is rational}.
Then, Q is the empty set, because the equation x
2
- 2 = 0 is not satisfied
by any rational number x.
iii) Let R = {x : x is an even prime number greater than 2}
Then R is the empty set, because 2 is the only even prime number.
iv) Let S = {x : x
2
= 4, and x is an odd integer}. Then, S is the empty set,
because equation x
2
= 4 is not satisfied by any value of x which is an
odd integer.

1.4 Finite and Infinite Sets
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5), B = {a, b, c, d, e, f} and C = {men in the world}.
We observe that A contains 5 elements and B contains 6 elements. How
many elements does C contain ? As it is, we do not know the exact number
of elements in C, but it is some natural number which may be quite a big
number. By number of elements of a set A, we mean the number of distinct
elements of the set and we denote it by n(A). If n(A) is a natural number,
then A is a finite set, otherwise the set A is said to be an infinite set. For
example, consider the set, N, of natural numbers. We see that n(N), i.e., the
number of elements of N is not finite since there is no natural number which
equals n(N). We, thus, say that the set of natural number is an infinite set.
Definition: A set which is empty or consists of a definite number of
elements is called finite. Otherwise, the set is called infinite.
We shall denote several set of numbers by the following symbols:
N : the set of natural numbers
Z : the set of integers
Q : the set of rational numbers
R : the set of real numbers
Z
+
: the set of positive Integers
Q
+
: the set of positive rational numbers
R
+
: the set of positive real numbers
We consider some examples:
i) Let M be the set of days of the week. Then M is finite.
ii) Q, the set of all rational numbers is infinite.
iii) Let S be the set of solution (s) of the equation x
2
- 16 = 0. Then S is finite.
iv) Let G be the set of all points on a line. Then G is infinite.
When we represent a set in the roster form, we write all the elements of the
set within braces { }. It is not always possible to write all the elements of an
infinite set within braces { } because the number of elements of such a set is
not finite. However, we represent some of the infinite sets in the roster form
by writing a few elements which clearly indicate the structure of the set
followed (or preceded) by three dots.
For instance, {1, 2, 3, 4, ... } is the set of natural numbers, {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, .. . }
is the set of odd natural numbers and {..., 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ... } is the
set of integers. But the set of real numbers cannot be described in this form,
because the elements of this set do not follow any particular pattern.

1.5 Equal and Equivalent Sets
Given two sets A and B. If every element of A is also an element of B and if
every element of B is also an element of A, the sets A and B are said to be
equal. Clearly, the two sets have exactly the same elements.
Definition: Two sets A and B are said to be equal if they have exactly the
same elements and we write A = B. Otherwise, the sets are said to be
unequal and we write A B
We consider the following examples:
i) Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, } and B = {3, 1, 4, 2).
ii) Then A = B.
iii) Let A be the set of prime numbers less than 6 and P the set of prime
factors of 30. Obviously, the set A and P are equal, since 2, 3 and 5
are the only prime factors of 30 and are less than 6.
Let us consider two sets L = {1, 2, 3, 4} and M = {1, 2, 3, 8}. Each of them
has four elements but they are not equal.
Definition: Two finite sets A and B are said to be equivalent if they have the
same number of elements. We write A B.
For example, let A = {a, b, c, d, e} and B = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}. Then A and B are
equivalent sets.
Obviously, all equal sets are equivalent, but all equivalent sets are not
equal.
Example: Find the pairs of equal sets, if any, giving reasons:
A = {0}, B = {x : x > 15 and x < 5}, C = {x : x - 5 = 0}, D = {x:x
2
= 25}
E = {x : x is a positive integral root of the equation x
2
2x 15 = 0}
Solution: Since 0 A and 0 does not belong to any of the sets B, C, D and
E. Therefore, A B, A C, A D, A E. B = but none of the other sets
are empty. Hence B C, B D and B E. C = {5} but 5 D, hence C D.
Since E = {5}), C = E. D = {5, 5} and E = {5}. Therefore D E. Thus, the
only pair of equal sets is C and E.

1.6 Subsets
Consider the sets S and T, where S denotes the set of all students in your
school and T denotes the set of all students in your class. We note that
every element of T is also an element of S. We say that T is a subset of S.
Definition: If every element of a set A is also an element of a set B, then A
is called a subset of B or A is contained in B. We write it as A B.
If at least one element of A does not belong to B, then A is not a subset of
B. We write it as A B.
We may note that for A to be a subset of B, all that is needed is that every
element of A is in B. It is possible that every element of B may or may not be
in A. If it so happens that every element of B is also in A, then we shall also
have B A. In this case, A and B are the same sets so that we have A B
and B A which implies A = B.
It follows from the definition that every set A is a subset of itself, i.e., A A.
Since the empty set has no elements, we agree to say that is a subset of
every set. We now consider some examples
i) The set Q of rational numbers is a subset of the set R of real numbers
and we write Q R.
ii) If A is the set of all divisors of 56 and B the set of all prime divisors of
56, then B is a subset of A, and we write B A.
iii) Let A = {1, 3, 5} and B = {x : x is an odd natural number less than 6},
then A B and B A and hence A = B.
iv) Let A = {a, e, i, o, u}, B = {a, b, c, d}. Then A is not a subset of B. Also
B is not a subset of A. We write A B and B A.
v) Let us write down all the subsets of the set {1, 2}. We know is a
subset of every set. So is a subset of {1, 2}. We see that {1}, {2} and
{l, 2} are also subsets of {1,2}. Thus the set {1,2} has, in all, four
subsets, viz. , {1}, {2} and {1,2}.
Definition: Let A and B be two sets. If A B and A B, then A is called a
proper subset of B and B is called a superset of A. For example, A= {1, 2, 3}
is a proper subset of B = {1, 2, 3, 4}.
Definition: If a set A has only one element, we call it a singleton. Thus {a }
is a singleton.

1.7 Power Set
In example (v) of Section 1.6, we found all the subsets of the set {1, 2}, viz.,
, {1}, {2} and {1, 2}. The set of all these four subsets is called the power set
of {1, 2}.
Definition: The collection of all subsets of a set A is called the power set of
A. It is denoted by P(A). In P(A), every element is a set.
Example (v) of section 1.6, if A = {1, 2}, then P(A)={ , {1}, {2}, {1,2}. Also,
note that, n[P(A)] = 4 = 2
2
.
In general, if A is a set with n(A) = m, then it can be shown that
n[P(A)] = 2
m
> m = n(A).

1.8 Universal Set
If in any particular context of sets, we find a set U which contains all the sets
under consideration as subsets of U, then set U is called the universal set.
We note that the universal set is not unique.

For example, for the set Z of all integers, the universal set can be the set Q
of rational numbers or, for that matter, the set R of real numbers.
For another example, in the context of human population studies, the
universal set consists of all the people in the world.
Example: Consider the following sets : , A = {1, 3), B = {1, 5, 9},
C = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}, Insert the correct symbol or between each pair of sets
(i) B, (ii) A B (iii) A C (iv) B C.
Solution:
i) B as is a subset of every set.
ii) A B as 3 A and 3 B..
iii) A C as 1, 3 A also belongs to C.
iv) B C as each element of B also belongs to C.
Example: Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {1, 2, 3} and C = {2, 4}. Find all sets X
such that
(i) X B and X C (ii) X A and X B.
Solution:
i) X B means that X is a subset of B, and the subsets of B are , {1}, {2},
{3}, {1,2}, {1,3}, {2,3} and {1,2,3} . X C means that X is a subset of C,
and the subsets of C are , {2}, {4} and {2, 4}. Thus, we note that X B
and X C means that X is a subset of both B and C. Hence, X = , {2}.
ii) X A, X B means that X is a sub set of A but X is not a subset of B.
So, X is one of these {4}, {1,2,4}, {2,3,4}, {l,3,4}, {1,4}, {2,4}, {3,4},
{1,2,3,4}.
Note: A set can easily have some elements which are themselves sets. For
example, {1, {2,3}, 4} is a set having {2,3} as one element which is a set and
also elements 1,4 which are not sets.
Example: Let A, B and C be three sets. If A B and B C, is it true that
A C? If not, give an example.
Solution: No. Let A = {1}, B = C = { { 1 }, 2}. Here A B as A = {1} and
B = C implies B C. But A C as 1 A and 1 C.
Note that an element of a set can never be a subset of it.

1.9 Venn Diagrams
Most of the relationships between sets can be represented by means of
diagrams. Figures representing sets in the form of enclosed region in the
plane are called Venn diagrams named after British logician John Venn
(18341883 A.D.). The universal set U is represented by the interior of a
rectangle.Other sets are represented by the interior of circles.

Fig. 1.1
Fig. 1.1 is a Venn diagram representing sets A and B such that A B.

Fig. 1.2
In Fig.1.2, U = {1, 2, 3, ..., 10} is the universal set of which A = {2,4,6,8,10}
and B = {4,6} are subsets. It is seen that B A. The reader will see an
extensive use of the Venn diagrams when we discuss the operations on
sets.

1.10 Complement of a Set
Let the universal set U be the set of all prime numbers. Let A be the subset
of U which consists of all those prime numbers that are not divisors of 42.
Thus A = {g x : x U and x is not a divisor of 42}. We see that 2 U but
2 A, because 2 is a divisor of 42. Similarly 3 U but 3 A, and 7 U but
7 A. Now 2, 3 and 7 are the only elements of U which do not belong to A.
The set of these three prime numbers, i.e., the set {2, 3, 7} is called the
complement of A with respect to U, and is denoted by A . So we have
A = {2, 3, 7}. Thus, we see that A ={x : x U and x A). This leads to the
following definition.
Definition: Let U be the universal set and A is a subset of U. Then the
complement of A with respect to (w.r,t.) U is the set of all elements of U
which are not the elements of A. Symbolically we write A to denote the
complement of A with respect to U. Thus A = {x:x U and x A}. It can be
represented by Venn diagram as

Fig. 1.3
The shaded portion in Fig. 1.3 represents A .
Example: Let U = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10} and A= {1,3,5,7,9}. Find A .
Solution: We note that 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 are the only elements of U which do
not belong to A. Hence A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}.
Example: Let U be the universal set of all the students of Class XI of a
co-educational school. Let A be the set of all girls in the Class Xl. Find A .
Solution: As A is the set of all girls, hence A is the set of all boys in the
class.

1.11 Operations on Sets
In earlier classes, you learnt how to perform the operations of addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division on numbers. You also studied certain
properties of these operations, namely, commutativity, associativity,
distributivity etc. We shall now define operations on sets and examine their
properties. Henceforth, we shall refer all our sets as subsets of some
universal set.
a) Union of Sets: Let A and B be any two sets. The union of A and B is
the set which consists of all the elements of A as well as the elements of B,
the common elements being taken only once. The symbol is used to
denote the union. Thus, we can define the union of two sets as follows.
Definition: The union of two sets A and B is the set C which consists of all
those elements which are either in A or in B (including those which are in
both).
Symbolically, we write A B = {x:x A or x B} and usually read as
A union B.

The union of two sets can be represented by a Venn diagram as shown in
Fig. 1.4.

Fig. 1.4

The shaded portion in Fig. 1.4 represents A B.
Example: Let A = {2, 4, 6, 8} and B = {6, 8, 10, 12}. Find A B.
Solution: We have A B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12}.
Note that the common elements 6 and 8 have been taken only once while
writing A B.
Example: Let A = {a, e, i, o, u} and B = {a, i, u}. Show that A B = A.
Solution: We have A B = {a, e, i, o, u} = A.
This example illustrates that the union of a set A and its subset B is the set
A itself, i.e., if B A , then A B = A.
Example: Let X = {Ram, Shyam, Akbar} be the set of students of Class XI
who are in the school Hockey team. Let Y = {Shyam, David, Ashok} be the
set of students from Class XI who are in the school Football team. Find
X Y and interpret the set.
Solution: We have X Y = {Ram, Shyam, Akbar, David, Ashok}. This is the
set of students from Class XI who are either in the Hockey team or in the
Football team.
Example: Find the union of each of the following pairs of sets:
i) A = {1, 2, 3, 4}; B = {2, 3, 5}
ii) A = {x : x Z
+
and x
2
> 7}; B = {1, 2, 3}
iii) A = {x : x Z
+
}; B = {x : x Z and x < 0}
iv) A = {x : x N and 1 < x 4}; B = {x:x N and 4 < x < 9}
Solution:
i) A B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
ii) A = {3, 4, 5,... }, B = {1, 2, 3}. So, A B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5,... } = Z
+

iii) A={1, 2, 3,. . .}, B ={x:x is a negative integer}. So A B={x:x Z, x 0}.
iv) A = {2, 3, 4}, B = {5, 6, 7, 8}. So, A B = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}.
b) Intersection of Sets: The intersection of sets A and B is the set of all
elements which are common to both A and B. The symbol is used to
denote the intersection.
Thus, we have the following definition.
Definition: The intersection of two sets A and B is the set of all those
elements which belong to both A and B. Symbolically, we write A B =
{x:x A and x B} and read as A intersection B.
The intersection of two sets can be represented by a Venn diagram as
shown in Fig. 1.5.


Fig. 1.5
The shaded portion represents A B.
If A B = , then A and B are said to be disjoint sets. For example, let
A = {2, 4, 6, 8} and B = {1, 3, 5, 7}. Then, A and B are disjoint sets, because
there is no element which is common to A and B. The disjoint sets can be
represented by Venn diagram as shown in Fig. 1.6.

Fig. 1.6

Example: Let A = {2, 4, 6, 8} and B = {6, 8, 10, 12}. Find A B.
Solution: We see that 6, 8 are the only elements which are common to both
the sets A and B. Hence A B = {6, 8}.
Example: Consider the sets X and Y of Example 17. Find X Y.
Solution: We see that the element Shyam is the only element common to
both the sets X and Y. Hence, X Y = { Shyam }.
SAQ 1: Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} and B = {2, 3, 5, 7}. Find A B
and prove that A B = B.
SAQ 2: Let A = A = {x : x Z
+
} ; B = {x : x is a multiple of 3, x Z}:
C = {x:x is a negative integer}; D = {x:x is an odd integer}. Find (i) A B,
(ii) A C, (iii) A D, (iv) B C, (v) B D, (vi) C D.
c) Difference of Sets: The difference of sets A and B, in this order, is the
set of elements which belong to A but not to B. Symbolically, we write
A B and read as A difference B. Thus A B = {x : x A and x B} and
is represented by Venn diagram in Fig.1.7. The shaded portion represents
A B.

Fig. 1.7
SAQ 3: Let V = {a, e, i, o, u} and B = {a, i, k, u}. Find V B and B V.
SAQ 4: Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and B = {2, 4, 6, 8}. Find A B and
B A.

1.12 Applications of Sets
Let A and B be finite sets. If A B = , then
n(A B) = n(A) + n(B) (1)
The elements in A B are either in A or in B but not in both as
A B = . So (1) follows immediately.
In general, if A and B are finite sets, then
n(A B) = n(A) + n(B) n(A B) (2)

Fig. 1.8
Note that the sets A B, A B and B A are disjoint and their union is
A B (Fig 1.8). Therefore
n(A B) = n(A B) + n(A B) + n(B A)
= n(A B) + n(A B) + n(B A) +n(A B) n(A B)
= n(A) + n(B) n(A B).
which verifies (2).
If A, B and C are finite sets, then
n(A B C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) n(A B) n(B C)
n(A C) + n(A B C) (3)
In fact, we have
n(A B C) = n(A) + n(B C) n(A (B C )) [by (2)]
= n(A) + n(B) + n(C) n(B C) n (A (B C)) [by (2)]
Since A (B C) = (A B) (A C), we get
n[A (B C)] = n(A B) + n (A C) n[A B A C)]
= n(A B) + n (A C) n[A B C)]
Therefore
n(A B C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) n(B C) n(A B)
n(A C) + n(A B C).
This proves (3).
Example: If X and Y are two sets such that n(X Y) = 50, n(X) = 28 and
n(Y) = 32, find n(X Y).
Solution: By using the formula
n(X Y) = n(X) + n(Y) n(X Y),
we find that
n(X Y) = n(X) +n(Y) n(X Y)
= 28 + 32 50 = 10..
Alternatively, suppose n(X Y) = k, then

Fig. 1.9
n(X Y) = 28 k, n(Y X) = 32 k. (by Venn diagram in Fig 1.9)
This gives 50 = n(X Y) = (28 k) + k + (32 k).
Hence, k = 10
Example: In a school there are 20 teachers who teach mathematics or
physics. Of these, 12 teach mathematics and 4 teach physics and
mathematics. How many teach physics?
Solution Let M denote the set of teachers who teach mathematics and
P denote the set of teachers who teach physics. We are given that
n(M P) = 20, n(M) = 12, n(M P) = 4. Therefore
n(P) = n(M P) n(M) + n(M P) = 20 12 + 4 = 12.
Hence, 12 teachers teach physics.
SAQ 5: In a group of 50 people, 35 speak Hindi, 25 speak both English and
Hindi and all the people speak at least one of the two languages. How many
people speak only English and not Hindi ? How many people speak
English?

1.13 Cartesian Product of Sets
Let A, B be two sets. If a A, b B, then (a, b) denotes an ordered pair
whose first component is a and the second component is b. Two ordered
pairs (a, b) and (c, d) are said to be equal if and only if a = c and b = d.
In the ordered pair (a, b), the order in which the elements a and b appear in
the bracket is important. Thus (a, b) and (b, a) are two distinct ordered pairs
if a b. Also, an ordered pair (a, b) is not the same as the set {a, b}.
Definition: The set of all ordered pairs (a, b) of elements a A , b B is
called the Cartesian Product of sets A and B and is denoted by A x B. Thus
A B = {(a, b): a A, b B}.
Let A = {a
1
, a
2
}, B = {b
1
, b
2
, b
3
}. To write the elements of A x B, take a
1
A
and write all elements of B with a
1
, i.e., (a
1
, b
1
), (a, b
2
), (a
1
, b
3
). Now take
a
2
A and write all the elements of B with a
2
, i.e., (a
2
, b
1
), (a
2
, b
2
), (a
2
, b
3
).
Therefore, A x B will have six elements, namely, (a
1
, b
1
), (a
1
, b
2
), (a
1
, b
3
),
(a
2
, b
1
), (a
2
, b
2
), (a
2
, b
3
).
Remarks:
i) If A = or B = , then A B = .
ii) If A and B , then A B . Thus, A B if and only if A
and B . Also, A B B A.
iii) If the set A has m elements and the set B has n elements, then A B
has mn elements.
iv) If A and B are non-empty sets and either A or B is an infinite set, so is
A x B.
v) If A = B, then A B is expressed as A
2
.
vi) We can also define, in a similar way, ordered triplets. If A, B and C are
three sets, then (a ,b, c), where a A, b B and c C, is called an
ordered triplet. The Cartesian Product of sets A, B and C is defined as
A B C = {(a, b, c): a A, b B, c C}. An ordered pair and ordered
triplet are also called 2-tuple and 3-tuple, respectively. In general, if
A
1
, A
2
,.. ., A
n
are n sets, then (a
1
,a
2
,..., a
n
) is called an n-tuple where
a
i
A
i
, i = 1, 2 n and the set of all such n-tuples, is called the Cartesian
product of A
1
, A
2
, , A
n
. It is denoted by A
1
x A
2
x. . .x A
n
. Thus
A
1
A
2
.. A
n
= {(a
1
, a
2
, . a
n
): a
1
A
1
, 1 i n}}.
Example: Find x and y if (x + 2, 4) = (5, 2x + y).
Solution: By definition of equal ordered pairs, we have
x + 2 = 5 (1)
2x + y = 4 (2)
Solving (1) and (2), we get x = 3, y = 2.
Example: Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {4, 5}. Find A x B and B x A and show
that A B B A.
Solution: We have
A B = {(1, 4), (1, 5), (2, 4), (2, 5), (3, 4), (3, 5)}
and B A = {(4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3), (5, 1), (5, 2), (5, 3)}
Note that (1, 4) A B and (1, 4) B A. Therefore, A B B A.
Example: Let A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {3, 4} and C = {4, 5, 6}. Find
i) A (B C) ii) (A B) (A C)
iii) A (B C) iv) (A B) (A C)
Solution:
i) We have B C = {4}. Therefore, A x (B C) = {(1, 4), (2, 4), (3, 4)}.
ii) We note that
A B = {(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 3), (3, 4)}
and A C = {(1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6), (2, 4), (2, 5), (2, 6), (3, 4), (3, 5), (3, 6)}
Therefore (A B) (A C) = {(1, 4), (2, 4), (3, 4)}.
iii) Clearly B C = {3, 4, 5, 6}. Thus
A (B C) = {(1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5), (2, 6), (3, 3),
(3, 4), (3, 5), (3, 6)}
iv) In view of (ii), we see that
(A B) (A C) = {(1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5), (2, 6),
(3, 3), (3, 4), (3, 5), (3, 6)}.
In view of the assertion in Example 3 above, we note that
A (B C) = (A B) (A C)
and A (B C) = (A B) (A C).
SAQ 6: Let A and B be two sets such that n(A) = 5 and n(B) = 2.
If (a
1
, 2), (a
2
, 3), (a
3
, 2), (a
4
, 3), (a
5
, 2) are in A B and a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, a
4
and
a
5
are distinct. Find A and B.
1.14 Summary
This unit tells us about sets and their representations. We study the
concepts of Empty sets, Finite and Infinite sets, Equal sets. All the
concepts discussed is well illustrated by standard examples. The
different operations on sets like complement of Set, Operation on
Sets and Applications of sets is discussed here.

1. Which of the following pairs of sets are equal ? Justify your answer.
i) A, the set of letters in ALLOY and B, the set of letters in LOYAL
ii) A = {n : n Z and n
2
4} and B = {x:x R and x
2
3x + 3x + 2 = 0} .
2. State which of the following sets are finite and which are infinite:
i) {x : x N and (x 1) (x 2) = 0}
ii) {x : x N and x
2
= 4}
iii) {x : x N and 2x 1 = 0 }
iv) {x : x N and x prime}
v) {x : x N and x odd}
3. If A and B are two non-empty sets such that A B = B A, show that
A = B

1.16 Answer
Self Assessment Questions
1. We have A B = {2, 3, 5, 7} = B.
We note that if B A , then A B = B.

2. A = {x:x is a positive integer}, B = {3n : n Z};
i) A B = {3, 6, 9, 12,...} = {3n:n Z
+
}.
ii) A C =
iii) A D = {1, 3, 5, 7,...}
iv) B C = { 3, 6, 9,. . . } = {3n : n is a negative integer}
v) B D = {. . ., 15, 9, 3, 3, 9, 15,...}
vi) C D = {1, 3, 5, 7,...}
3. We have V B = {e, o}, since the only elements of V which do not
belong to B are e and o. Similarly B V = {k}
4. We have A B = {1, 3, 5}, as the only elements of A which do not
belong to B are 1, 3 and 5. Similarly, B A = {8}.
We note that A B B A
5. Let H denote the set of people speaking Hindi and E the set of people
speaking English. We are given that n(H E) = 50, n(H) = 35,
n(H E) = 25. Now
n(H E) = n(H) + n(E H).
So 50 = 35 + n(E H), i.e. , n(E H) = 15.
Thus, the number of people who speak only English but not Hindi is 15.
Also, n(H E) = n(H) + n(E) n(H E) implies
50 = 35 + n(E) 25,
which gives n(E) = 40.
Hence, the number of people who speak English is 40.
6. Since a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, a
4
, a
5
A and n(A) = 5, A = {a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, a
4
, a
5
}. Also 2, 3
B and n(B) = 2. Therefore, B = {2, 3}.

Terminal Quesitons
1. i) A = {A, L, L, O, Y}, B = {L, O, Y, A, L}. Then A, B are equal sets as
repetition of elements in a set do not change a set. Thus A = {A, L,
O, Y} = B.
ii) A = {2, 1, 0, 1, 2,}, B = (1, 2). Since 0 A and 0 B, A and B are
not equal sets.
2. i) Given set = {1, 2}. Hence, it is finite.
ii) Given set = {2}. Hence, it is finite.
iii) Given set = . Hence, it is finite.
iv) The given set is the set of all prime numbers and since the set of
prime numbers is infinite, hence the given set is infinite.
v) Since there are infinite number of odd numbers, hence the given set
is infinite
3. Let a A. Since B , there exists b B. Now, (a, b) A B = B A
implies a B. Therefore, every element in A is in B giving A B.
Similarly, B A. Hence A = B

Unit 2 Mathematical Logic
Structure
2.1 Introduction
Objectives
2.2 Statements
2.3 Basic Logical Connectives
2.4 Conjunction
2.5 Disjunction
2.6 Negation
2.7 Negation of Compound Statements
2.8 Truth Tables
2.9 Tautologies
2.10 Logical Equivalence
2.11 Applications
2.12 Summary
2.14 Answers

2.1 Introduction
Logic is the study of general patterns of reasoning, without reference to
particular meaning or contexts. If an object is either black or white, and if it is
not black, then logic leads us to the conclusion that it must be white.
Observe that logical reasoning from the given hypotheses cannot reveal
what black or white mean, or why an object can not be both.
Logic can find applications in many branches of sciences and social
sciences. Logic, infact is the theoretical basis for many areas of computer
science such as digital logic circuit design, automata theory and artificial
intelligence.
In this chapter, we shall learn about statements, truth values of a statement,
compound statements, basic logical connectives, truth tables, tautologies,
logical equivalence, duality, algebra of statements, use of Venn diagrams in
logic and finally, some simple applications of logic in switching circuits.
Objectives:
understand the ideas in Mathematical Logic
identify a proposition
apply the concept of Mathematical Logic in circuits

2.2 Statements
A statement is a sentence which is either true or false, but not both
simultaneously.
Note: A sentence which is both true and false simultaneously is not a
statement, rather, it is a paradox.
Example:
(a) Each of the following sentences:
i) New Delhi is in India.
ii) Two plus two is four.
iii) Roses are red.
iv) The sun is a star.
v) Every square is a rectangle.
is true and so each of them is a statement.
(b) Each of the following sentences:
i) The earth is a star.
ii) Two plus two is five.
iii) Every rectangle is a square.
iv) 8 is less than 6.
v) Every set is a finite set.
is false and so each of them is a statement.
Example:
a) Each of the sentences:
i) Open the door.
ii) Switch on the fan.
iii) Do your homework.
can not be assigned true or false and so none of them is a statement.
Infact, each of them is a command.
b) Each of the sentences:
i) Did you meet Rahman?
ii) Where are you going?
iii) Have you ever seen Taj Mahal?
Infact, each of them is a question.
c) Each of the sentences:
i) May you live long!
ii) May God bless you!
Infact, each of them is optative.
d) Each of the sentences:
i) Hurrah! We have won the match.
ii) Alas! I have failed.
In fact, each of them is exclamatory.
e) Each of the sentences:
i) Good morning to all.
ii) Wish you best of luck.
In fact, each them is a wish.

f) Each of the sentences:
i) Please do me a favour. T
ii) Give me a glass of water.
In fact, each them is a request.
g) Each of the following sentences:
i) x is a natural number
ii) He is a college student.
is an open sentence because the truth or falsity of (xv) depends on x
and that of xvi) depends on the reference for the pronoun he. We may
observe that for some values of x like x = 1, 2,.. etc, (xv) may be true
and for some other values like ... ,
3
1
,
2
1
x etc, (xv) is false. Similarly,
(xvi) may be true or false. However, at a particular point of time or
situation they are either true or false. Since, we are interested only in the
fact that it is true or false, sentences (xv) and (xvi) can be considered as
statements.
Note: The statements (xv) and (xvi) in Example 2 are also called open
statements.
It is useful to have some notation to represent statements. Let us represent
the statements by lower case letter like p, q, r, s, .. Thus, a statement
New Delhi is city may be represented or denoted by p and we write
p : New Delhi is a city.
similarly, we may denote a statement 2 + 3 = 6 by q and write
q : 2 + 3 = 6.
Truth value of a statement: The truth or falsity of a statement is called its
truth value. Every statement must be either true or false. No statement can
be both true and false at the same time. If a statement is true, we say that
its truth value is TRUE or T and if it is false we say that its truth value is
FALSE or F.
Example: The statements in Example 1(a) have the truth value T while the
statements in Example 1(b) have the truth value F.
Compound statements: A statement is said to be simple, if it cannot be
broken down into two or more sentences. The statements that we
considered in Example 1(a) and (b) are all simple statements.
New statements that can be formed by combining two or more simple
statements are called compound statements. Thus, a compound statement
is the one which is made up of two or more simple statements.
Example:
a) The statement Roses are red and Violets are blue is a compound
statement which is a combination of two simple statements Roses are
red and Violets are blue.
b) The statement Gita is sick or Rehana is well is a compound statement
made up of two simple statements Gita is sick and Rehana is well.
c) The statement It is raining today and 2 + 2 = 4 is a compound
statement composed of two simple statements It is raining today and
2 + 2 = 4.
Simple statements, which on combining, form compound statements, are
called sub-statements or component statements of the compound
statements. The compound statements S consisting of sub-statements
p, q, r,... is denoted by S (p, q, r,...).
A fundamental property of a compound statements is that its truth value is
completely determined by the truth value of each of its sub-statements
together with the way in which they are connected to form the compound
statement.

2.3 Basic Logical Connectives
There are many ways of combining simple statements to form compound
statements. The words which combine simple statements to form compound
statements are called connectives. In the English language, we combine two
or more statements to form a new statement by using the connectives and,
or, etc. with a variety of meanings. Because the use of these connectives in
English language is not always precise and unambiguous, it is necessary to
define a set of connectives with definite meanings in the language of logic,
called object language. We now define connectives for object language
which corresponds to the connectives discussed above. Three basic
connectives (logical) are conjunction which corresponds to the English word
and ; disjunction which corresponds to the word or ; and negation which
corresponds to the word not.
Throughout we use the symbol to denote conjunction ; to denote
disjunction and the symbol ~ to denote negation.
Note:. Negation is called a connective although it does not combine two or
more statements. In fact, it only modifies a statement.

2.4 Conjunction
If two simple statements p and q are connected by the word and, then the
resulting compound statement p and q is called a conjunction of p and q
and is written in symbolic form as p q.
Example: Form the conjunction of the following simple statements:
p : Dinesh is a boy.
q : Nagma is a girl.
Solution: The conjunction of the statement p and q is given by
p q : Dinesh is a boy and Nagma is a girl.
Example: Translate the following statement into symbolic form
Jack and Jill went up the hill.
Solution: The given statement can be rewritten as
Jack went up the hill and Jill went up the hill
Let p : Jack went up the hill and q : Jill went up the hill.
Then the given statement in symbolic form is p q.
Example: Write the truth value of each of the following four statements:
i) Delhi is in India and 2 + 3 = 6.
ii) Delhi is in India and 2 + 3 = 5.
iii) Delhi is in Nepal and 2 + 3 = 5.
iv) Delhi is in Nepal and 2 + 3 = 6.
Solution: In view of (D
1
) and (D
2
) above, we observe that statement (i) has
the truth value F as the truth value of the statement 2 + 3 = 6 is F. Also,
statement (ii) has the truth value T as both the statement Delhi is in India
and 2 + 3 = 5 has the truth value T. Similarly, the truth value of both the
statements (iii) and (iv) is F.

2.5 Disjunction
If two simple statements p and q are connected by the word or, then the
resulting compound statement p or q is called disjunction of
p and q and is written in symbolic form as p q.
Example: Form the disjunction of the following simple statements:
p : The sun shines.
q : It rains.
Solution: The disjunction of the statements p and q is given by
p q : The sun shines or it rains.
Example: Write the truth value of each of the following statements:
i) India is in Asia or 2 + 2 = 4.
ii) India is in Asia or 2 + 2 =5.
iii) India is in Europe or 2 + 2 = 4.
iv) India is in Europe or 2 + 2 = 5.
3
) and (D
4
) above, we observe that only the last
statement has truth value F as both the sub-statements India is in Europe
and 2 + 2 = 5 have the truth value F. The remaining statements (i) to (iii)
have the truth value T as at least one of the sub-statements of these
statements has the truth value T.

2.6 Negation
An assertion that a statement fails or denial of a statement is called the
negation of the statement. The negation of a statement is generally formed
by introducing the word not at some proper place in the statement or by
prefixing the statement with It is not the case that or It is false that.
The negation of a statement p in symbolic form is written as ~ p.
Example: Write the negation of the statement
p : New Delhi is a city.
Solution: The negation of p is given by
~ p : New Delhi is not a city
or ~ p : It is not the case that New Delhi is a city.
or ~ p : It is false that New Delhi is a city
Example: Write the negation of the following statements:
p : I went to my class yesterday.
q : 2 + 3 = 6
r : All natural numbers are integers.
Solution: Negation of the statement p is given by
~ p : I did not go to my class yesterday.
or
It is not the case that I went to my class yesterday.
or
It is false that I went to my class yesterday.
or
I was absent from my class yesterday.
The negation of the statement q is given by
~q : 2 + 3 6
or
It is not the case that 2 + 3 = 6
or
It is false that 2 + 3 = 6
The negation of the statement r is given by
~ r : Not all natural numbers are integers.
or
There exists a natural number which is not an integer.
or
it is not the case that all natural numbers are integers.
or
It is false that all natural numbers are integers.
Regarding the truth value of the negation ~ p of a statement p. we have
(D
5
) : ~ p has truth value T whenever p has truth value F.
(D
6
) : ~ p has truth value F whenever p has truth value T.
Example: Write the truth value of the negation of each of the following
statements::
i) p : Every square is a rectangle.
ii) q : The earth is a star.
iii) r :2 + 3 < 4
5
) and (D
6
), we observe that the truth value of ~p is F
as the truth value of p is T. Similarly, the truth value of both ~q and ~r is T
as the truth value of both statements q and r is F

2.7 Negation of compound statements
I) Negation of conjunction: Recall that a conjunction p q consists of
two sub-statements p and q both of which exist simultaneously.
Therefore, the negation of the conjunction would mean the negation of
at least one of the two sub-statements. Thus, we have
(D
7
): The negation of a conjunction p q is the disjunction of the
negation of p and the negation of q. Equivalently, we write
~ ( p q) = ~ p v ~ q
Example: Write the negation of each of the following conjunctions:
a) Paris is in France and London is in England.
b) 2 + 3 = 5 and 8 < 10.
Solution:
(a) Write p : Paris is in France and q : London is in England.
Then, the conjunction in (a) is given by p q.
Now ~ p : Paris is not in France, and
~ q : London is not in England.
Therefore, using (D
7
), negation of p q is given by
~ p q = Paris is not in France or London is not in England.
(b) Write p : 2+3 = 5 and q :8 < 10.
Then the conjunction in (b) is given by p q.
Now ~ p : 2 + 3 5 and 10 8 : q ~
Then, using (D
7
~ p q = 2 + 3 5 or . 10 8
(II) Negation of disjunction: Recall that a disjunction p q is consisting of
two sub-statements p and q which are such that either p or q or both
exist. Therefore, the negation of the disjunction would mean the
negation of both p and q simultaneously. Thus, in symbolic form, we
have
(D
8
): The negation of a disjunction p q is the conjunction of the
negation of p and the negation of q. Equivalently, we write
~ (p q) = ~ p ~ q
Example: Writ the negation of each of the following disjunction:
a) Ram is in class X or Rahim is in Class XII
b) 7 is greater than 4 or 6 is less than 7
Solution:
a) Let p : Ram is in class X and q : Rahim is in Class XII.
Then, the disjunction in (a) is given by p q.
Now ~ p : Ram is not in Class X.
~ q : Rahim is not in Class XII.
Then, using (D
8
~ p q : Ram is not in Class X and Rahim is not in Class XII.
b) Write p : 7 is greater than 4, and q : 6 is less than 7.
Then, using (D
8
~ p q : 7 is not greater than 4 and 6 is not less than 7.
(III) Negation of a negation: As already remarked the negation is not a
connective but a modifier. It only modifies a given statement and applies
only to a single simple statement. Therefore, in view of (D
5
) and (D
6
), for
a statement p, we have
(D
9
) : Negation of negation of a statement is the statement itself
Equivalently, we write
~ (~p) = p
Example: Verify (D
9
) for the statement
p : Roses are red.
Solution: The negation of p is given by
~ p : Roses are not red.
Therefore, the negation of negation of p is
~ (~ p) : It is not the case that Roses are not red.
or
It is false that Roses are not red.
or
Roses are red.
Many statements, particularly in mathematics, are of the type If p then
q. Such statements are called conditional statements and are denoted
by p q read as p implies q.
Another common statement is of the form p if and only if q. Such
statements are called bi-conditional statements and are denoted by
p q.
Regarding the truth values of p q and p q , we have
a) the conditional p q is false only if p is true and q is false.
Accordingly, if p is false then p q is true regardless of the truth
value of q.
b) the bi-conditional p q is true whenever p and q have the same
truth values otherwise it is false.
One may verify that p q = (~ p) q

2.8 Truth Tables
A truth table consists of rows and columns. The initial columns are filled with
the possible truth values of the sub-statements and the last column is filled with
the truth values of the compound statement S (the truth values of S depends on
the truth values of the sub-statements entered in the initial columns)
Example: Construct the truth table for ~p.
Solution: Note that one simple statement ~p is consisting of only one
simple statement p. Therefore, there must be 2 (= 2) rows in the truth table.
It is necessary to consider all possible truth values of p.
In view of (D
5
) above, recall that p has the truth value T if and only if ~p has
the truth value F. Therefore, the truth table for ~p is given by
Table 21 Truth table for ~ p
p ~ p
T F
F T
Example: Construct the truth table for p (~p)
Solution: Note that the compound statement p (~p) is consisting of only
one simple statement p. Therefore, there must be 2 (= 2) rows in the truth
table. It is necessary to consider all possible truth values of p.
Table 2.2
p ~ p p (~p)
T
F

Step 1: Enter all possible truth values of p. namely, T and F in the first
column of the truth table (Table 2.2).
Table 2.3
p ~ p p (~ p)
T F
F T
Step 2: Using (D
5
) and (D
6
), enter the truth values of ~ p in the second
column of the truth table (Table 2.3).
Table 2.4
p ~ p p (~ p)
T F F
F T F

Step 3: Finally, using (D
2
) enter the truth values of p (~ p) in the last
column of the truth table (Table 2.4)
Example: Construct the truth table for p q.
Solution: The compound statement p q is consisting of two simple
statements p and q. Therefore, there must be 2
2
(= 4) rows in the truth table
of p q. Now enter all possible truth values of statements p and q namely
TT, TF, FT and FF in first two columns of Table 2.5.
Table 2.5
P q p q
T T
T F
F T
F F
Then, in view of (D
1
) and (D
2
) above, enter the truth values of the compound
statement p q in the truth table (Table 18.6) to complete the truth table.
Table 2.6: Truth table for p q
P q p q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
Example: Construct the truth table for p q.
Table 2.7: Truth table for p q.
P q p q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
3
) and (D
4
) above, recall that the compound
statement p q has the truth value F if and only if both p and q have the
truth value F; otherwise p q has truth value T. Thus, the truth table for p
q is as given in Table 2.7.
a) ~ [p (~q)]
b) (p q) (~ p)
c) ~[(~p) (~q)]
Solution:
a) Truth table for ~ [p (~ q)] is given by
Table 2.8: Truth table for ~ [p (~ q)]
p q ~p p (~q) ~[p (~q)]
T T F F T
T F T T F
F T F F T
F F T F T
b) Truth table for (p q) (~p) is given by
Table 2.9: Truth table for (p q) (~ p)
p q p q ~p (p q) (~ p)
T T T F F
T F F F F
F T F T F
F F F T F
c) Truth table for ~ [(~p) v (~q)] is given by
Table 2.10 : Truth table for ~ [(~p) (~q)]
p q ~p ~q (~ p) (~ q) ~ [( ~ p)] [(~q)]
T T F F F T
T F F T T F
F T T F T F
F F T T T F

2.9 Tautologies
A statement is said to be a tautology if it is true for all logical possibilities. In
other words, a statement is called tautology if its truth value is T and only T
in the last column of its truth table. Analogously, a statement is said to be a
contradiction if it is false for all logical possibilities. In other words, a
statement is called contradiction if its truth value is F and only F in the last
column of its truth table. A straight forward method to determine whether a
given statement is tautology (or contradiction) is to construct its truth table.
Example: The statement p (~p) is a tautology since it contains T in the
last column of its truth table (Table 2.11)
Table 2.11: Truth table for p (~p)
p ~p p (~p)
T F T
F T T
Example: The statement p (~p) is a contradiction since it contains F in the
last column of its truth table (Table 2.12)
Table 2.12: Truth table for p (~ p)
p ~p p (~p)
T F F
F T F
Remark: The negation of a tautology is a contradiction since it is always
false, and the negation of a contradiction is a tautology since it is always
true.
SAQ 1: Show that
a) ~ [p (~p)] is a contradiction.
b) ~ [p (~p)] is a tautology.
Example: Show that
a) (p q) (~ p) is a tautology.
b) (p q) (~ p) is a contradiction.
Solution:
a) The truth table for (p q) (~ p) is given by

Table 2.15: Truth table for (p q) (~ p)
P q p q ~p (p q) (~ p)
T T T F T
T F T F T
F T T T T
F F F T T
Since the truth table for (p q) (~ p) contains only T in the last column,
it follows that (p q) (~ p) is a tautology.
b) Recall Table 2.9 which is the truth table for (p q) (~ p) and observe
that it contains only F in the last column. Therefore, (p q) (~ p) is a
contradiction.

2.10 Logical Equivalence
Two statements S
1
(p, q, r, ...) and S
2
(p, q, r, ...) are said to be logically
equivalent, or simply equivalent if they have the same truth values for all
logical possibilities is denoted by
S
1
(p, q, r,...) S
2
(p, q, r,...).
In other words, S
1
and S
2
are logically equivalent if they have identical truth
tables (by identical truth tables we mean the entries in the last column of the
truth tables are same).
Example: Show that ~ p q is logically equivalent to (~p) (~ q).
Solution: The truth tables for both the statements are
Table 2.16: Truth table for ~ (p q) Table 2.17: Truth table for (~ p) (~q)
p q p q ~(p q) p q ~p ~q (~ p) (~q)
T T T F T T F F F
T F F T T F F T T
F T F T F T T F T
F F F T F F T T T
Now, observe that the entries (truth values) in the last column of both the
tables are same. Hence, the statement ~(p q) is equivalent to the
statement (~ p) (~q).
Remark: Consider the statements:
p : Mohan is a boy.
q : Sangita is a girl.
Now, we have
~(p q) (~ p) (~q).
Therefore, the statement
It is not the case that Mohan is a boy and Sangita is a girl
has the same meaning as the statement
Mohan is not a boy or Sangita is not a girl.
Example: Let
p : The South-West monsoon is very good this year and
q : Rivers are rising.
Give verbal translation of ~ [(~p) (~q)].
Solution: we have
~(p q) (~ p) (~q)
Therefore, the statement ~ [(~p) (~q)] is the same as the negation of the
statement ~(p q) which is the same as the conjunction p q. Thus, the
verbal translation for ~ [(~p) (~q)] is
The South-West monsoon is very good this year and rivers are rising
Example: Prove the following:
a) ~ [p (~ q)] (~p) q
b) ~ [(~ p) q] p (~q)
c) ~ (~p) p
Solution:
a) The truth tables for ~ [p (~q)] and (~p) q are given by
Table 2.18: Truth table for~ [p (~q)] Table 2.19: Truth table for (~p) q
p q ~q p (~q) ~ [p (~ q)]
p q ~p (~p) ~ q
T T F T F T T F F
T F T T F T F F F
F T F F T F T T T
F F T T F F F T F
The last column of the two tables are the same.
b) It follows in view of the truth Table 2.20

Table 2.20: Truth table for p (~q) and ~ [(~ p) q]
p q ~p ~q (~ p) q p (~ q) ~ [( ~ p) q]
T T F F F T T
T F F T F T T
F T T F T F F
F F T T F T T

c) The assertion follows in view of Table 2.21
Table 2.21: Truth table for ~(~p)
p ~p ~(~p)
T F T
F T F

2.11 Applications
The logic that we have discussed so far is called two-value logic because
we have considered only those statements which are having truth values
True or False. A similar situation exists in various electrical and mechanical
devices. Claude Shannon, in late 1930s, was first to notice an analogy
between the operations of switching devices and the operations of logical
connectives. He used this analogy with great success to solve problems of
circuit design.
Observe that an electric switch which is used for turning on and off an
electric light is a two-state device. We shall now explain various electric
networks with the help of logical connectives. For this, first we discuss how
an electric switch works. Observe that, in Fig. 2.1, we have shown two
positions of a simple switch.

Fig. 2.1
In (a) when switch is closed (i.e. on), current can flow from one terminal to
the other. In (b), when the switch is open (i.e. off), current can not flow.
Let us now consider the example of an electric lamp controlled by switch.
Such a circuit is given in Fig. 2.2.

Fig. 2.2
Observe that when the switch s is open, no current flows in the circuit and
therefore, the lamp is off. But when switch s is closed, the lamp is on.
Thus the lamp is on if and only if the switch s is closed.
If we denote the statements as
p : The switch s is closed
l : The lamp l is on
then, by using logic, the above circuit can be expressed as p l.
Next, consider an extension of the above circuit in which we have taken two
switches s
1
and s
2
in series as shown in Fig. 2.3.


Fig. 2.3
here, observe that the lamp is on if and only if both the switches s
1
and s
2

are closed.
If we denote the statements as:
p : the switch s
1
is closed.
q : the switch s
2
is closed.
l : the lamp l is on.
then the above circuit can be expressed as p q 1.
Now, we consider a circuit in which two switches s
1
and s
2
are connected in
parallel (Fig. 2.4).

Fig. 2.4

SAQ 2: Express the following circuit in Fig. 2.5 in symbolic form of logic.

Fig. 2.5
2.12 Summary
In this unit we study the truth values of a statements. The different basic
logical connectives are discussed in detail with some standard examples.
Compound statements and the negation are clearly explained . The concept
of Tautology, Contradiction and Logical Equivalence is discussed in detail
with example wherever necessary. The applications of mathematical logic to
switching circuits is dealt with standard examples.

1. Define Tautology and Contradiction
2. Draw the truth tables of Conjunction, disjunction and Biconditional

2.14 Answers
1. a) The truth table of ~ [p (~p)] is given by
Table 2.13: Truth table for ~ [p (~p)]
P ~p p (~p) ~ [p (~p)]
T F T F
F T T F

Since it contains only F in the last column of its truth table, it follows
that
~ [p (~ p)] is a contradiction.
b) The truth table of ~ [p (~ p)] is given by
Table 2.14: Truth table for ~ [p (~ p)]
P ~p p (~ p) ~ [p (~ p)]
T F F T
F T F T
Since it contains only T in the last column of its truth table, it follows
that ~ [p (~ p)] is a tautology.
2. Observe that the lamp is on if and only if either s
1
and s
2
both are
closed or s
1
and s
2
both are open or only s
1
is closed.
If we denote the statements as
p : The switch s
1
is closed
q : The switch s
2
is closed
l : The lamp l is on
then

~p: The switch s
1
is open.
or
The switch s
1
is closed.
~ q: The switch s
2
is open.
or
The switch s
2
is closed.
Therefore, the circuit in Fig. 2.5 in symbolic form of logic may be
expressed as
p [(~ p) (~ q)] (p q) 1

Unit 3 Modern Algebra
Structure
3.1 Introduction
Objectives
3.2 Binary Operation
3.3 Addition Modulo n
3.4 Multiplication Modulo n
3.5 Semigroup
3.6 Properties of Groups
3.7 Subgroup
3.8 Summary
3.10 Answers

3.1 Introduction
The theory of groups which is a branch of Abstract Algebra is of paramount
importance in the development of mathematics.
The idea of group was first given by the French Mathematician Evariste
Galois in 1832 who died at the age of 21 years in a duel. The group theory
was later developed by an English Mathematician Arthur Cayley. He defined
the notion of an abstract group with a general structure which could be
applied to numerous particular cases. The theory of groups has applications
in Quantum Mechanics and other branches of mathematics.

Objectives:
apply the concepts of Algebraic Structure in practical problems
understand Binary Operations and its applications in group theory
3.2 Binary Operation
Let G be a non-empty set. Then G G = {(x, y): x, y G}. A function of
G G in to G is said to be a binary operation on the set G. The image of an
ordered pair (x, y) under f is denoted by x f y.
The symbols +, x, 0, *, . Are very often used as the binary operations on a
set.
Thus * is a binary operation on the set G if for every a, b G implies a * b G.
Hence a binary operation * combines any two elements of G to give an
element of the same set G.
Examples:
1. If Z is the set of integers then usual addition (+) is the binary operation
on Z. For if M and n are two integers then m + n is again an integer i.e.
for every m, n Z, m + n Z.
In particular 5, 3 Z, implies 5 + 3 = 2 Z, etc.
Similarly the usual multiplication is the binary operation on the set Q of
rationals, for the product of two rational numbers is again a rational
number.
2. Let E be the set of even integers. i.e., E = {0, 2, 4, 6, .} and O be
the set of odd integers i.e. O = { 1, 3, 5, .}. Clearly the usual
addition is the binary operation on E whereas it is not a binary operation
on O. Because the sum of two even integers is even but the sum of two
odd integers is not an odd integer.
Also the usual subtraction is not a binary operation on the set N of
natural numbers.
Algebraic Structure
A non-empty set with one or more binary operations is called an algebraic
structure. If * is a binary operation on G then (G, *) is an algebraic structure.
For example the set of integers Z is an algebraic structure with usual
addition as the binary operation. Similarly (Q, .), (E, +) are algebraic
structures.
Group
A non-empty set G is said to be a group with respect to the binary operation
* if the following axioms are satisfied.
1. Closure law. For every a, b G, a * b G.
2. Associative law. For every a, b, c G
a * (b * c) = (a * b) * c
3. Existence of identity element. There exists an element e G such that
a * e = e * a = a for every a G.
Here e is called the identity element
4. Existence of inverse. For every a G there exists an element b G
such that
a * b = b * a = e. Here b is called the inverse of a and is denoted by
b = a
1
. A group G with respect to the binary operation * is denoted by
(G, *). If in a group (G, *), a * b = b * a for every a, b, G then G is said
to be commutative or Abelian group named after Norwegian
mathematician Niels Henrik Abel (1802 1820).
Finite and Infinite Groups
A group G is said to be finite if the number of elements in the set G is finite,
otherwise it is said to be an infinite group. The number of elements in a finite
group is said to be the order of the group G and is denoted by O(G).
Example: Prove that the set Z of integers is an abelian group with respect
to the usual addition as the binary operation.
1. Closure law. We know that the sum of two integers is also an integer.
Hence for every m, n Z, m + n Z.

2. Associative law. It is well known that the addition of integers is
associative. Therefore (m + n) + p = m + (n + p) for every m, n, p Z.
3. Existence of identity element. There exists 0 Z such that
m + 0 = 0 + m = m for every m Z. Hence 0 is called the additive
identity.
4. Existence of inverse. For every m Z there exists m Z such that
m + (m) = (m) + m = 0.
Here m is called the additive inverse of m or simply the negative of m.
Therefore (Z, +) is a group.
5. Commutative law. We know that the addition of integers is commutative
i.e., m + n = n + m for every m, n Z. Hence (Z, +) is an abelian group.
Since there are an infinite elements in Z, (Z, +) is an infinite group.
Similarly we can prove that the set Q of rationals, the set R of reals and
the set C of complex numbers are abelian groups with respect to usual
addition.
Example: Prove that the set Q
0
of all non-zero rationals forms an abelian
group with respect to usual multiplication as the binary operation.
Now Q
0
= Q {0}
Solution:
1. Closure law. Let a, b Q
0
i.e. a and b are two non-zero rationals. Then
their product a b is also a non-zero rational. Hence a b Q
0
.
Since a, b are two arbitrary elements of Q
0
, we have for every
a, b, Q
0
, ab Q
0
.
2. Associative law. We know that the multiplication of rationals is
associative. i.e.,, a(b c) = (a b) c for every a, b, c Q
0
.
3. Existence of identity element. There exists 1 Q
0
such that
a.1 = 1 . a = a for every a Q
0
. Here 1 is called the multiplicative identity
element.
4. Existence of inverse. Let a Q
0
. Then a is a non-zero rational.
Therefore
a
1
exists and is also a rational 0.
Also 1 a .
a
1
a
1
. a for every a Q
0
.

a
1
is the multiplicative inverse of a.
Therefore (Q
0
, .) is a group.
Further, it is well-known that the multiplication of rationals is
commutative i.e., ab = ba for every a, b Q
0
.
Hence (Q
0
, .) is an abelian group.
Similarly we can show that the set R
0
of non-zero reals and the set C
0
of
non-zero complex numbers are abelian groups w.r.t. usual multiplication.
1. The set N of natural numbers is not a group w.r.t. usual addition, for
there does not exist the identity element 0 in N and the additive inverse
of a natural number is not a natural number i.e., for example
2 N but 2 N. Also N is not a group under multiplication because
5 N but . N
5
1

2. The set of integers is not a group under multiplication for 2 Z but
. Z
2
1

3. The set of rationals, reals and complex numbers (including 0) do not
form groups under multiplication for multiplicative inverse of 0 does not
exist.
SAQ 1: Prove that the fourth roots of unity form an abelian group with
respect to multiplication.

3.3 Addition Modulo n
Let n be a positive integer a and b be any two integers. Then addition
modulo n of two integers a and b, written a +
n
b, is defined as the least
non-negative remainder when a + b is divided by n. If r is the remainder
when a + b is divided by n, then
A +
n
b = r where 0 r < n.
In other words, if a + b r (mod n), 0 r < n. Then a +
n
b = r.
For example,
7 +
5
10 = 2 since 7 + 10 = 17 2 (mod 5)
15 +
7
11 = 5 since 15 + 11 = 26 5 (mod 7)
17 +
8
21 = 38 since 17 + 21 = 38 6 (mod 8)
12 +
5
8 = 0 since 12 + 8 = 20 0 (mod 5)
1 +
7
1 = 2 since 1 + 1 = 2 2 (mod 7)
Properties:
1. Commutative since a + b and b + a leave the same remainder when
divided by n, a +
n
b = b +
n
a.
For example 5 +
7
6 = 4 = 6 +
7
5
2. Associative since a + (b + c) and (a + b) + c leave the same remainder
when divided by n, a +
n
(b +
n
c) = (a +
n
b) +
n
c.
For example 4 +
6
(3 +
6
5) = (4 +
6
3) +
6
5
Example: Prove that the set Z
4
= {0, 1, 2, 3} is an abelian group w.r.t.
addition modulo 4.
Solution: Form the composition table w.r.t. addition modulo 4 as below:

+
4
0 1 2 3
0 0 1 2 3
1 1 2 3 0
2 2 3 0 1
3 2 0 1 2
Since 1 + 3 = 4 0 (mod 4), 3 + 3 = 6 2 (mod 4) 2 + 3 = 5 1 (mod 4) etc.
1. Closure law. From the above composition table for all a, b G, a +
4
b
also belongs to Z
4
.
2. Associative law. Since a + (b + c) and (a + b) + c leave the same
remainder when divided by 4, we have
(a +
4
(b +
4
c) = (a +
4
b) +
4
c.
3. Existence of identity element. From the above table, we observe that
0 Z
4
satisfies a +
4
0 = 0 +
4
a = a for every a Z
4
.
0 is the identity element.
4. Existence of inverse. From the above table, the inverses of 0, 1, 2, 3 are
respectively 0, 3, 2, 1 because 0 +
4
0 = 0, 1 +
4
3 = 0, 2 +
4
2 = 0, and
3 +
4
1 = 0.
Hence (z
4
, +
4
) is a group
Further, since a + b and b + a leave the same remainder when divided
by 4, a +
4
b = b +
4
a.
(Z
4
, +
4
) is an abelian group.
Similarly, we can show that the set of remainders of 5 viz.
Z
5
= {0, 1, 2, 3, 4} from an abelian group under addition (mod 5).
In general the set of remainders of a positive integer m.
Z
m
= {0, 1, 2, . (m 1) form an abelian group under addition
(mod m).

3.4 Multiplication modulo n
Let n be a positive integer an a, b any two integers. Then multiplication
modulo n of two integers a and b, written a
n
b, is defined as the least non-
negative remainder when ab is divided by n. If r is the remainder when ab is
divided by n. If r is the remainder when ab is divided by n then a
n
b = r,
where 0 r < n. In other words, if ab r (mod n), 0 r < n then a x
n
b = r.
For example,
7
5
3 = 1 since 7 . 3 = 21 1 (mod 5)
9
7
5 = 3 since 9 . 5 = 45 3 (mod 7)
12
8
7 = 4 since 12 . 7 = 84 4 (mod 8)
2
7
3 = 6 since 2 . 3 = 6 6 (mod 7)
14
4
6 = 0 since 14 . 6 = 84 0 (mod 4)
Properties
1. Commutative: Since ab and ba leave the same remainder when divided
by n,
a
n
b = b
n
a
For example 5
7
4 = 4
7
5
2. Associative: Since a(bc) and (ab)c leave the same remainder when
divided by n
a
n
(b
n
c) = (a
n
b)
n
c
For example 3
7
(4
7
5) = (3
7
4)
7
5
Example: Prove that the set 4 , 3 , 2 , 1
5
Z is an abelian group under
multiplication modulo 5.
Solution: Form the composition table w.r.t. multiplication modulo 5 as
below:

x
5
1 2 3 4
1 1 2 3 4
2 2 4 1 3
3 3 1 4 2
4 4 3 2 1
Since 2 . 3 = 6 1 (mod 5)
2 . 4 = 8 3 (mod 5)
4 . 4 = 16 1 (mod 5) etc.
1. Closure law. Since all the elements entered in the above table are the
elements of ,
5
Z closure law holds good i.e. for all a, b G, a
5
b also
belongs to .
5
Z
2. Associative law. Since a (bc) and (ab) c leave the same remainder when
divided by 5 we have for every a, b, c ,
5
Z
a
5
(b
5
c) = (a
5
b)
5
6.
3. Existence of identity element. From the above table, we observe that
1
5
Z satisfies a
5
1 = 1
5
a = a for every a
5
Z .
1 is the identity element.
4. Existence of inverse. Also the inverses of 1, 2, 3, 4 are respectively
1, 3, 2, 4 because 1
5
1 = 1, 2
5
3 = 1, 3
5
2 = 1, and 4
5
4 = 1.
Therefore (
5
Z x
5
) is an abelian group.
Similarly, we can show that the non-zero remainders of 7 viz.
7
Z = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} form an abelian group under multiplication
(mod 7). In general, the non-zero remainders of a positive integer
p viz.
p
Z = {1, 2, 3, (p 1)} form a group under multiplication
(mod p) if and only if p is a prime number.
Note: The set
6
Z = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} does not form a group under multiplication
(mod 6) for 2, 3 G, but 2
6
3 = 0 G. This is because 6 is not a prime
number.

3.5 Semigroup
A non-empty set G is said to be a semigroup w.r.t. the binary operation if the
following axioms are satisfied.
1. Closure: For every a, b, G, a * b G
2. Associative: For every a, b, c G, a * (b * c) = (a * b) * c.
Examples:
1. The set N of all natural numbers under addition is a semigroup because
for every a, b, c N
(i) a + b N, and (ii) a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c. The set, N is semigroup
under multiplication also.
2. The set Z of integers is a semigroup under multiplication because for
every a, b Z, a + b Z and for every a, b, c Z, a(bc) = (ab) c. Note
that every group is a semigroup but a semigroup need not be a group.
For example, the set N of all natural numbers is a semigroup under
multiplication (also under addition) but it is not a group. Similarly Z, the
set of integers is an example of a semigroup but not a group under
multiplication.

3.6 Properties of Groups
For the sake of convenience we shall replace the binary operation * by dot .
in the definition of the group. Thus the operation dot . may be the operation
of addition or multiplication or some other operation. In what follows by ab
we mean a . b or a * b. With this convention, we rewrite the definition of the
group.
Definition: A non-empty set G is said to be a group w.r.t. the binary
operation. if the following axioms are satisfied.
1. Closure property: For every a, b G, ab G
2. Associative property: For every a, b, c G, a (bc) = (ab) c.
3. Existence of identity element: There exists an element e G such that
ae = ea = a for every a G. Here e is called the identity element.
4. Existence of inverse: For every a G there exists an element b G such
that ab = ba = e. Here b is called the inverse of a i.e., b = a
1
Further,
5. If ab = ba for every a, b G then G is said to be an abelian group or a
commutative group.
Theorem: The identity element in a group is unique.
Proof: Let e and e be the two identity elements of a group G. Then by
definition, for every a G.
ae = ea = a
and a a e e a
Substitute e a in (1) and a = e in (2). Then we obtain
e e e e e
and e e e e e
Hence e e e e
The identity element in a group is unique.
Theorem: In a group G the inverse of an element is unique
Proof: Let b and c be the two inverses of an element a in G.
Then by definition ab = ba = e
ac = ca = e
Now consider, b = be
= b(ac)
= (ba) c
= ec
= c
Therefore inverse of every element in a group is unique
Theorem: If a is any element of a group G, then (a
1
)
1
= a.
Proof: Since a
1
is the inverse of a, we have aa
1
= a
1
a = e
This implies that a is an inverse of a
1
, but inverse of every element is unique
a a
1
1

Thus the inverse of the inverse of every element is the same element.
Theorem: If a and b are any two elements of a group G then
. a b ab
1 1 1

Proof:
Consider, (ab) (b
1
a
1
) =
1 1
a b b a
=
1 1
a bb a
=
1
ea a
= aa
1

= e
Similarly we can prove that e ab a b
1 1

Hence e ab a b a b ab
1 1 1 1

Therefore
1 1
a b is the inverse of ab,
i.e., . a b ab
1 1
1

Corollary: If a, b, c belong to a group G then (abc)
1
= c
1
b
1
a
1
etc.
Note: If (ab)
1
= a
1
b
1
for all a, b G, the G is abelian.
For, (ab)
1
= a
1
b
1
implies
1
1 1
1
1
a ab
i.e.
1
1
1
1
a b ab
= ba for all a, b G
Hence G is abelian.
Theorem: (Cancellation laws).
If a, b, c are any three elements of a group G, then
ab = ac implies b = c (left cancellation law)
ba = ca implies b = c (right cancellation law)
Proof: Since a is an element of a group G, there exists a
1
G there exists
a
1
G such that aa
1
= a
1
a = e, the identity element
Now ab = ac
ac a ab a
1 1

c a a b a a
1 1

eb = ec
b = c
Similarly ba = ca

1 1
a ca a ba

1 1
aa c aa b
be = ce
b = c
Theorem: If a and b are any two elements of a group G, then the equations
ax = b and ya = b have unique solutions in G.
Proof:
i) Since . G a , G a
1

Now G a
1
and b G implies G b a
1
(closure axiom) and
. b eb b aa b a a
1 1

Hence x = a
1
b satisfies the equation ax = b and hence is a solution. If x
1
,
x
2
are the two solutions of the equation, ax = b then ax
1
= b and ax
2
= b.
ax
1
= ax
2

x
1
= x
2

Hence the solution is unique.
ii) Also b G, a
1
G implies ba
1
G and b be a a b a ba
1 1

y = ba
1
satisfies the equation ya = b and hence is a solution. If y
1
, y
2

are two solutions of the equation ya = b then y
1
a = b and y
2
a = b
y
1
a = y
2
a
y
1
= y
2

Therefore the solution is unique
SAQ 2: Prove that in a group G if a
2
= a then a = e, the identity element.
Note: Any element a which satisfies a
2
= a is called the idempotent element
in a group. Thus e is the only idempotent element in G.
Example: If in group G, (ab)
2
= a
2
b
2
for every a, b G prove that G is
abelian.
Solution:
Now
2 2
2
b a ab
(ab) (ab) = (a . a) (b . b)
a[b(ab)] = a[a(bb)] (Associative)
b (ab) = a (bb) (Left cancellation law)
(ba) b = (ab) b (Associative)
ba = ab (Right cancellation law)
Hence G is an abelian group.
Example: Show that if every element of a group G is its own inverse then G
is abelian.
Solution: Let a, b G then a
1
= a and b
1
= b
Clearly ab G (ab)
1
= ab by hypothesis
i.e. b
1
a
1
= ab
i.e. ba = ab since b
1
= b, a
1
= a
G is abelian.
3.7 Subgroup
A non-empty subset H of a group G is said to be a subgroup of G if under
the operation of G, H itself forms a group.
If e be the identity element of a group G, Then H = { e } and H = G are
always subgroups of G. These are called the trivial or improper subgroups.
If H is a subgroup of G and H {e} and H G then H is called a proper
subgroup.
Examples:
1. We know that the set Z of integers forms a group under addition.
Consider a subset E = {2x : x Z} = {0, 2, 4, . } of Z. Then E also
forms a group under addition.
Therefore E is a subgroup of Z.
Similarly F = {3x : x Z} = {0, 3, 6, 9, .. } is a subgroup of z.
2. Clearly the multiplicative group H = {1, 1} is a subgroup of the
multiplicative group G = {1 1, i, i}.
3. Let G = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} be a subset of G. Now it is clear from the
following composition table that H also forms a group under x
7
.
X
7
1 2 4
1 1 2 4
2 2 4 1
4 4 1 2
Therefore H is a subgroup of G.
Theorem: A non-empty subset H of a group G is a subgroup of G if and
only if
i) for every a, b H implies ab H
ii) for every a H implies a
1
H
Note: Union of two subgroups need not be subgroups for, let H = {0, 2, 3, 4,
.} and K = {0, e, 6,.} be two subgroups of the group of integers Z, so that
H K = {0, 2, 3, 4, 6, . }.
Now 2, 3 H K but 2 + 3 = 5 H K because 5 is neither a multiple of 2
nor a multiple of 3.

3.8 Summary
In this unit we studied clearly that the rectangular array of numbers is
denoted by matrix, also we know that determinant is a square matrix which
is associated with a real number. Then we studied that a set which satisfies
certain rules is called as a group. Here we studied sub group, semi group
etc. with well illustrated examples.

1. Prove that a non-empty subset H of a group G is a subgroup of G if and
only if for every a, b H implies ab
1
H.
2. Prove that the intersection of two subgroups of a group is again a
subgroup.

3.10 Answers
1. Roots of the equation x
4
= 1 are called the fourth roots of unity and they
are 1, 1, i, i. Let G = {1, 1 i, i }.
From the composition table w.r.t. usual multiplication as follows:
. 1 1 i i
1 1 1 i i
1 1 1 i i
i i i 1 1
i i I 1 1
1. Closure Law. Since all the elements written in the above composition
table are the elements of G, we have for all a, b, G, ab G.
2. Associative Law. We know that the multiplication of complex
numbers is associative and G is a subset of the set of complex
numbers
Hence a(bc) = (ab) c for all a, b, c G.
3. existence of identity element. From the composition table it is clear
that there exists 1 G satisfying a . 1 = 1 . a = a for every a G.
Therefore 1 is the identity element.
4. Existence of inverse. From the composition table we observe that
the inverses of 1, 1, i i are 1, -1, -i, i.
Thus for every a G there exists a
1
G such that a a
1
= a
1
a = 1,
the identity element. Hence (G, .) is a group.
Further multiplication of complex numbers is commutative.
Therefore ab = ba for every a, b G.
Also we observe that the elements are symmetric about the principal
diagonal in the above composition table. Hence commutative law
holds good.
Therefore (G, .) is an abelian group.
Note that G is a finite group of order 4.
2. Now e . a a . a a a
2
since a = ae a = e

Unit 4 Trigonometry
Structure
4.1 Introduction
Objectives
4.2 Radian or Circular Measure
4.3 Trigonometric Functions
4.4 Trigonometrical ratios of angle when is acute
4.5 Trigonometrical ratios of certain standard angles
4.6 Allied Angles
4.7 Compound Angles
4.8 Multiple and Sub-multiple angle
4.9 Summary
4.11 Answers

4.1 Introduction
This unit of Trigonometry gives us an idea of circular measure. The different
Trigonometric functions are studied here. Some of the standard angles and
their Trigonometric ratios are discussed in detail. The basic knowledge allied
angles and compound angles are explained in a simple manner.

Objectives:
understand the concepts of Trigonometrical functions
use allied and compound angles in calculations

4.2 Radian or Circular Measure
A radian is the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc equal to
the radius of the circle. O is the centre of a circle. A and B are points on the
circle such that arc AB = radius OA. Then B O
A is called one radian or one

circular measure. We write
c
1 B O
A

Radian is a constant angle and 180
c

Consider a circle whose centre is O and radius r. A and B are points on the
circle such that arc AB = OA = r. Join OA, OB and draw OC to OA.
c
1 B O
A , 1 B O
A right angle and arc AB = r. We know that arc

4
1
AC
(circumference of the circle) = 2 / r r 2
4
1
. In a circle the arcs are
proportionated to the angles subtended by them at the centre.

angle right angle right 1
1 2
., e . i
1
1
2 / r
r
;
C O
A
B O
A
AC arc
AB arc
., e . i
c c

1
c
= 2/ 1 right angle, which is constant

Radian is a constant angle
Further we have, 1
C
= 2 1 right angle
C
= 2 90 = 180
Note:
i)
C
= 180 mans radians are equal to 180
Hereafter, this is written as = 180 .
For example 360 2 , 45 4 / , 90 2 / and so on.
In each of these cases the unit radians on the left side is understood.
ii)
7 / 22
180 180
l
c

11
630
11
7 90

5 4 7 1 57 ' (nearly)
Here is the real number which is the ratio of circumference of a circle to its
diameter. Its approximate value is 22/7.
1 radian = 5 4 7 1 57 (approximately)
Clearly 1 radian is < 60
Examples:
1) Express 2.53 radians in degrees
radians = 180
9 . 144 ~ 53 . 2
22
7 53 . 2 180 53 . 2 180
53 . 2 radians radians
2) Express 144 into radians
For 180 = radians
5
4
180
144
144
C
radians For
It is better to remember the following:
1) 180 / x x radians
2) x radians = / x 180
Length of an arc of a circle

Consider a circle who centre is O and radius r. A and B are points on the
circle such that arc AB = r. , 1 B O
A
C
P is a point on the circle such that
arc PA = s and
C
A O
P
r s
1 r
s
B O
A
A O
P
AB arc
PA arc

Hence the length of an arc of a circle is equal to the product of the radius of
the circle and the angle in radians subtended at the centre by the arc.
Note:
s = the arc length of the circle; r = the radius of the circle
= angle in radians subtended by s at the centre
Area of a sector of a circle
The portion of the circle bounded by two radii, say, OA, OB and the arc
AB is called the sector B O
A . Consider a circle whose centre is O and

radius r. Let AOB be the sector of angle
C

S
B
1
C

O
C

A
P

radians 2
B O
A
Circle the of Area
AOB sector of Area

r
2
1
AOB sector of Area
2
r
AOB sector of Area
2
c
c
2

Worked Examples
1. Express 792 in radians and 7 /12 in degrees
radians 180 / x x
c
5 / 22 radians 180 / ) 792 ( 792
105
12
180 7
12
7

2. The angles of a triangle are in the ratio 2:3:5 find them (i) in radians
(ii) in degrees.
A : B : C = 2 : 3 : 5 A = 2K, B = 3K, C = 5K
i) A + B + C = 10 K = K = /10

2 10
5
C ,
10
3
B ;
5 10
2
A
The angles are
2
,
10
3
,
5
in radians
ii) A + B + C = 180 = 10K = 180 K = 18
A = 36 B = 54 C = 90 . The angles are 36 , 54 , 90
3. An arc of a circle subtends 15 at the centre. If the radius is 4 cms, find
the length of the arc and area of the sector formed.
r
B
A
c

Y
O
= 15 , r = 4 cms to find s
12 180
15
15
c c

s = r = 4( /12) = /3 = 22/21 cm
Area of the sector . cm . sq 3 / 2 12 / 4
2
1
r
2
1
2 2

4. A spaceship moves in a circular orbit of radius 7200 km round the earth.
How far does it travel while sweeping an angle of 100 ?

9
5
180
100
100 , km 7200 r
c c

S = r = (7200) (5 /9) = (800) 5 = (4000 ) km.
The spaceship travels through a distance of (4000 ) km.
SAQ 1: A circular wheel is rotating at the rate of 25 revolutions per minute. If
the radius of the wheel is 50 cms, find the distance covered by a point on
the rim in one second (Take = 3.1416)
4.3 Trigonometric Functions
Consider a circle whose centre is the origin and radius is r. Let the circle cut
X-axis at A and A and Y-axis at B and . B P(x, y) is any point on the circle.
Join OP and draw PM to X-axis. OP = r, OM = x, MP = y, P O
X .
The six trigonometrical functions (ratios) of angle are defined as given below:

O
B
Y
x
M A
X
P(x y)
y

Sine of angle
r
y
sin cosecant of angle = cosec 0 y
y
r

Cosine of angle
r
x
cos secant of angle 0 x
x
r
tangent of angle
0 x
x
y
tan cotangent of angle 0 y
y
x
cot
Since
2 2 2
y x r we have
2 2
y x r . So we have
0 x
x
y
tan ,
y x
x
cos ,
y x
y
sin
2 2 2 2

0 x
x
y x
sec , 0 y
y
x
cot
2 2

0 y
y
y x
ec cos
2 2

Note
i) Reciprocal relations
1
y
r
:
r
y
ec cos , sin
sin and cosec are reciprocal to each other.

sin
1
ec cos ,
ec cos
1
sin
Similarly we have,

tan
1
cot ,
cos
1
tan ,
cos
1
sec ,
sin
1
cos
ii)
sin
cos
cot and
cos
sin
tan tan
x
y
r
x
r
y
cos
sin

iii) The above definitions of trigonometric functions hold good whatever may
be the position of the point P(x, y) on the circle. We shall discuss this in
detail later.
iv) Identities
a) 1 cos sin
2 2

b)
2 2
sec tan 1
c)
2 2
ec cos cos 1
a) From the figure
2 2 2
r y x
on dividing by r
2
,
1
r
y
r
x
., e . i 1
r
y
r
x
2 2
2
2
2
2

But
1 sin cos therefore
sin
r
y
and cos
r
x
2 2
squared cos as read is it and as written is
2 2
cos cos

Thus for all value of , cos
2
+ sin
2
= 1
b)
2 2 2
r y x . If x 0, we can divide by x
2
.

2
2
2
2
x
r
x
y
1

2 2
x
r
x
y
1 But sec
x
r
, tan
y
x

2 2 2 2
sec tan 1 ., e . i sec tan 1
c) . r y x
2 2 2
If y 0 we can divide y
2
.

2 2
2
2
2
2
y
r
1
y
x
., e . i
y
r
1
y
x

But ec cos
y
r
cot
y
x

2 2 2 2
ec cos 1 cot ., e . i ec cos 1 cot
Thus

2 2 2 2 2 2
ec cos cot 1 , sec tan 1 , 1 sin cos
4.4 Trigonometrical ratios of angle when is acute

The revolving line, starting from OX rotates through an acute angle and
comes to the position OA. Draw AB to X-axis. In the triangle OAB,
B O
A 90 O B
A The side opposite to i.e., AB is called opposite side.

The side opposite to 90 i.e., OA is called the hypotenuse and OB is called
the adjacent side. The six trigonometrical ratio of are defined as
OA
AB
sin
hypotenuse
side opposite

AB
OB
cot
side opposite
side adjacent

OA
OB
cos
hypotenuse
side adjacent

OB
OA
sec
side adjacent
hypotenuse

OB
AB
tan
side adjacent
side opposite

AB
OA
ec cos
side opposite
hypotenuse

These definitions hold good whenever is one of the acute angles of a right
angled triangle.

Y A
O B
X
A
O B
The following identities should be memorized.
1) 1 sin cos
2 2
2)
2 2
sec tan 1
3)
2 2
ec cos cos 1 4) ec cos / 1 sin , sin / 1 ec cos
5) sec / 1 cos , cos / 1 sec 6) cot / 1 tan , tan / 1 cot
7) cos / sin tan 8) sin / cos cot
Worked Examples:
1. Show that
2 2
2 2
cot tan 7 sec cos ec cos sin
sec . cos 2
2
sec
2
cos ec cos . sin 2
2
ec cos
2
sin LHS
cos / 1 . cos 2 sin / 1 . sin 2
2
sec
2
ec cos
2
cos
2
sin LHS
cos / 1 sec ; sin / 1 ec cos 2 2
2
tan 1
2
cot 1 1
RHS cot tan 7
2 2
1 cos sin
2 2

2 2
tan 1 sec

2 2
cot 1 ec cos
2. Prove that
cos
sin 1
sin 1
cos
1 sec tan
1 sec tan

1 sec tan
1 sec tan
LHS write 1 in numerator as
2 2
tan sec

2 2
sec tan 1
1 sec tan
tan sec sec tan
2 2

1 sec tan
tan sec tan sec sec tan

1 sec tan
tan sec 1 sec tan

cos
1 sin
cos
1
cos
sin
sec tan ..(1)
Now
sin 1 cos
sin 1 sin 1
cos
sin 1

sin 1 cos
sin 1
2

2 2
2 2
sin 1 cos
1 cos sin

sin 1
cos
sin 1 cos
cos
2
(2)
From (1) and (2) the result follows
3. Show that cosec A cos 1 / A cos 1 A cot A
LHS = cosec A cot A

A sin
A cos
A sin
1

A sin
A cos 1

A cos 1 A cos 1 A cos 1 A sin
A cos 1 A cos 1
A cos 1
2 2

RHS
A cos 1
A cos 1
A cos 1
A cos 1
.
A cos 1
A cos 1

4. Show that A cos 1 A sin 1 2 A cos A sin 1
2

A cos 2 A cos A sin 2 A sin 2 A cos A sin 1 LHS
2 2

A cos 2 A cos 2 A sin 2 A sin 2 1 1
= 2 2 sin A 2 sin A cos A + 2 cos A
= 2(1 sin A sin A cos A + cos A)
RHS = 2[1 sin A + cos A sin A cos A]
LHS = RHS
5. If , cos b sin a andy sin b cos a x show that
2 2 2 2
b a y x
sin b cos a x .. (1)
cos b sin a y .. (2)
Square and add (1) and (2)

2 2
2 2
cos b sin a sin b cos a y x
cos b . sin a 2 2 cos b sin a sin b . cos a 2 sin b cos a
2 2 2 2 2 2 2

2 2 2 2 2 2
cos sin b sin cos a
2 2 2 2
b a 1 b 1 a

2 2 2 2
b a y x
6. If
2 2
sin b t cos a x then show that (x a) (b x) = (a b)
2
sin
2
t cos
2
t
x a = a cos
2
t + b sin
2
t a
= b sin
2
t a + a cos
2
t
= b sin
2
t a (1 cos
2
t)
= b sin
2
t a sin
2
t
= sin
2
t. (b a) (1)
b x = b (a cos
2
t + b sin
2
t) = b a cos
2
t b sin
2
t
= b(1 sin
2
t) a cos
2
t
= b cos
2
t a cos
2
t
= cos
2
t (b a) (2)
Multiply (1) and (2),
(x a) (b x) = sin
2
t (b a) . cos
2
t(b a)
= (b a)
2
sin
2
t cos
2
t
= (a b)
2
sin
2
t cos
2
t
7. Express all the trigonometrical ratios of angle A in terms of sin A where
A is acute.
I Method
Take sin ypotenuse opp.side/h
1
x
A
Let PQR be the right angled triangle in which 90 Q R
P
, A Q R
P Then PR = x, PQ = 1

2 2 2
x 1 QR PQ QR

2
x 1 QR

From the figure
A sin 1
1
x 1
A cos
2
2
(1)

A sin 1
A sin
x 1
x
A tan
2 2
(2)

A sin
A sin 1
x
x 1
A cos
2
2
(3)

A sec 1
1
x 1
1
A sec
2 2
(4)

A sin
1
x
1
ecA cos (5)
A sin A sin and (6)
Thus we have expressed all trigonometric al ratios in terms of A.

Y
P
Q R
A
1
x
2
x 1
II Method
We know that
A sin 1 A cos or A sin 1 A cos 1 A sin A cos
2 2 2 2 2
(1)
Since
A cos
A sin
A tan we have tan
A sin 1
A sin
A
2
(2)
A sin
A sin 1
A tan
1
A cot
2
(3)
A sin 1
1
A cos
1
A sec
2
(4)
A sin
1
ecA cos (5)
sin A = sin A (6)
8. Express all the trigonometrical ratios of angle A in terms of sec A
I Method
Take sec
side adjacent
hypotenuse
1
x
A

Let PQR be the right angled triangle, in which
1 QR , x PQ , A R Q
P , 90 Q R
P
Now PR
2
= PQ
2
QR
2
= x
2
1
P
Q
R
A
1
1 x
2

x
1 x PR
2

sec A = sec A (1)
A sec
1 A sec
x
1 x
A sin
2 2
(2)
A sec
1
x
1
A cos (3)
1
1 A sec
1
1 x
A tan
2 2
(4)
1 A sec
1
1 x
1
A cot
2 2
(5)
1 A sec
A sec
1 x
x
ecA cos
2 2
(6)

II Method
We know that 1 + tan
2
A = sec
2
A tan
2
A = sec
2
A 1
1 A sec A tan
2
(1)
1 A sec
1
A tan
1
A cot
2
(2)
A sec
1
A cos (3)
A sec
1 A sec
A sec
1
1 A sec A cos A tan A sin
2
2
(4)
1 A sec
A sec
A sin
1
A ec cos
2
(5)
sec A = sec A (6)

SAQ 2: If 90 0 and ) 5 / 4 ( cos find the value of
cot sin 4
ec cos 2 cos 3

SAQ 3: If cos = (m
2
n
2
)/ (m
2
+ n
2
) find the values of cot and cosec in
terms of m and n.

4.5 Trigonometrical ratios of certain standard angles
To remember the trigonometrical ratios of the standard angles the following
table is useful.
0 30 45 60 90
Sin 0 1/2
2 / 1
2
3
1
Cos 1
2
3
2 / 1
1/2 0
Tan 0
3 / 1
1 3

Worked examples
1. Find the value of
0 3 cos 60 cos 90 sin 45 sin 2
30 sec 45 tan 2 60 tan
2 2
2 2 2

3
4
4 / 7
3 / 4 1
4 / 1 2 / 3
3 / 4 2 3
1 . 2 / 1 1 . 2 / 1 3
3 / 2 1 2 3
. E . G
3 2
2
2
2
2

3 /
2
sin 2 4 /
2
tan 4 / 3 6 /
2
ec cos 3 /
2
ec cos 3 /
2
sec 3 / 4

2
2 2 2
2 / 3 2 1 4 / 3 2 2 3 / 4

12
7
12
18 9 48 64
2
3
4
3
4
3
16

3. Find x from the equation, 30 tan 60 tan
60 sin 45 cos 8
45 sec 30 ec cos x
2 2
2 2

Given equation is,
2 2
2 2
2
2
3 / 1 3
2 / 3 2 / 1 8
2 2 x

3 / 8 3 / x 8 ., e . i 3 / 1 3
4 / 3 2 / 1 8
x 8

x = 1
4. Find x from (2x 3) (cosec
2
/3 sin
2
/4) = x tan
2
( /4) sec
2
( /6) 2
(2x 3) cosec
2
60 - sin
2
45 ) = x tan
2
45 - sec
2
30 - 2
2 3 / 2 1 x 2 / 1 3 / 2 3 x 2
2
2
2 2

(2x 3) (4/3 ) = x 4/3 2
(2x 3) (5/6) = x 10/3
5(2x 3) = 6x 20; 10x 15 = 6x 20; i.e., 4x = 5.
x = (5/4).
5. Show that
2
3 / cot 1
3 / cot 1
6 / cos 1
6 / cos 1

3 2
3 2
2 / 3
2 / 3 1
30 cos 1
30 cos 1
LHS

2 2
2
1 3
1 3
3 / 1 1
3 / 1 1
60 cot 1
60 cot 1
RHS
RHS LHS
3 2
3 2
3 2 4
3 2 4
3 2 1 3
3 2 1 3

SAQ 4: Prove that sec 30 tan 60 + sin 45 cosec 45 + cos 30 cot 60 =
2
7

4.6 Allied Angles
To connect the trigonometrical ratios of with those of
Thus tan tan and cos cos , sin sin
Similarly cot cot and sec sec , ec cos ec cos
sin (90 ) = cos cosec (90 ) = sec
cos (90 ) = sin sec (90 ) = cosec
tan (90 ) = cot cot (90 ) = tan
To connect the trigonometrical ratios of 90 + with those
sin (90 + ) = cos cosec (90 + ) = sec
cos (90 + ) = sin sec (90 + ) = cosec
tan (90 + ) = cot cot (90 + ) = tan
To express the trigonometrical ratios of 180 in terms of those of
sin (180 ) = sin cosec (180 ) = cosec
cos (180 ) = cos sec (180 ) = sec
tan (180 ) = tan cot (180 ) = cot
To express the trigonometrical ratios of 180 + in terms of those of
Thus
sin (180 + ) = sin
cos (180 + ) = cos
tan (180 + ) = tan
Taking reciprocals,
cosec (180 + ) = cosec
sec (180 + ) = sec
cot (180 + ) = cot
Coterminal angles
Two angles are said to be coterminal angles, if their terminal sides are one
and the same. and 360 + are coterminal angles. and 360 are
coterminal angles.
sin (360 ) = sin ( ) = sin cosec (360 ) = cosec ( ) = cosec
cos (360 ) = cos ( ) = cos sec (360 ) = sec ( ) = sec
tan (360 ) = tan ( ) = tan cot (360 ) = cot ( ) = cot
sin (360 + ) = sin cosec (360 + ) = cosec
cos (360 + ) = cos sec (360 + ) = sec
tan (360 + ) = tan cot (360 + ) = cot

Worked Examples
1. Find the value of (a) sin 120 (b) sec 300 (c) tan 240 (d) cos 1770
(e) cosec 1305 (f) cosec (-1110 )
a) sin 120 =
2
3
60 sin 60 180 sin
b) sec 300 = 2 60 sec 60 360 sec
c) tan 240 = 3 60 tan 60 18 tan
d) cos 1770 = 2 / 3 30 cps 30 90 20 cos
e) cosec 1305 = 225 ec cos 225 360 3 ec cos
= 2 45 ec cos 45 180 ec cos
f) cosec (-1110 ) = 1110 ec cos
= 2 30 ec cos 300 360 3 ec cos
270 cos 360 sec 270 sin 45 tan 3
240 tan 210 cot 240 cot 120 tan
2 2 2 2

tan 120 = 3 60 tan 60 180 tan
cot 240 = 3 / 1 60 cot 60 180 cot
cot 210 = 3 30 cot 30 180 cot
tan 240 = 3 60 tan 60 180 tan
sin 270 = 0 270 cos , 1 360 sec , 1

3
8
3
9 1
0 1 1 1 3
3 3 3 / 1 3
. E . G
2 2 2 2

4 / 7 cot 3 / 5 sin
3 / 4 sin 4 / 5 cot 4 / 3 tan
2

1 45 tan 45 180 tan 135 tan 4 / 3 tan
1 45 cot 45 180 cot 225 cot 4 / 5 cot
2 / 3 60 sin 60 180 sin 240 sin 3 / 4 sin
2 / 3 60 sin 60 360 sin 300 sin 3 / 5 sin
1 45 cot 45 360 cot 315 cot 4 / 7 cot

2
3
2 / 3
4 / 3
1 2 / 3
2 / 3 1 1
. E . G
2

4. Show that 2 2 3
120 cos 135 sin
480 cos 135 sin

sin 135 = sin (180 - 45 ) = sin 45 = 2 / 1
cos 480 = cos (6 90 - 60 ) = - cos 60 = -1/2
cos 120 = -1/2
2 2 3
2 2
2 2
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
LHS
5. Find x given that

3
5
tan
4
7
cot
3
4
ec cos
4
5
cos
4
4
sec
3
5
sin x
2 2 2 2 2 2

2 / 3 60 sin 60 360 sin 300 sin 3 / 5 sin
2 60 sec 60 180 sec 240 sec 3 / 4 sec
2 1 45 cos 45 180 cos 225 cos 4 / 5 cos
3 / 2 60 ec cos 60 180 ec cos 240 ec cos 3 / 4 sec cos
1 45 cot 45 360 cot 315 cot 4 / 7 cot
3 60 tan 60 360 tan 300 tan 3 / 5 tan
The given equation is

2
2
2 2
2
2
3 1
3
2
2
1
2
2
3
x

3
2
x 2 x 3 ., e . i 3 1
3
4
2
1
x 3
6. Simply:
A 90 cot A sec
A 90 ec cos A 180 sec A 180 tan

A sec
A tan A sec
A sec A sec A tan
. E . G
7. Show that

2
cot
2
3
sin
2
sin
2
3
cot cos
2
sin

2
3
cot cos
2
sin LHS
tan cos tan cos cos
2

2
cot
2
3
sin
2
sin RHS
tan cos tan cos cos
2
RHS LHS
8. If
2
and
5
3
cos find the value of
ec cos 4 tan 3
sec 3 sin 5

OP is the bounding line for .

r
x
5
3
cos
4 y ., e . i 5 r 3 x
So coordinates of P = (3, 4)

4
5
ec cos ,
3
4
3
4
x
y
tan ,
3
5
sec ,
5
4
4
y
sin

4
5
4
3
4
3
3
5
3
5
4
5
. E . G

9
1
9
1
5 4
5 4

SAQ 5: If 360 270 and
5
13
sec find the value of
cos 9 sin 4
cos 3 sin 2

Note: As tan is given to be negative, the angle lies in II quadrant and IV
quadrant.

(3, 4) P
Y
X
M 30
5
4

4.7 Compound Angles
The sum of difference of angles like A + B, A B, A + B C etc, are known
as compound angles.
The trigonometrical ratios of A + B, A B can be expressed in term of those
of A and B. It should be noted that sin (A + B) sin A + sin B, cos (A + B)
cos A + cos B etc. This can be easily verified by the example
. 30 sin 60 sin 30 60 sin
i) B sin A cos B cos A sin B A sin
ii) B sin A sin B cos A cos B A cos
iii)
B tan A tan 1
B tan A tan
) B A ( tan
iv) B sin A cos B cos A sin B A sin
v) B sin A sin B cos A cos B A cos
vi)
B tan A tan 1
B tan A tan
) B A ( tan
Worked Examples
1. Find the values of sin 75 , cos 75 and tan 75 .
We know that sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B.
Put A = 45 , B = 30
sin (45 + 30 ) = sin 45 cos 30 + cos 45 sin 30
i.e.,
2 2
1 3
2
1
2
1
2
3
2
1
75 sin

2 2
1 3
75 sin
We know that cos (A + B) = cos A cos B sin A Sin B.
Put A = 45 , B = 30
cos (45 + 30 ) = cos 45 cos 30 - sin 45 sin 30

2 2
1 3
2
1
2
1
2
3
2
1
75 cos ., e . i
Thus, we have
2 2
1 3
75 cos

B tan A tan 1
B tan A tan
B A tan Put A = 45 , B = 30

1 3
1 3
3 / 1 . 1 1
3 / 1 1
30 tan 45 tan 1
30 tan 45 tan
30 45 tan
3 2
1 3
1 3
2

3 2 75 tan
2. Find the values of sin 15 , cos 15 , tan 15
30 sin 45 cos 30 cos 45 sin 30 45 sin 15 sin

2 2
1 3
2
1
2
1
2
3
2
1

2 2
1 3
15 sin
cos 15 = cos (45 30 ) = cos 45 cos 30 + sin 45 sin 30

2 2
1 3
2
1
2
1
2
3
2
1

2 2
1 3
15 cos

30 tan 45 tan 1
30 tan 45 tan
30 45 tan 15 tan
3 2
3 / 1 1 1
3 / 1 1

3. Show that (i)
B cot A cot
1 B cot A cot
B A cot
(ii)
A cot B cot
1 B cot A cot
) B A cot(
i)
B sin A cos B cos A sin
B sin A sin B cos A cos
B A sin
B A cos
) B A cot(
Divide both N & D by sin A sin B

A cot B cot
1 B cot A cot
B sin A sin
B sin A cos
B sin A sin
B cos A sin
B sin A sin
B sin A sin
B sin A sin
B cos A cos
B A cot

B cot A cot
1 B cot A cot
B A cot
ii)
B sin A cos B cos A sin
B sin A sin B cos A cos
B A sin
B A cos
B A cot
Divide both N and D by sin A sin B

A cot B cot
1 B cot A cot
B sin A sin
B sin A cos
B sin A sin
B cos A sin
1
B sin A sin
B cos A cos
B A cot

A cot B cot
1 B cot A cot
B A cot
4. If
2
3
B and A
2
,
5
4
B cos ,
13
5
A sin find
i) sin (A + B) ii) cos (A + B) iii) sin (A B) iv) cos (A B).
Find also the quadrants in which the angles A + B and A B lie.
A sin 1 A cos
2
( ve sign is taken cosine is negative in II
quadrant)
13 / 12 169 / 144 13 / 5 1
2

13
12
A cos
B cos 1 B sin
2
( B is in the III quadrant)

5
3
25 / 16 1
Thus we have sin A = 5/13 sin B = -3/5
cos A= -12/13 cos B = -4/5
i) sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
=
65
16
5
3
13
12
5
14
13
5

ii) cos (A + B) = cos A cos B sin A sin B
=
65
63
5
3
13
5
5
4
13
12

iii) sin (A B) = sin A cos B cos A sin B
=
65
56
5
3
13
12
5
4
13
5

iv) cos (A B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
=
65
33
5
3
13
5
5
4
13
12

Now, since sin (A + B) and cos (A + B) are both positive, A + B is in the
first quadrant. Since sin (A B) is negative and cos (A B) is positive,
A B is in the fourth quadrant.
5. Prove that sin (A + B) sin (A B) = sin
2
A sin
2
B
LHS = sin (A + B) sin (A B)
= (sin A cos B + cos A sin B) (sin A cos B cos A sin B)
= sin
2
A cos
2
B cos
2
A sin
2
B
= sin
2
A (1 sin
2
B) (1 sin
2
A) sin
2
B
= sin
2
A sin
2
A sin
2
- sin
2
B + sin
2
A sin
2
B
= sin
2
A sin
2
B = RHS
6. If
4
B A show that (1 + tan A) 1 + tan B) = 2. Deduce that
. 1 2
8
tan

4
tan B A tan
B tan A tan 1
B tan A tan
., e . i
tan A + tan B = 1 tan A tan B (1)
LHS = (1 + tan A) (1 + tan B)
= 1 + tan A + tan B + tan A tan B
= 1 + (1 tan A tan B) + tan A tan B using (1)
= 2
(1 + tan A) (1 + tan B) = 2 (2)
Put A = B in (2). (1 + tan A)
2
= 2
i.e., 2 A tan 1 1 2 A tan ., e . i
But
8
A ,
4
A 2 1 2
8
tan
7. If ,
7
1
B A tan ,
3
1
A tan find tan B.

B tan A tan 1
B tan A tan
B A tan
B tan 3 / 1 1
B tan 3 / 1
7
1
., e . i

B tan 3
B tan 3 1
7
1
7 + 21 tan B = 3 tan B tan B = -2/11
8. Show that cot 2 + tan = cosec 2

cos sin2
sin sin2 cos cos2
cos
sin
2 sin
2 cos
tan 2 cot LHS
RHS 2 ec cos
2 sin
1
cos 2 sin
cos
cos . 2 sin
2 cos

SAQ 6: If ,
a sin n 1
a cos a sin n
tan
2
then show that tan n 1 tan

4.8 Multiple and Sub-multiple angle
The angles 2A, 3A, 4A etc., are called multiple angles. And
2
A 3
,
3
A
,
2
A
etc.,
are called submultiple angles.
sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A
cos 2A = cos
2
A sin
2
A = 1 2 sin
2
A
= 2 cos A
2
1
tan 2A =
A tan 1
A tan 2
2

To prove that
i)
A tan 1
A tan 1
A cos
2
2
2

ii)
A tan 1
A tan 2
A sin
2
2

iii) cot A tan A = 2 cot 2A
iv) cot A + tan A = 2 cosec 2A
v) A tan
A 2 cos 1
A 2 cos 1
2

i)
A sin A cos
A sin A cos
A cos
A sin
1
A cos
A sin
1
A 2 tan 1
A 2 tan 1
RHS
2 2
2 2
2
2
2
2

LHS A 2 cos
1
A 2 cos

ii)
A sin A cos
A cos A sin 2
A cos
A sin
1
A cos
A sin
2
A tan 1
A tan 2
RHS
2 2
2
2 2

LHS A 2 sin
1
A 2 sin

iii)
A cos A sin
A sin A cos
A cos
A sin
A sin
A cos
A tan A cot LHS
2 2

A 2 sin
A 2 cos 2
A cos A sin 2
A cos 2
A cos A sin
A 2 cos
2

iv)
A cos A sin
A sin A cos
A cos
A sin
A sin
A cos
A tan A cot LHS
2 2

A 2 sin
2
A cos A sin 2
2
A cos A sin
1

= 2 cosec 2A = RHS
v) RHS A tan
A cos 2
A sin 2
1 A cos 2 1
A sin 2 1 1
A 2 cos 1
A 2 cos 1
LHS
2
2
2
2
2

4.8.1 Function of half angles

2
cos
2
sin 2 sin

2
sin
2
cos cos
2 2

2
sin 2 1 cos
2

1
2
cos 2 cos
2


2
tan 1
2
tan 2
tan
2

To prove that i) sin 3A = 3 sin A 4 sin
3
A ii) cos 3A = 4 cos
3
A 3 cos A
iii)
A tan 3 1
A tan A tan 3
A 3 tan
2
3

i) sin 3A = sin(2A + A
= sin 2 A cos A + cos 2 A sinA
= (2 sin A cos A) cos A + (1 2 sin
2
A) sin A
( sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A, cos 2A = 1 2 sin
2
A)
= 2 sin A cos2 A + sin A 2 sin3 A
= 2 sin A(1 sin2 A) + sin A 2 sin3 A
= 2 sin A 2 sin3 a + sin A 2 sin3 A
= 3 sin A 4 sin3 A
sin 3A = 3 sin A 4 sin
3
A
ii) cos 3A = cos(2A + A)
= cos 2 A cos A sin 2A sin A
= (2 cos
2
A 1) cos A 2 sin A cos A sin A
( cos 2A = 2 cos
2
A 1, sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A)
= 2 cos
3
A cos A 2 cos A sin
2
A
= 2 cos
3
A cos A 2 cos A (1 cos
2
A)
= 2 cos
3
A cos A 2 cos A + 2 cos
3
A
= 4 cos
3
A 3 cos A
cos3A = 4 cos
3
A 3 cos A
iii) tan (3A) = tan(2A + A)
=
A tan A 2 tan 1
A tan A 2 tan

=
A tan
A tan 1
A tan 2
1
A tan
A tan 1
A tan 2
2
2

=
A tan 1
A tan A tan 2 A tan 1
A tan 1
) A tan 1 ( A tan A tan 2
2
2
2
2

=
A tan 2 A tan 1
A tan A tan A tan 2
2 2
3

=
A tan 3 1
A tan A tan 3
2
3

A tan 3 1
A tan A tan 3
A 3 tan
2
3

4
1 5
18 sin

4
1 5
36 cos

4
1 5
72 cos

4
1 5
54 sin
Worked Examples
1. Show that A 45 tan
A 2 sin 1
A 2 cos


A cos A sin 2 A sin A cos
A sin A cos
A 2 sin 1
A 2 cos
LHS
2 2
2 2

2
A sin A cos
A sin A cos A sin A cos

A tan 1
A tan 1
A sin A cos
A sin A cos
(by dividing both N & D by cos A)
RHS LHS
A tan 1
A tan 1
A tan 45 tan 1
A tan 45 tan
A 45 tan RHS
2. Show that A tan
A 2 sin A 2 cos 1
A 2 sin A 2 cos 1

A cos a sin 2 A 2 sin & 1 A cos 2
A sin 2 1 A 2 cos
A cos A sin 2 1 A cos 2 2
A cos A sin 2 A sin 2 1 1
LHS
2
2
2
2

A cos A sin 2 A cos 2
A cos A sin 2 A sin 2
2
2

RHS A tan
A cos
A sin
A sin A cos A cos 2
) A cos A (sin A sin 2

3. If
B sin
B cos 1
A tan show that tan 2A = tan B.
Give that ,
B sin
B cos 1
A tan
i.e.,
2
B
cos
2
B
sin 2
2
B
2 sin 2
2
B
cos
2
B
sin 2
2
B
sin 2 1 1
A tan
2

2
B
tan
2
B
cos
2
B
sin

2
tan tan
B
A
Now, B
B
B
A
A
A t an
2
t an 1
2
t an 2
t an 1
t an 2
2 t an
2
2

B tan A 2 tan
4. If
7
1
tan and
3
1
tan show that
4
2

4
3
9
8
3
2
9
1
1
3
1
2
tan 1
tan 2
2 tan
1
28
25
28
25
7
1
7
3
1
7
1
4
3
tan 2 tan 1
tan 2 tan
2 tan
2

1 2 tan
4
2
5. If t
2
tan show that i)
2
t 1
t 2
sin ii)
2
2
t 1
t 1
cos
i) sin =
2
cos
2
sin 2
=
2
tan 1
2
tan 2
2
sin
2
cos
2
cos
2
sin 2
2 2 2

[by dividing both N & D by
2
cos
2

=
2
t 1
t 2

ii) cos =
2
sin
2
cos
2 2

=
2
sin
2
cos
2
sin
2
cos
2 2
2 2

=
2
tan 1
2
tan 1
2
2

2
cos
2
by D & N both dividing by
=
2
2
t 1
t 1

Aliter:

adj
opp
t
2
tan

In the ABC where C = 90 ,
2
B
AC = t, BC = 1
2
t 1 AB

B C
A
2
t 1
0/2

2 2
t 1
1
cos ,
t 1
t
2
sin
i)
2
cos
2
sin 2 sin

2
2 2
t 1
t 2
t 1
1
t 1
t
2
ii)
2
2
2
2
2
2 2
t 1
t 1
t 1
t
t 1
1
2
sin
2
cos cos
SAQ 7: Show that 2 ec cos
45 tan 1
45 tan 1
2
2

4.9 Summary
In this unit we study the concept of radian measure and its applications. The
basics of Trigonometric functions and trigonometric ratios of standard angles is
discussed here with examples. Allied angles and compound angles is a
explained in a simple manner with illustrative examples wherever necessary.

1. If ABC is any triangle show that
2
C B
sin
2
A
cos
2. Find the value of in between 0 and 360 and satisfying the equation
0
3
1
tan
3. Show that the value of tan 3 cot can not lie between
3
1
and 3.
4. Show that sec (45 + A) sec [45 - A) = 2 sec 2A.
5. Show that cos 2 4 cos 2 2 2

4.11 Answers
1. Angle through which the wheel turns in one minutes = 25 2 = 50
Angle described in one sec . cm 50 r ,
6
5
60
50

s = r = 5 /6 50 = 130.9 cm
Distance covered by a point in the rim in 1 sec is 130.9 cms.
2. Since cos = (4/5) and (adj/hyp), consider a right angled triangle ABC
in which C = 90 , B = , BC = 4, AB = 5; clearly AC = 3.
cos = 4/5, sin = 3/5
cosec = 5/3, cot = 4/3

Substituting these in the given expression
2
43
4
86
15 / ) 40 36 (
15 / ) 50 36 (
) 3 / 8 ( ) 5 / 12 (
) 3 / 10 ( ) 5 / 12 (
) 3 / 4 ( 2 ) 5 / 3 ( 4
) 3 / 5 ( 2 ) 5 / 4 ( 3
. E . G
3. ABC is a triangle in which 90 C
and B

A
B
C
4
5

3
A
B
C
m
2
n
2

m
2
+ n
2

2mn
Since cos
2 2
2 2
n m
n m

BC = m
2
n
2
and AB = m
2
+ n
2

AC
2
= AB
2
BC
2

= (m
2
+ n
2
)
2
(m
2
n
2
)
2

= m
4
+ n
4
+ 2 m
2
n
2
(m
4
+ n
4
2 m
2
n
2
)
= 4m
2
n
2

mn 2 n m 4 AC
2 2

Now
mn 2
n m
opp
hyp
ec cos ,
mn 2
n m
hyp
adj
cot
2 2 2 2

4. LHS = sec 30 tan 60 + sin 45 cosec 45 + cos 30 cot 60

3
1
2
3
2
2
1
3
3
2

RHS
2
7
2
1
3
2
1
1 2
5.
r
x
13
5
cos implies
5
13
sec
x = 5, r = 13

Now
2 2 2 2 2 2
x r y , r y x
= 13
2
5
2
= 12
2

y = 12.
Here we have to take y = 12
So P (5, 12)

13
5
cos ;
13
12
r
y
sin
P (5, 12)
Y
2
M 5
O

13
X

31
3
93
9
45 48
15 24
13
5
9
13
12
4
13
5
3
13
12
2
. E . G
6.
a sin n 1
a cos a sin n
tan
2

a tan n a sec
a tan n
2 2
(Divide Nr and Dr. by cos
2
a)
a tan n 1 1
a tan n
a tan n a tan 1
a tan n
tan
2 2 2

LHS =
2
2
tan n 1 1
n tan n
1
tan n 1 1
tan n
tan
tan tan 1
tan tan
tan
RHS tan n 1
tan n tan n 1 1
tan n tan n 1 tan
2 2
3

7.
45 sin 45 cos
45 sin 45 cos
45 cos
45 sin
1
45 cos
45 sin
1
LHS
2 2
2 2
2
2
2
2

2 ec cos
2 sin
1
2 90 cos
1
45 2 cos
1

Terminal Questions
1. In any triangle ABC we have A + B + C = 180

2
C B
90
2
A
or C B 180 A
Thus,
2
C B
sin
2
C B
90 cos
2
A
cos
2.
3
1
tan
We know that
3
1
30 tan
Consider

3
1
30 tan 30 180 tan
3
1
150 tan ., e . i (1)

3
1
30 tan 30 360 tan
3
1
330 tan (2)
From (1) and (2) it follows that = 150 , = 330
3. say x
tan 3 1
tan 3
tan 3 1 tan
tan tan 3
cot tan
2
2
2
3
3

2
2
1 x 3
3 x 1 x 3
1 x 3
3 x
tan
Since tan
2
is positive, either , 3 x or
3
1
x so x cannot lie between
. 3 and
3
1

4. A 45 90 sec A 45 sec LHS
= sec (45 + A) cosec (45 + A)
=
A 45 cos A 45 sin 2
2
A 45 sin A 45 cos
1

= A 2 sec 2
A 2 cos
2
A 2 90 sin
2
A 45 2 sin
2

5. LHS = 1 2 cos 2 2 2 2
2

= 2 cos 4 2 2 2 cos 4 2 2
2 2

= 2 cos 1 2 2 cos 2 2
= cos 2 cos 4 1 cos 2 1 2
2 2

Unit 5 Limits and Continuity
Structure
5.1 Introduction
Objectives
5.2 The Real Number System
5.3 The Concept of Limit
5.4 Concept of Continuity
5.5 Summary
5.7 Answers

5.1 Introduction
In this chapter you will be recalling the properties of number. You will be
studying the limits of a function of a discrete variable, represented as a
sequence and the limit of function of a real variable. Both these limits
describe the long term behaviour of functions. You will be studying
continuity which is essential for describing a process that goes on without
abrupt changes. You will see a good number of examples for understanding
the concepts clearly. As mathematics is mastered only by doing, examples
are given for practice.
You are familiar with numbers and using them in day to day life. Before
introducing the concept of limits let us refresh our memory regarding various
types of numbers.

Objectives:
understand the concept of limit.
apply the concept of continuity in problems.
find whether a given function is continuous or not.

5.2 The Real Number System
You are using numbers like i 3 2 , i 1 , i , i , ,
7
4
,
4
3
, 3 , 2 etc.
The last two numbers 1 + i and 2 3i are complex numbers. The rest of
them are real numbers.
The numbers 1, 2, 3, are called natural numbers.
N = {1, 2, 3, ..}
The numbers .. 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, are integers.
,........ 2 , 1 , 0 Z or .......... .......... , 3 , 2 , 1 , 0 , 1 , 2 , 3 .....,
The set of quotients of two integers, the denominator not equal to 0 are
called rational numbers and the set of rational numbers is denoted by Q.
Usually these numbers are represented as points on a horizontal line called
the real axis. (Refer to Fig. 5.1)

Fig. 5.1 Representation of numbers
After representing the integers and rational numbers. So there are no gaps
in the real line and so it is called continuum.
We can also represent the relations greater than or less than
geometrically. If a < b, then a lies to the left of b in the real line (and b lies to
the right of a).
The modulus function
The modulus function simply represents the numerical value of a number. It
is defined as follows:

7
4

3
2 1
0
1
2
3
4
3

2

0 x if x
0 x if x
x
For example, 0 0 , 2 2 , 2 2
Note: b a b a
SAQ: (Self Assessment Questions).
Choose the right answer
1. If a > b, then is b a
A) Positive
B) Negative
C) Zero
2. Choose the right answer
a b b a is equal to
A) b a 2
B) 0
C) 2 (a b)
D) 2 (b a)
An Important Logical Symbol
In Mathematics, we use symbols instead of sentences. For example, 3 is
greater than 2 is written as 3 > 2. Throughout the test we used the symbol
(read as implies)
If x > 2, then x > 4 is written as (x > 2) (2x > 4).
Generally If P, then Q is written as
P Q. (P is given and Q is the conclusion)
Note: P Q is different from Q P. Q P is called the converse of P Q.

The distance function
If a and b are two real numbers. Then the distance between a and b is
defined as | a b|. Refer Figure 5.2. Why we choose |a b| as the distance
between a and b should be clear from figure 5.2. When b > a, then the
distance is b a; when a > b, it is a b. Both a b and b a are equal to
|a b|. So wherever a and b are on the real line, the distance is |a b|.

Figure 5.2 Distance function
The distance function satisfies the following properties.
1. b a 0 b a
2. a b b a
3. b c c a b a

5.3 The Concept of Limit
The concept of limit is an important concept in Mathematics, which is used
to describe the long term behaviour of a phenomenon. You might have
heard about the half life of a radioactive substance. It is the time required for
a radioactive substance to lose half is radioactivity. This is used in carbon
dating. Carbon dating is a method of calculating the age of a very old object
a
b
b a
b
a
a b
by measuring the radioactive carbon it contains. Thus the long term state of
an old object is described by the concept of limit.
Function of a discrete variable and a continuous variable
The Concept of limit is associated with functions. A function from a set A to
a set B is a rule which assigns, to each element of A a unique (one and only
one) element of B. Examples of functions are the marks of students in a
class of 100 in a particular subject or the B.P. or sugar level in blood of a
particular student in the class.
There are two types of functions. The first is a function from the set N of
natural numbers (i.e., N = {1, 2, 3,.}. If the students in a class are
numbered as 1, 2, ., 100.
Then the mark in a particular subject is a function from {1 2, .., 100} to {0,
1, 2, ., 100) if the marks are given as percentages. This is called a
function of a discrete variable. (Dont be afraid of the term variable. It is a
simply a symbol which can be replaced by value you choose).
Definition A function of a discrete variable is a function from N or a subset
of N to the set R of all real numbers.
The second type of functions refer to functions from R to R. It is called a
function of a continuously. So it can be treated as a function of a continuous
real variable t, t denoting time.
Definition: A function of a continuous real variable or simply a function of a
real variable is a function from R to R. (or [a, b]). Here [a, b] denote the set
of all real numbers between the numbers a and b).
Functions of a discrete variable
We have defined a function of a discrete variable as a function from N
{1, 2, 3, } or subset of N to the set R of real numbers. A convenient way to
representing this function is by listing the images of 1, 2, 3, etc. If f denotes
the function then the list.
F(1), F(2), F(3), .. (*)
Represents the function f usually f(1), f(2) are written as a
1
, a
2
etc.
The list given in (*) is called a sequence.
In a sequence the order of the elements appearing in it is important. A
common example of a sequence is a queue you see in a reservation
counter. Then a
1
is the person standing in front of the counter getting his
reservation done. a
2
is the person behind a
1
etc. the order of persons in the
queue is important. You wont certainly be happy if the order of the persons
in the queue is changed.
The limit of a sequence
From the above discussion, two points should be clear to you.
1. A sequence is an arrangement of real numbers as the first element,
second element etc.
2. A sequence represents a function of a discrete variable.
We denote a sequence by (a
n
) and a
n
denotes the nth term.
Assume that you have a string of length 1 cm. Denote it by a
1
. Cut the string
into two halves and throw away one half. Denote the remaining half by a
2
.
Then
2
1
a
2
. Repeat the process indefinitely.
Then
3
4
2
3
2
1
a ,
2
1
a etc. After (n + 1) repetitions, you are left with a
string of length .
2
1
a
n
1 n
Intuitively you feel that the string becomes
smaller and smaller and you are left with a string whose length is nearly
zero in the long run. At the same time you realize that you will have some
bit of positive length at any time. Also you can make the string as small as
you please provided you repeat the process sufficient number of times. In
this case we say that a
n
tends to 0 as n tends to infinity a
n
tends to 0
means 0 a
n
is as small as we please/ n lends to infinity means we
repeat the process sufficient number of times.
Now we are in a position to define the limit of a sequence (a
n
)
Definition: Let (a
n
) be a real sequence. Then (a
n
) tends to a number a, if
given a positive number , (pronounced as epsilon), there exists a natural
number n
0
such that
a a
n
for all
0
n n . (1.1)
In this case we write . a a It or a a
n
a n
n
We also say (a
n
) converges to a.
Note: a a
n
is the numerical value of a
n
a. For example | 2 | = 2 and
| 3 | = 3, n
0
is a stage.
n > n
0
means after a certain stage a a
n
simply means that a
n
comes
as close to a as we choose.
Example: Show that .
n
1
a where 0 a
n n

Solution: .
n
1
0 a So .
n
1
0
n
1
0 a
n n

Let be a given positive number.
n
1
0 a
n
when
1
n .
Let n
0
be the smallest natural number .
1

(For example, if , 7 . 147
1
take n
0
= 148). Then .
n
1
0

If n > n
0
, then .
n
1
n
1
0
Hence 0 a
n
when . n n
0

This proves (1.1) with 0 in place of a.
Hence . 0 ) a (
n

Example: Show that 0 a
n
where
n
n
2
1
a .
Solution: As in Example, .
2
1
0 a
n
n

For ,
2
1
n
we require
1
log n or
1
2
2
n

By choosing n
0
to be the smallest natural number greater than
1
log
2
, we
see that (1.1) is satisfied for n
0
.
Hence . 0
2
1
n

You can see that several similar sequences tend to 0. Some of them are
,.
log
1
........ ,
4
1
,
3
1
....... ,
n
1
,
n
1
,
n
1
n n n 4 3 2
(1.2)
Algebra of limits of sequences
If (a
n
) and (b
n
) are two sequences, then we can get a new sequence by
adding them. Define c
n
= a
n
+ b
n
. Then (c
n
) is a sequence and we can write
(c
n
) = (a
n
+ (b
n
). We can also subtract one sequence (b
n
) from another
sequence (a
n
), multiply two sequences etc. We can also multiply a
sequence (a
n
) by a constant k.
Let us answer the following questions.
1. What happens to the limit of sum of two sequences ?
2. What happens to the limit of difference, product of two sequences ?
We summarize the results as a theorem.
Theorem( ): It (a
n
) and (b
n
) and two sequences converging to a and b
respectively, then
a) (a
n
+ b
n
) a + b
b) (a
n
b
n
) a b
c) (ka
n
) ka
d) (a
n
b
n
) ab
e)
b
a
b
a
n
n
provided b
n
0 for all n and b 0.
Proof: We prove only a) > 0 be a positive number.
As (a
n
) a, we can apply (5.5) by taking
2
in place of . Thus we get a
natural number n
0
such that
2
a a
n
for all
0
n n .. (1.3).
Similarly, using the convergence of (b
n
), we an get n
1
such that
2
b b
n
for all
1
n n .. (1.4).
Let m = maximum of n
0
and n
1
. Then (5.3) and (5.4) are simultaneously true
for n > m.
Thus,
2
b b ,
2
a a
n n
for all m n (1.5)
From (1.5) we get
2 2
b b a a b b a a b a b a
n n n n n n

for n > m.
Thus (1.1) holds good for the sequence (a
n
+ b
n
) in place of (a
n
) and a + b
(in place of a)
Hence (a
n
+ b
n
) a + b
Note: The choice of m may puzzle you. When
2
a a
n
for all n > 1000,
then certainly
2
a a
n
for all n > 1001, 1002 etc. So
2
a a
n
for
all n > m, m being greater than 1000.
Remark: The other subdivisions can be proved similarly. As you are more
interested in applications you need not get tied down by the technical details
of the proof. In mathematics, there is a commandment, Though Shall Not
Divide By Zero. If b
n
= 0, then
n
n
b
a
is not defined. So is
b
a
when b = 0. So
when you apply (2), see to it that the conditions are satisfied. (b
n
0 and
b 0). With this theoretical foundation, you are in a position to find limits of
sequences.
Worked Examples
W.E.: Show that a constant sequence is convergent (A sequence
(A sequence (a
n
) is a constant sequence if a
n
= k for all n).
Solution a
n
= k for all n. Consider k a
n
.
0 k k k a
n

As 0 < , for every positive number , for all n > 1, that is, n
0
= 1 for all >
0. So a constant sequence converges to its constants value.
W.E.: Find the nth term of the sequence ..... .......... ,
5
7
,
4
6
,
3
5
, 2 , 3
Solution: To discover a pattern in the terms of the sequence start from the
third term.
3
3 2
3
5
a
3

4
4 2
4
6
a
4

5
5 2
5
7
a
5

6
6 2
6
8
a
6

So a positive choice is ,
n
n 2
a
n
when a
n
is written in this way
, 3
1
1 2
a
1
,
3
5
3
3 2
a ,
2
2 2
a
3 2
etc.
To find the limit of the sequence (if it exists), with 1
n
2
n
n
n
2
a
n

Taking
n
1
b
n
and c
n
= 1, we get a
n
= 2b
n
+ c
n

As 0
n
1
b
n
and , 1 1 c
n

1 1 0 2 a
n
. Hence the given sequence converges to 1.
W.E.: Evaluate
2
2
n
n 4 n 3 2
n n 2
It
Solution As we know that 0
n
1
and , 0
n
1
2
we try to write the n
th

term of the given sequence in terms of .
n
1
and
n
1
2

2
2
n
n 4 n 3 2
n n 2
a

2
2
2
2
n
n 4 n 3 2
n
n n 2

4
n
3
n
2
1
n
1
n
2
2
2

As 0
n
1
,
n
1
2
and (1) 1,
1 1 0 0 2 1 It
n
1
It
n
1
It 2 1
n
1
n
2
It
2 2
n

Similarly,
4 4 0 3 0 2 4
n
3
n
1
It
2
n

By theorem ( ),
4
1
n 4 n 3 2
n n 2
It
2
2
n

Note: It is difficult to prove that a given sequence is not convergent. For
proving convergence we start with > 0 and find a stage n
o
satisfying ( ).
To prove that a sequence is not convergent we have to prove that ( ) does
not hold good for every stage for a particular > 0 and this is certainly
difficult. However we can prove that certain sequences are not convergent
indirectly as the following example shows.
W.E.: Show that the sequence 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1 , is not
convergent.
Solution: We can write the sequence as (a
n
) where
even is n when 1
odd is n when 1
a
n

Suppose (a
n
) a for some real number a. the number has to satisfy one
and only one of the following conditions: a < 1, 1 < a < 1, a > 1.
(See Fig. 5.3 representing these cases).

Fig. 5.3: Illustration of W.E.
In case 1 a a , 1
n
if n is odd. So we cannot prove ( ) in this case
(for > 2).
a
5
1 a
5
1 1
5
a
Case
5
Case
2
Case
3
In case 2 a a , 3
n
if n is even and we cannot prove ( ) for > 2.
In case 2, if a is closer to 1, then 1 a a
n
for even n. If a is close to 1,
then 1 a a
n
for odd n. If a = 1, then 1 a a , 3
n
for even n. So ( )
cannot hold good for > 2 or = 2. So the given sequence is not convergent.
Try to answer the following questions before you proceed to the next section.
S.A.Q. 3: Which of the following sets can be arranged as a sequence?
a) The passengers in a 3 ties coach
b) The people attending a meeting in a beach
c) The people living in Karnataka
d) The students of I M.Sc. Biotechnology in a college
The Limit of a Function of a Real Variable
You are now familiar with natural numbers and real numbers. The natural
numbers appear as discrete points along the real line and we are able to
fix some element say 1 as the first natural number, 2 as the second natural
number etc. So the natural numbers appear as the terms of a sequence. But
it is not possible to arrange the real numbers as a sequence. If a real
number a is the n
th
element and b is the (n+1)
th
element, where will you
place
2
b a
. It appears between the n
th
element and the (n+1)
th
element. If
you take
2
b a
as the (n+1)
th
element, where will you place ?
2
b a
a
2
1

So you feel initiatively that real numbers can not be arranged as a sequence.
When we consider numbers between a and b. We consider points lying
between the points representing the numbers a and b. The numbers lying
between two numbers a and b from an interval. So interval on the real line
is the basic concept. Usually we define a function of a real variable on an
interval. We define various types of intervals as follows (refer to Table 5.1)

Table 5.1 Intervals
Set notation Interval Graphical representation
} b x a | R x {

(a, b)
} b x a | R x {

[a, b]
} b x a | R x {

[a, b)
} b x a | R x {

(a, b]
} x a | R x { [a, )

} x a | R x {
(a, )

} x x | R x { ( , a]

} a x | R x { ( , a)

R ( , )

Note: Here (a represents inclusion of all numbers > a. [a represents the
inclusion of all numbers > a].
is not a number. It simply represents the inclusion of all large ve
numbers.
represents the inclusion of all large positive real numbers.
(a, b) and [a, b] are called open interval and closed interval.
So it is natural to represent R as the interval ,

a
b
a
b
a
b
a
b
a
a
a
a
S.A.Q.4
a) Find all natural numbers in the intervals [3, ), (3, ), ( , 3) and
( , 3]
b) Find all integers lying in the intervals given in a
c) Find all numbers in [2, 2], (2, 2)
Example; Represent 2 3 x / R x as an interval
Solution: 2 3 x represents two inequalities x 3 < 2, (x 3) < 2.
When x 3 < 2, x < 5
When (x 3) < 2, x 3 > 2, or x > 3 2 = 1
Hence the given set is {1, 5}
We can also arrive at this interval geometrically (see Fig 5.4)

Figure 5.4
S.A.Q.5: Represent the sets 2 3 x / R x ,
2 3 x / R x , 2 3 x / R x as intervals.
Now we have enough background to define the limit of a function f of a real
variable x. In the case of functions of a discrete variable or sequence, we
defined ) n ( f It or a It
n
n
n
. This limit represented the long term behaviour
of f. In the case of a function of a real variable, we can discuss the
behaviour of f(x), when the variable x comes close to a real number a. In
other ways we will be defining ). x ( f It
a x
We want to write the statement x

2 5
3
4 5
2 2
comes close to a rigorously. The geometric representation of real numbers
can be used for this purpose. When do you say that your house is near your
college? When the distance between your house and your college is small.
In the same way, we can say that x is close to when | x a| is small. If
smallness is defined by a distance of say 0.1, then x is close to a if
|x a| < 0.1 of course the measure of smallness is relative. For a person
living in Mangalore, Manipal is not near Mangalore. For a person living in
US, Mangalore and Manipal are near to each other. So smallness is
decided by the choice of a positive number (This was done in defining the
limit of a sequence also)
Before giving a rigorous definition of limit, let us consider two examples.
Consider F(x) = 1 + x. Let us try to see what happens when x is close to 1.
We evaluate f(x), when x = 0.9, 0.99, 0.999, 1.1, 1.01, 1.001
F(0.9) = 1.9 f(0.99) = 1.99 f(0.999) = 1.999
F(1.1) = 2.1 f(1.01) = 2.01 f(1.001) = 2.001
Note all these values are near the value 2.
Consider another function . 1 x ,
1 x
1 x
x g
2

(Why dont we define g(1) ? If we put x = 1 in ,
1 x
1 x
2
then we get
0
0
which
is not defined).
As in the case of f(x), we compute some function values.
99 . 1 99 . 0 g 9 . 1
1 9 . 0
1 9 . 0
9 . 0 g
2

g(0.999) = 1.999 g(1.1) = 2.1
g(1.01) = 2.01 g(1.001) = 2.001

Note: These values are close to 2. Hence we can say that x close to
1 both f(x) and g(x) are closed to 2 and we can take 2 as
x f It
1 x
or x g It
1 x
.
Now let us formulate a rigorous definition of x f It
a x

Definition: Let f be a function of a real variable. Then I x F It
a x
if given a
positive number There exists a positive number such that
I x f a x 0 . (1.6)
Let us analyze the definition.
We have two choice of positive numbers ( and ) and two conditions
I x f and a x 0 Given any positive number there exists a
positive number such that the condition P " a x 0 " Implies the
condition " I x f " Q
The choice of depends on the given number . The function f need not be
defined at x = a.
The condition P says that x is close to a.
The condition Q says that f(x) is close to I
We can also express the definition geometrically.
Given > 0, there exists > 0 such that
I , I x F a , a a , a x
In figure 5.5, the point (a, I) is measured as 0, meaning that the functional
value of f at x = a is not known or defined.

Figure 5.5: Definition of limit of function
The images of points in a , a ) a , a ( under the function f is a subset
of the interval (I , I + ) along the vertical axis.
W.E.: Evaluate 6 x 2 It
3 x

Solution: Here f(x) = 2x 6
Choose any > 0. We have to choose a such that (5.5) is satisfied. We
have to guess the value of I. When x comes close to 3.2x 6 should come
close to 2(3) 6 = 0. Take I = 0. Then
0 6 x 2 0 ) x ( f
3 x 2

2
3 x
So, choose ,
2
then
0 ) x ( f
2
3 x 0
Hence, 0 6 x 2 It
3 x

Note: f(3) = 2(3) 6 = 0. In this case the function f is defined at x = 3 and
f(3) coincides with x f It
3 x
.
W.E.: Evaluate 1 x 2 It
2
0 x

Solution: Let 0 . As in the previous problem, we can guess the value of I
it is 1 1 ) 0 ( 2
2

1 1 x 2 1 x f
2

2
x 2

2
x
Hence for a given 0, the corresponding is chosen as
2
and condition
(1.6) holds good. Hence 1 1 x 2 It
2
0 x

W.E.: Evaluate x It
0 x

Solution: Proceed as in the previous example. In this problem
2
and
0 x It
0 x

General Remark While evaluating , x f It
a x
if f(a) is defined or it is not of
the form ,
0
0
and f(x) is defined by a single expression, it will turn out that
. a f x f It
a x
If f(a) is not defined or f is given by two different expressions.
Then we have to guess the value of the limit and prove condition (1.6).
In some problems, f(x) may be given as quotient of two expressions but it
may reduce to an easier function on simplification. In such cases the
problem will reduce to an easier one.
W.E.: Evaluate
2 x
2 x 3 x 2
It
2
2 x

Solution: When x = 2, f(x) is of the form .
0
0
So we try to see when x 2 is a
factor of
2x
2
3x 2, 2x
2
3x 2 = 2x
2
4x + x 2 = 2x (x 2) + 5 (x 2) = (2x + 5)
(x 2).
When x 2, x does not assume the value 2. So,

2 x
2 x 1 x 2
2 x
2 x 3 x 2
2

= 2x + 1 on canceling x 2, since x 2 0.
So the given limit reduces to
5 1 x 2 It
2 x
(as in W.E.)
Algebra of Limits of Functions
It is not necessary that we use the definition for every problem. We
study important properties of limits of functions as a theorem. We can
evaluate limits using this theorem (noted as a proposition).
Proposition:
a) a x It
a x

b) k k It
a x
, where k is a constant
c)
2 2
a x
a x It
d)
3 3
a x
a x It
e)
n n
a x
a x It
f) a x It
a x
when a > 0
Theorem: Let k be a constant, f and g functions having limit at a and n a
positive integer. Then the following hold good.
a) k k It
a x

b) x f It k x kf It
a x a x

c) x g It x f It x g x f It
a x a x a x

d) x g It x f It x g x f It
a x a x a x

e) x g It . x f It x g . x f It
a x a x a x

f) ,
x It
x f It
x g
x f
It
a x
a x
a x
provided 0 x g It
a x

g)
n
a x
n
a x
x f It x f It
h) x f It x f It
a x a x
provided x f It
a x
is positive
You need not prove these results. It is enough if you clearly understand the
theorem and proposition and apply them for evaluating limits.
SAQ 6: Evaluate the following limits
a)
n 2
1 n 2
It
n
b)
1 n
n
It
n
c) 100 It
n

d)
2
2
n
n 2 n 3 5
7 n 4 n 3
It e)
2
2
n
n n 1
n n
It f)
3
3
n
n 1
n 1
It
g)
2
2
n
n n 1
n 2
It h)
2
2
n
n
n 9 n 3 2
It
SAQ 7: Evaluation the following limits
a)
2
1 x
x x 1 It b)
2
1 x
x x 1
1
It c)
2
0 x
x 4 x 3 2 It
d)
2 x
4 x
It
2
2 x
e)
1 x
1 x
It
3
1 x
f)
2
2
1 x
x x 1
x 3 x 2
It
g)
2 x
2 x 3 x
It
2
2 x
h)
1 x
1 x
It
2
1 x

S.A.Q.8 If , m x g It and I x f It
a x a x
evaluate the following
a) x g 3 x f 2 It
a x
b) x g x f x g x f It
a x

c)
2 2
a x
x g x f It d)
2 a x
x g 1
x f
It
e)
x g 4
x g 2 x f
It
a x
if m is positive f) x f 2 x g It
a x
if I, m > 0.

5.4 Concept of Continuity
In mathematics and sciences, we use the word continuous to describe a
process that goes on without abrupt changes. For example, the growth of a
plant, the water level in a tank and the speed of a moving car in a four-base
highway are exhibiting continuous behaviour.
Before defining continuous functions, let us look at the graphs of three
functions.

Figure 5.6: Two discontinuous functions and a continuous function

The first graph has a break at x = a in the second graph also there is a
break at x = a. If you ignore the point corresponding to x = a, there is no
break for the break occurs at x = a the third function has no break. So it
should be intuitively clear to you that the first two functions are not
continuous while the third function is continuous.
Let us formulate a rigorous definition of continuity.
Definition: Let f be a function of a real variable defined in an open interval
containing a. Then f is continuous at a if a f x f It
a x

Note: In order to define continuity at a, we need three conditions.
1) x f It
a x
exists
2) f(a) is defined
3) ) a ( f x f It
a x

Even if one of them fails, then the function f is not continuous at a.
Now look at Fig. 5.4. The first function say f has no limit at a, i.e., x f It
a x

does not exist. For the second function, x f It
a x
exists but . a f x f It
a x

The third function is continuous.
Example: Define f as follows:

2 x if 3
2 x if
2 x
4 x
x f
2

Is f continuous at 2?
Solution:
2 x
2 x 2 x
It
2 x
4 x
It
2 x
2
2 x

2 x It
2 x

= 4
Note: We can cancel (x 2) since it is non zero.
So x f It
2 x
exists.
But f(2) = 3 4 x f It
2 x

Hence the function f is not continuous 2.
Example: Define f as follows.
2 x
if
4
2 x if
2 x
4 x
x f
2

Is f continuous at 2?
Solution: From above example, we have . 4 x f It
2 x
A s f(2) = 4, f is
continuous at 2.
Sometimes function may be defined by two different expressions. In such
cases the following method of proving continuity will be useful. For that we
need the concept of left limit and right limit.
Definition: Let a function f be defined in an interval (b, a) where b < a).
Then I x f It
a x
(called the left limit) if given > 0. There exists > 0
such that I x f , a x (1.7).
Definition; Let a function f be defined in an interval (a, b), where b > a.
Then I x f It
a x
called the right limit if given > 0, there exists > 0
such that I x f a , a x .. (1.8)
Note: We can prove that (1.7) and (1.8) implies (1.6). Hence if the left and
right limits exist and are equal then
) x ( f It ) x ( f It x f It
a x a x a x

When a function is defined by two different expressions, we have to
evaluate the left and right limits.
I x f It
a x
if both the left and right limits exist and are equal.
Worked Examples:
W.E.: Test whether f is continuous at x = 3 where f is defined by
3 x if 2
3 x if 4 x 3
x f
Solution: As f is defined by two expressions one for ] 3 , ( and another
for (3, ), we evaluate the left and right limits.
5 4 3 3 4 x 3 It x f It
3 x x x

2 2 It x f It
3 x x x

As the left and right limits are not equal, x f It
3 x
does not exist. Hence f is
not continuous at 3.
When a function f is continuous at every point of an interval (a, b) we say
that the function is continuous on (a, b). In particular if a function is
continuous at every real number. Then we say that a function is continuous
on R.
Using propositions, we can prove that the functions, k (a constant), x, x
2
,
..x
n
, where n > 2 are continuous on R.
The function x is continuous on (0, )
The function
x
1
is continuous on , 0 0 ,
Using previous theorem, we can prove the following theorem.
Theorem:
a) If f and g are continuous at a, then
i) f(x) + g(x) ii) f(x) g(x) iii) f(x) g(x) are continuous at a
b) If f and g are continuous at a and g(a) 0, then
g
f
is continuous at a
c) If f is continuous at a, f(x) > 0 for x in an open interval containing a,
x f is continuous at a.
Worked Examples
W.E.: Test the continuity of the function f at all real points where f is defined
by
3 x for 1 x 2
3 x for x
x f
2

Solution: If a < 3, then f(x) is defined by the expression x
2
in an open
interval containing a. So f is continuous for all a < 3.
So it remains to test continuity only at 3.
9 3 x It x f It
2 2
3 x 3 x

7 1 3 2 1 x 2 It x f It
3 x 3 x

As x f It , x f It x f It
3 x 3 x 3 x
does not exist. So f is not continuous at 3.
Thus f is continuous at all real points except 3.
W.E.: Test the continuity of the function f where f is defined by
2 x if 7
2 x if
| 2 x |
2 x
x f
Solution: When x < 2, |x 2| is negative. So |x 2| = (x 2)
1
2 x
2 x
x f
When x > 2, |x 2| is positive. So |x 2| = x 2
1
2 x
2 x
x f
f(2) = 0. Thus
2 x if 1
2 x if 0
2 x if 1
x f
As in the previous worked example, f is continuous for all a < 2 and all a > 2.
1 1 It x f It
2 x 2 x

1 1 It x f It
2 x 2 x

As x f It , x f It x f It
2 x 2 x 2 x
does not exist. So f is continuous at all
points except 2.
Not all functions are continuous. In some cases x f It
a x
may not exist. You
may ask a question: how to establish that x f It
a x
does not exist. One
sample case is where the left and right limits exist but are not equal. We have
examples for this case. The worst case is when neither of the two limits exist.
For proving the non-existence of limits, we use the following theorem.
Theorem: A function f is continuous at a if and only if the following
conditions holds good.
a f x f a x
n n

To prove the non existence of the limit it is enough to construct a sequence
(x
n
) converging to a such that f(x
n
) does not converge to f(a).
W.E. : Show that the function f defined by
0 x if 0
0 x if
x
1
x f is not continuous at 0.
Solution: Let .
n
1
x
n
Then 0 x
n
(obvious) f(x
n
) = n and so f(x
n
) does
not converge to 0 since f(x
n
) indefinitely increases and so cannot approach
0.
S.A. Q. 9 Verify whether the following functions f is continuous at a
a) 1 a
1 x if 5
1 x if 3 x 2
x f
b) 1 a
1 x if 9
1 x if 5 x 4
x f
c) 1 a
1 x if 9
1 x if 5 x 4
x f
d) 2 a
2 x if x 1
2 a 2 x if x 1
x f
2

e) 3 a 3 x if
3 x if 1
3 x
9 x
x f
2

f) 3 a
3 x if 6
3 x if
3 x
9 x
x f
2

g) 2 a
3 x if 7
3 x if
3 x
9 x
x f
2

h) 3 a
3 x if 6
3 x if
9 x
3 x
x f
2

S.A.Q. 10 Show that the function f defined by

1 x if 0
1 x if
1 x
1
x f is not continuous at 1.
S.A.Q. 11 Show that the following functions are continuous on R.
a)
1 x if
1 x if
2 x 2
5 x 6 x
x f
2
2

b)
1 x if 4
1 x if x x x 1
x f
3 2

c)
1 x if x 4
1 x if x 4 1
x f
2
3

d)
1 x if 1 x
1 x if 2 x 3 x
x f
3
2

5.5 Summary
In this unit we studied the basics of real number system then the concept of
limit was discussed which was further extended to the concept of continuity.
All definitions and properties of the above mentioned concepts is given very
clearly with sufficient number of examples wherever necessary.

1. Find all natural numbers in the following intervals
a) [4, 9) b) (4, 9] c) (4, 9) d) [f, 9]
e) (4, ) f) (9, ) g) [9, ) h) (4, ) (9, )
2. Find
n
n
a It when
a)
n
n
2
3
a b) 1
3
2
a
n
n
c)
n n
n
3
2
2
3
a
d)
! n
1
a
n
e)
2 n
1
a
n

3. Show
n
n
a It does not exist when
a) a
n
= n b) a
n
= 2
n
c) a
n
= n!
4. Evaluate
n
n
a It when
a)
7 n 4
2 n 3
a
n
b)
n
1 n
a
n
c)
n
n 3 2
a
n

d)
2
2
n
n 7 n 4 3
n n 2
a e)
2
2
n
n n 1
n n 1
a f)
2
2
n
n
n n 1
a
g)
n 2 3
n 2
a
n
h)
2
2
n
n n 2 3
n 3 n 2 1
a i)

3 n 2 4 n
1 n 3 n
a
2
2
n
j)
2 n
n n
a
3
2
n
k) n 1 n a
n

5. Evaluate x f It
a n
when f(x) is equal to
a)
3
x 2 b)
4 3
x x c)
5 4 3
x x x 2
d)
2
x 5 4 x 3 2 e)
2
x 5 4
x 3 2
f)
4
9 x
2

6. Evaluate the following limits
a) 1 x 2 It
2
1 x
b) x 2 3 1 x 2 It
1 x

c)
2
1 x
x 5
x 7 4
It d) 3 x 3 It
3 x

e)
3 x 2
1
It
1 x
f)
2 x 3 x
1 x 2 x
It
2
2
3 x

g)
1 x
1 x
It
2
3
1 x
h)
1 x
2 x x
It
2
2
1 x

7. If I x f It
a n
and , m x g It
a n
evaluate
a) x g x f It
a n
b) x g x f 2 x g 2 x f It
a n

c) x g 3 x f 2 It
a n
(when I, m, > 0)
d)
2
a n
x g
x g x f
It when m > 0
8. Show that the following functions are continuous at a
a)
2 2
x x 1 x f for all x in R, a = 0
b)
2
x 1
1
x f for all x in R a = 0
c)
2
x 2 1
x 3 2
x f for all x in R a = 0
9. Show that the following functions are continuous at a
a) 4 a
4 x if 8
4 x if
4 x
16 x
x f
2

b) 1 a
1 x if x 2 x 3 4
1 x if x 4 x 3 2
x f
2
2

c) 1 a
1 x if x 1
1 x if x 1
x f
3
2

10. Show that the following functions are not continuous at a
a) 2 a
2 x if 7
2 x if
2 x
8 x 2
x f
2

b) 1 a
1 x if 1
1 x if
x 1
x 1
x f
2

c) 1 a
1 x if x 4 x 3
1 x if x 4 x 3 1
x f
2
2

d) 1 a
1 x if 1
1 x if 1
x f
e) 0 a
0 x if 1
0 x if 0
0 x if 1
x f

5.7 Answers
1. A
2. A
3. a) and d) can be arranged as a sequence according to chart and
attendance register
4. a) {3, 4, 5, ..} b) {4, 5, 6, }
c) {. 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2,} d) {. 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3}
5. [1, 5], ( , 1) (5, ), ( , 1] [5, )
6. a) 1 b) 1 c) 100 d)
2
3

e) 1 f) 1 g) 2 h) 9

7. a) 3 b)
3
1
c) 2 d) 4
e) 3 (Hint: x
3
1 = (x 1) (x
2
+ x + 1)) f)
3
5
g) 1
h)
2
1

8. a) 2I + 3m b) I
2
m
2
c)
2 2
m I d)
2
m 1
1

e)
m 4
m 2 I
f) m 2 I
9. a), b), c), d) continuous e) discontinuous f), g) continuous,
d) not continuous
10. Take
n
1
1 x
n
, 0
n
1
1 but f(x
n
) = n f(x
n
) does not converge. So f
is not continuous at 1.
11. a) For a < 1, f(x) = x
2
6x + 5. So f is continuous for a < 1. As f(x) = 2x
2

2, f is continuous for a > 1.
. 0 2 2 x f It , 0 5 6 1 x f It
1 x 1 x
Hence . 0 x f It
1 x

Also f(d) = 1 6 + 5 = 0
b), c), d) Similar.
Terminal Questions
1. a) {4, 5, 6, 7, 8} b) {5, 6, 7, 8, 9} c) {5, 6, 7, 8}
d) {4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
e) {4, 5, 6, ..} f) 10, 11, 12,..} g) {9, 10, 11, ..}
h) {9, 10, 11, .. }
2. a) 0 b) 1 c) 0 d) 0 e) 0
3. a) As n increases a
n
increases. So k a
n
cannot be made less than
a fixed number . So
n
n
a It does not exists.
4. a)
3
4
b) 1 c) 3 d)
7
1

e) 1 f) 1 g)
2
1
h) 3
i) Write a
n
as
2
1
1 2
1 1
It .
n
4
1
n
1
1
.
n
3
2
n
3
1
n
2
2

j)
0 1
0
0 1
0
0 It .
n
2
1
n
1
n
1
a
n
3
2
n

k)
n 1 n
n 1 n n 1 n
n 1 n a
n

n
1 n
1
1
.
n
1
n
1 n
1 n
1
n 1 n
1

5. 0
1 1
0
a It
n
n

a) 2a
3
b) a
3
+ a
4
c) 2a
3
a
4
+ a
5
d) (2 + 3a) (4 + 5a
2
)
e)
2
a 5 4
a 3 2
f)
4
9
a
2

6. a) 2(1)
2
1 = 1 b) (2 + 1) (3 2) = 3 c)
6
11
d) 6
e)
5
1
f) 8
2 9 9
1 6 9
g) 1
h) .
1 x
2 x
1 x 1 x
2 x 1 x
1 x
2 x x
2
2
Hence answer is .
2
3

7. a) Im b) (l + 2m) (2I m) c) m 3 I 2 d)
2
m
m I

10. a) 8 x f It
2 x
2 x 2 x 2
2 x
8 x 2
2 x
2
f(2) = 7. So f is not
continuous at x=2.
b) . 2 x 1 It
x 1
x 1
It x f It
1 x
2
1 x 1 x
But f(1) = 1
c) Let limit at 1 = 8; right limit at 1 = 2
d) The left and right limits are 1 and 1 respectively.
e) The left and right limits are 1 and 1.

Unit 6 Differentiation
Structure
6.1 Introduction
Objectives
6.2 Differentiation of Powers of x
6.3 Differentiation of e
x
and log x
6.4 Differentiation of Trigonometric Functions
6.5 Rules for Finding Derivatives
6.6 Different types of Differentiation
6.7 Logarithmic Differentiation
6.8 Differentiation by Substitution
6.9 Differentiation of Implicit Functions
6.10 Differentiation from Parametric Equation
6.11 Differentiation from First Principles
6.12 Summary
6.14 Answers

6.1 Introductions
In the last chapter, we studied continuous functions. In this chapter we will
study the rate of change of a continuous function. Consider a car moving
from Manipal to Mangalore. Then the distance traveled by the car from
Manipal is a continuous function of time. (We assume that the car does not
stop midway.) If you need to know the rate at which the distance is changing
(increasing) then you need the concept of derivatives. Consider the height of
a growing plant. It is a continuous function of time. The rate of growth of the
plant can be studied using derivatives.

Objectives:
differentiate the given functions using suitable rules
find the derivative from first principles

6.2 Differentiation of Power of x
Let f be a function defined in an open interval containing c and continuous in
that interval.
Definition:
a) The derivative or differential coefficient of f at c is defined as the limit

h
c f h c f
It
0 h

If it exists as a real number. It is denoted by . c f
b) If c f exists then we say that the function f is differentiable at c.
Note: The process of finding a derivative is called differentiation and the
subject dealing with differentiation is called differential calculus.
Example: Find whether 1 f exists when f(x) = 4x 3
Solution:

h
1 f h 1 f
It 1 f
0 h

h
3 4 3 h 1 4
It
0 h

4 4 It
h
4h
It
0 h 0 h

Hence 1 f = 4
SAQ 1: What is 2 f for the function f defined in above example.
REMARK We have defined c f at c. When we evaluate c f for various
values of c, we get a function x f . It is defined by
h
x f h x f
It x f
0 h
. (6.1)
Sometimes we defined x f in a different way. Take x + h as t. Then h = (x
+ h) x = t x. As x. t or 0 x t 0, h
Hence
x t
x f t f
It x f
x t
(6.2)
We will be using (6.1) or (6.2) as per our convenience.
Now we find x f for some standard functions.
Example: If f(x) = k find x f .
Solution:

x t
x f t f
It x f
x t

x t
k k
It
x t

x t
0
It
x t

0 It
x t

= 0
Hence 0 x f
Note:
1 n 2 3 n 2 n 1 n n n
x ......... x t x t t x t x t
This can be verified by expanding the R.H.S. (Right hand side). This is used
in next example.
Example: If f(x) = x
n
when n is a positive integer then
1 n
nx x f .
Solution:

x t
x f t f
It x f
x t

x t
x t
It
n n
x t

x t
x .... x t t x t
It
1 n 2 n 1 n
x t

1 n 2 3 n 2 n 1 n
x t
x .... x t t t It

1 n 2 3 n 2 n 1 n
x ..... x . x x . t t
Since 2 n k 1 for x t
k k

1 n
nx
Hence
1 n
nx x f
Example: If x x f when x > 0 find x f .
Solution:

h
x f h x f
It x f
0 h

h
x h x
It
0 h

By this time you will have noticed that finding a derivative always involves
taking the limit of a quotient where both numerator and denominator are
approaching zero. Our task is to simplify this quotient so that we cab cancel
a factor h from numerator and denominator, there by allowing us to evaluate
the limit by substitution. In the present example, this can be accomplished
by rationalizing the numerator.


x h x
x h x
.
h
x h x
It x f
0 h

x h x h
x h x
It
0 h

x h x h
h
It
0 h

x h x h
1
It
0 h

x 2
1
x x
1

Since x h x
Thus, , f the derivative of f, is given by
x 2
1
x f for x > 0.
SAQ 2: Find c f when
a) f(x) = 4, c = 2
b) f(x) = 4, c = 4
c) f(x) = x
3
c = 1
d) f(x) = x c = 1
e) f(x) = x, c = 1
f) f(x) = x, c = 0

6.3 Differentiation of e
x
and log x
e denote a constant called exponential limit. It is defined as follows:

x
1
0 x
x
x
x 1 It or
x
1
1 It e .. (6.3)

Its value is 2.7182818285.
e
x
is called the exponential function. We have another function log x which is
the inverse of e
x
. By inverse of a function we mean the following:
If we apply a function and then its inverse to a real value x or the inverse of
a function and the function to x, then we get back x. That is
x e x e log
x log x

If you are familiar with logarithms you can easily understand that log x = log
e
x and log e = 1.
We prove the following limit.
Example: Show that a log
h
1 a
It
e
h
0 h
.. (6.4)
Solution: If we put 0 h as , y 1 a
h
so does y.
Also
a log
y 1 log
e log y 1 log h
e
e
a e

a log
y 1 log
y
It
h
1 a
It
e
e
0 y
h
0 h

y
1
e
e
0 y
y 1 log
a log
It
Since y
1
e
y 1 log
y 1 log
y
1
e

But as e y 1 , 0 y y
1

a log
h
1 a
It
e
h
0 h

If we apply 6.4 with e in place of a we get
1 e log
h
1 e
It
e
h
0 h

1
h
1 e
It
h
0 h
(6.5)
Example: If
x
e x f show that
x
e x f
Solution:
h
e e
It x f
x h x
0 h

h
1 e
e It
h
x
0 h

h
1 e
It e
h
0 h
x

1 . e
x

x
e

x
e x f
Example: If f(x) = log x x > 0, show that
x
1
x f
Solution:

h
x log h x log
It x f
0 h

h
x
h x
log
It
0 h

b
a
log b log a log Since

x
h
1 log
h
x
.
x
1
It
0 h

h
x
0 h x
h
1 log
x
1
It since log x
m
= m log x

h
x
h
x
x
h
1 log It
x
1
since
h
x
when h 0

h
x
h
x
x
h
1 It log
x
1
( log x is continuous)
e log
x
1
Using (6.3)

x
1

x
1
x f
SAQ 3: Find c f when
a) f(x) = e
x
, c = 0
b) f(x) = e
x
, c = 1
c) f(x) = e
x
c = log 2
d) f(x) = e
x
c = log e
e) f(x) = log x c = 1
f) f(x) = log x c = e
g) f(x) = logx c = log 2
h) f(x) = log x c = log log 2

6.4 Differentiation of Trigonometric Functions
Trigonometric functions from another class of functions which are frequently
used in applications. For answering questions regarding rotating wheels,
weather cycles and periodic phenomenon, we require trigonometric function.
For those unfamiliar with trigonometric functions, we introduce the basic
trigonometric functions sin x and cos x (called sine and cosine functions).
These are defined in fig. 6.1


Figure 6.1. sine and cosine functions
The solid curve is the graph of y = sin x; dotted curve that of y = cos x from
Fig. 6.1, it is clear that sine and cosine functions are continuous on R.
Four more functions are defined as follows:

x cos
1
x sec
x sin
1
ecx cos
x sin
x cos
x cos
x cos
x sin
x tan
.. (6.6)
Two important trigonometric limits:
1
x
x sin
It
0 x
0
x
x cos 1
It
0 x
. (6.7)
Example: If f(x) = sin x, then cosx x f
Solution:

h
x sin h x sin
It x f
0 h

h
x sin sinh cosh x sin
It
0 h

h
sinh
x cos
h
cosh 1
x sin It
0 h

x Measured in
radius

h
sinh
It x cos
h
cosh 1
It x sin
0 h 0 h

But 1
h
sinh
It
0 h
and 0
h
cosh 1
It
0 h
from 6.7
Thus 1 . x cos 0 . x sin x f
= cos x
Example: If f(x) = cos x, show that . x sin x f
Solution:
h
x cos h x cos
It x f
0 h

h
x cos sinh x sin cosh x cos
It
0 h

h
sinh
x sin
h
cosh 1
x cos It
0 h

1 . x sin 0 . x cos
x sin
SAQ 4: Find the value of x f at c when
a) f(x) = sinx,
4
c
b) f(x) = sin x, c
c) f(x) = sin x,
2
3
c
d) f(x) = cos x, 2 ,
2
3
, ,
2
0, c
SAQ 5: If f(x) = sin x, find c f when
2
,
4
0, c
SAQ 6: If f(x) = cos x, find c f when . 2 ,
2
3
c

6.5 Rules for Finding Derivatives
So far you have seen the derivatives of elementary functions like x
n
, e
x
, log
x, sin x and cos x. But more functions can be formed by
Adding two function
Subtracting one function from another function
Multiplying two functions
Taking quotient of two function
Applying one function after another function (composition of two functions)
Taking the inverse of a function
In this section we discuss the rules for differentiating functions obtained by
applying the operations mentioned above.
Before deriving rules for differentiation, let us look at the relation between
continuous functions and functions having derivatives.
Theorem: If f has a derivative at c, then f is continuous at c.
Proof: We need to show that c f x f It
c x

c x , c x .
c x
c f x f
c f x f
Therefore, c x .
c x
c f x f
c f It x f It
c x c x

c x It .
c x
c f x f
It c f It
c x c x c x

.0 c f c f
= f(c)
Note: The converse of above theorem is not true. Consider the function
x x f (Refer fig 6.2) So f(x) = x if x < 0
= x if x > 0.


Figure 6.2.The graph of y =| x |

1 1 It
h
0 h
It
h
0 f x 0 f
It
0 h 0 h 0 h

1 1 It
h
0 h
It
h
0 f h 0 f
It
0 h 0 h 0 h

h
0 f h 0 f
It
0 h
does not exist
Theorem: (Constant function rule) If f(x) = k, being a constant, then
0 x f
Proved in above Example
Theorem: (Identify function rule) If f(x) = x then 1 x f
Proved in above Example.
Theorem: (Constant multiple rule) If g(x) = k f(x), then x f k x g

Proof:

h
x kf h x kf
It
h
x g h x g
It x g
0 h 0 h

h
x f h x f
It k.
h
x f h x f
k. It
0 h 0 h

x f . k
Theorem: (Sum and difference rule)
x g x f x g f
x g x f x g f
Proof:
h
g(x) f(x) h) g(x h x f
It it (x) g)' f
0 h

h
x g h x g
h
x f h x f
It
0 h

h
x g h x g
It
h
x f h x f
It
0 h 0 h

x g x f

h
g(x) f(x) h) g(x h x f
It it (x) g)' f
0 h

h
x g h x g
h
x f h x f
It
0 h

h
x g h x g
It
h
x f h x f
It
0 h 0 h

x g x f
Theorem: (Product rule)
x f x g x g x f x f.g

Proof:
Let F(x) = f(x) g(x) Then

h
x F h x F
It x F
0 h

h
x g x f h x g h x f
It
0 h

h
x g x f x g h x f x g h x f h x g h x f
It
0 h

h
x f h x f
. x g
h
x g h x g
. h x f It
0 h

h
x f h x f
It . x g
h
x g h x g
It . h x f It
0 h 0 h 0 h

x f x g x g x f
Theorem: (Quotient rule)
. 0 x g if ,
x g
x g x f x f x g
x
g
f
2

Proof:
Let Then .
x g
x f
x F
h
x g
x f
h x g
h x f
It x F
0 h

h x g x g
1
.
h
h x g x f h x f x g
0 h
It

h x g x g
1
.
h
x g h x g
. x f
h
x f h x f
x g
0 h
It

x g x g
1
. x g x f x f x g (By above theorem)
Definition: If f and g are two functions of a real variable then
. x f g x f g
Note: In g of the function f appearing rightmost is applied first and then g is
applied to the functional value obtained after applying f.
For example, sin 2x is obtained by applying the multiple function 2x to x;
then sine function is applied to 2x.
Note: sin . x sin 2 x 2 So the order of applying functions is important in g of
If y = f(x), then the mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm Van Leibniz used the
symbol . x f for
dx
dy

Issac Newton and Leibniz are the two mathematician who developed
calculus). He denoted h by , x which is change in the value of x and the
difference , y by x f x x f the corresponding change in the value of y.
Then

x
y
It
dx
dy
0 x
. (6.8)
Theorem: (Chain rule) If f(u) and u = g(x), then
dx
du
.
du
dy
dx
dy

Proof:
) x ( g ) x x ( g u
) u ( f ) u u ( f y

As g is continuous, 0 x implied 0 u

x
y
t I
dx
dy
0 x

x
u
.
u
y
It
0 x

x
u
It .
u
y
It
0 u 0 u

As 0 x we have . 0 u So we can replace 0 x by 0 u
=
dx
du
.
dy
dy

Example: If y = tan x, evaluate
dx
dy

Solution:
2
x cos
x cos
dx
d
x sin x sin
dx
d
x cos
x cos
x sin
dx
d
x tan
dx
d

x cos
x sin x sin x cos . x cos
2

x sec
x cos
1
x cos
x sin x cos
2
2 2
2 2

Example: If y = sec x, evaluate
dx
dy

Solution:
2
x cos
x cos
dx
d
1 1
dx
d
x cos
x cos
1
dx
d
x sec
dx
d

x cos
x sin
.
x cos
1
x cos . x cos
x sin
x cos
x sin 1 0 x cos
2

x tan x sec
SAQ 7: If y = cot x, show that x ec cos
dx
dy
2

SAQ 8: If y = cos ecx, show that . x cot ecx cos
dx
dy

Example: If y = x
m
show that
1 m
mx
dx
dy

Where m is a negative integer.
Solution: Write m = n where n is a positive integer. Then
n
x
1
y

n
x
1
dx
d
dx
dy

n 2
n n
x
x
dx
d
1 1
dx
d
x
(by applying Quotient rule with u = 1 v = x
n
)

n 2
1 n n
x
nx 0 . x

1 n
nx

1 m
mx
Example: If n , m , x y
n
m
being integers, n > 0 find .
dx
dy

Solution: As . x x y , n , m , x y
m
n
n
m
n
n
m

By chain rule, . mx
dx
dy
ny
1 m 1 n

So

1 n
n
m
1 m
1 n
1 m
x
x
n
m
y
x
n
m
dx
dy

n
n 1 n m
1 m
n
1 n m
1 m
x
n
m
x
x
n
m

1
n
m
n
m
m 1 m
n
1
1 m 1 m
x
n
m
x
n
m
x
n
m

Derivatives of Inverse Function
If y = f(x) and x can be written as y x such that
. y y f and x x f Then is called the inverse of f.
We have already seen that log x and e
x
are inverse functions of each other.
By Chain rule . 1 x
dx
d
x f
dx
d
So . 1
dx
dy
dy
dx
Hence

dy
dx
1
dx
dy
. (6.9)
Example: If sin
1
x denotes the inverse of the function

2
1
x 1
1
x sin
dx
d
, x sin y
Solution: Let y = sin
1
x. By definition of inverse function, x = sin y. By (6.9),

2 2
x 1
1
y sin 1
1
y cos
1
dy
dx
1
dx
dy

Now we are ready to differentiate functions which appear in several
applications.
Table 6.1 gives the differentiate coefficient of standard functions. Using
table 6.1, product rule, quotient rule and chain rule we can differentiate
many functions.

f(x) x f
1. k 0
2. x
n
nx
n1

3.
x
1

2
x
1

4. x
x 2
1

5. a
x
0 a , , a log a
e
x

6. e
x
e
x

7. log x 0 x ,
x
1

8. sin x cos x
9. cos x 1 sin x
10. tan x sec
2
x
11. cot x cosec
2
x
12. sec x sec x tan x
13. cosec x cosec x cot x
14. x sin
1
1 x 1 ,
x 1
1
2

15. cos
1
x 1 x 1 ,
x 1
1
2

16. tan
1
x
2
x 1
1

17. cot
1
x
2
x 1
1

18. sec
1
x 1 x ,
1 x x
1
2

19. cosec
1
x 1 x ,
1 x x
1
2

Table 6.1: Table of derivatives
Worked Examples:
W.E.: If
dx
dy
find
2
x x
9
x
x 9 7 y
2

Solution:

2
x x
9
x
x 9 7
dx
d
dx
dy
2

2
3
x
dx
d
2
1
9
x 2
1 9 0

1
2
3
x
2
3
2
1
9
x 2
9

2
1
x
4
3
9
x 2
9

4
x 3
9
x 2
9
W.E.: Find the derivative of e
x
tan x
Solution:
x tan
dx
d
e x tan . e
dx
d
x tan e
dx
d
x x x

x sec e x tan . e
2 x x

x sec x tan e
2 x

W.E.: If
x cos x sin
x cos x sin
y find
dx
dy

Solution:

x cos x sin
x cos x sin
dx
d
dx
dy

x cos x sin
x cos x sin
dx
d
x cos x sin x cos x sin
dx
d
x cos x sin

2
x cos x sin
x sin x cos x cos x sin x sin x cos x cos x sin

2
2 2
x cos x sin
x cos x sin 2 x sin x cos x sin x cos x cos x sin

x cos x sin
cos x sin 2 x sin x cos x cos x sin 2 x sin x cos
2 2 2 2

1 x cos x sin ce sin
cos x sin
1 1
2 2
2

2
x cos x sin
2

W.E.: Find the derivative of
x 2 tan x 5
x 3 tan e
2
x 2

x 2 tan x 5
x 3 tan e
dx
d
2
x 2

2
2
2 x 2 x 2 2
x 2 tan x 5
x 2 tan x 5
dx
d
x 3 tan e x 3 tan e
dx
d
x 2 tan x 5

x 2 tan x 5
2 . x 2 sec x 2 . 5 x 3 tan e x 3 tan 2 . e 3 . x 3 sec . e x 2 tan x 5
2
2 x 2 x 2 2 x 2 2

2
2
2 x 2 2 2 x 2
x 2 tan x 5
x 2 sec 2 x 10 x 3 tan e x 3 tan 2 x 3 sec 2 x 2 tan x 5 e

2
2
2 2 2 2 2 x 2
x 2 tan x 5
x 2 sec x 3 tan 2 x 3 tan x 10 x 3 tan x 2 tan 2 x 3 tan x 10 x 3 sec x 2 tan 3 x 3 sec x 15 e
2
2
2 2 2 2 x 2
x 2 tan x 5
x 3 tan x 2 tan 2 x 3 tan x 10 x 10 x 3 sec x 2 tan 2 3 x 3 sec x 15 e

2
2
2 2 2 x 2
x 2 tan x 5
x 3 tan x 2 tan 2 x 3 tan 1 x x 10 x 3 sec x 2 tan x 3 sec x 15 e
W.
W.E.: Find the differential coefficient of x . t . r . w a x x log
2 2

Solution:
2 2
a x x log
dx
d

x 2 .
a x 2
1
1
a x x
1
2 2
2 2

2 2
2 2
2 2
a x
x a x
a x x
1

2 2
a x
1

W.E: Evaluate
dx
dy
when
x x 1
x x 1
log y
2
2

Solution:
x x 1 log x x 1 log
dx
d
2 2

(Since B log A log
B
A
log )
x x 1
dx
d
x x 1
1
x x 1
dx
d
.
x x 1
1
2
2
2
2

1 x 2 .
x 1 2
1
x x 1
1
1 x 2 .
x 1 2
1
x x 1
1
2
2
2
2

2 2
2
2
2
2
x 1 x x 1
x 1 x
x 1
x 1 x
x x 1
1

2 2
x 1
1
x 1
1

2
x 1
2

W.E.: Find the derivative of sin (log x) + log sin x
Solution: x sin log x log sin
dx
d

x sin
dx
d
x sin
1
x log
dx
d
. x log cos
x cos .
sin
1
x
1
. x log cos
x cot x log cos
x
1

W.E.: Find the differential coefficient of x . t . r . w e 3 2 sin
x 2 1

Solution:
x 2 1
e 3 2 sin
dx
d

x 2
2
x 2
e 3 2
dx
d
.
e 3 2 1
1

2 . e . 3 0 .
e 3 2 1
1
x 2
2
x 2

2
x 2
x 2
e 3 2 1
e 6

W.E.9: Find
dx
dy
when x x 1 tan y
2 1

Solution: x x 1 tan
dx
d
dx
dy
2 1

x x 1
dx
d
.
x x 1 1
1
2
2
2

1 x 2 .
x 1 2
1
.
x 1 x 2 x x 1 1
1
2
2 2 2

2
2
2 2
x 1
x 1 x
x 1 x 2 x 2 2
1

2
2
2 2
x 1
x 1 x
x x 1 . x 1 2
1


/
/
x x 1 x 1 2
x x 1 . 1
2 2
2

2
x 1 2
1

W.E.: Evaluate the derivative of
1 x 2
1
sec
2
1

Solution: If y = sec
1
x, x = sec y So
x
1
y cos implying .
x
1
cos y
1

1 x 2 cos
dx
d
1 x 2
1
sec
dx
d
2 1
2
1

1 x 2
dx
d
.
1 x 2 1
1
2
2
2

0 x 4 .
x 4 1 x 4 1
1
2 4

4 2
x 4 x 4
x 4

2 2
x 1 x 4
x 4

2
x 1 x 2
x 4

2
x 1
2

SAQ 9: If x 2 x 1 x 3 y
2 2
find
dx
dy

SAQ 10: Find the differential coefficient of
4
5
x
3
x 4 x sin 2
SAQ 11: Differentiate . x . t . r . w x sin xe
x

SAQ 12: If
dx
dy
find x sec 2 x log 5 sin y
10

SAQ 13: Find the derivative of (3 sec x 4 cos ecx) (2 sin x + 5 cos x)
SAQ 14: Differentiate x . t . r . w
x cos x sin
x cos x sin

SAQ 15: If
dx
dy
find
b ax cos
e
y
bx

SAQ 16: Find the differential coefficient of
3 x
1 x 2 1 x

SAQ 17: Find the derivative of
1 x
1 x
2
2

SAQ 18: If
dx
dy
find x 2 x sin y
2 1

x 1
x 1
cos
1

SAQ 20: If
dx
dy
find e tan y
x 1

SAQ 21: Find the derivative of
2
x 1
e cot
SAQ 22: Find x log tan y if
dx
dy
1

SAQ 23: If x tan cot x cot tan y
1 1

SAQ 24: Find c bx ax y if
dx
dy
2

SAQ 25: Find the differential coefficient of x 4 cos x 3 sin e
x 2

SAQ 26: Differentiate x . t . r . w e sin log
x 1

SAQ 27: Prove that
a)
1 x
1
1 x x log
dx
d
2
2

b)
1 x
1
1 x x log
dx
d
2
2

6.6 Different types of Differentiation
In the earlier sections we had formulas for differentiating a given function of
x i.e. y = f(x). But direct application of formulas may require quite a good
amount of computational effort. Also we may not be able to express y as a
function of x. We adapt the following methods to tackle these problems.
1. Logarithmic differentiation
2. Differentiation by substitution
3. Differentiation of implicit functions
4. Differentiation from parametric equations

6.7 Logarithmic Differentiation
When y is a product or quotient of functions or of the form
x g
x f we can
take logarithms and get a sum of logarithm of functions or product of two
functions. So differentiation becomes easier.
W.E.: Differentiate x . t . r . w x
x sin

Solution: Put
x sin
x y
A log B A log x log x sin x log y log
B x sin

x log x sin
dx
d
y log
dx
d

x sin
dx
d
x log x log
dx
d
x sin
dx
dy
y
1
(using product rule)
x cos . x log
x
1
. x sin
dx
dy
y
1

So x cos . x log x sin
x
1
y
dx
dy

Thus x cos . x log x sin
x
1
x x
dx
d
x sin x sin

W.E.: If
dx
dy
find
7 x 4 x
2 x 2 x
y
2

Solution:
7 x 4 x
2 x 2 x
log y log
2

7 x 4 4 log 2 x 2 x log
2

B log A log
B
A
log
7 x log 4 x log 2 x log 2 x log
2

7 x log 4 x log 2 x log 2 x log
2
1
2

7 x log 4 x log
2
1
2 x log 2 x log y log
2

Differentiating w.r.t. x,
7 x log 4 x log
2
1
2 x log 2 x log
dx
d
y log
dx
d
2

7 x
dx
d
7 x
1
4 x
dx
d
.
4 x 2
1
2 x
dx
d
2 x
1
2 x
dx
d
.
2 x
1
dx
dy
y
1
2
2

1 .
7 x
1
4 x 2
1
1 .
2 x
1
x 2 .
2 x
1
dx
dy
y
1
2

1 .
7 x
1
4 x 2
1
1 .
2 x
1
2 x
x 2
y
dx
dy
2

W.E.: If , ax y
nx
show that x log 1 ny
dx
dy

Solution:
nx
ax log y log
So log y = log a + logx
nx
= loga + nx log x
x log nx
dx
d
a log
dx
d
dx
dy
y
1

x log x
dx
d
n 0
dx
dy
y
1

x log . 1
x
1
. x n
dx
dy
y
1

. x log 1 ny
dx
dy

6.8 Differentiation by Substitution
Sometimes a function becomes simpler if we introduce a new variable which
is a function of x. Mostly we will be using trigonometric functions for
substitution. It is better to remember the following formulas.
2
cos 1 sin
7 x
1
4 x 2
1
2 x
1
2 x
x 2
y
dx
dy
2
2 2
tan 1 sec
2
tan 1
tan 2
2 tan
cos sin 2
tan 1
tan 2
2 sin
2

2 2 2 2
2
sin 2 1 1 cos 2 sin cos
tan 1
tan 2
2 cos
The following table gives the appropriate substitution
For , x a
2 2
let x = sin or a cos
For , x a
2 2
let x = a tan
For tan x let ,
x 1
x 2
or
x 1
x 2
2 2

For tan x let ,
x 1
x 1
2
2

W.E.: If
2
1
x 1
x 2
sin y show that
2
x 1
2
dx
dy

Solution: Put x = tan . Then x tan
1

2 sin
tan 1
tan 2
x 1
x 2
2 2

x tan 2 2 2 sin sin
x 1
x 2
sin y
1 1
2
1

x tan 2 y
1

2
1 1
x 1
1
. 2 x tan
dx
d
2 x tan 2
dx
d
dx
dy

2
x 1
2
dx
dy

W.E.: Differentiate x . t . r . w
a
x
sin
2
a
2
x a x
y
1
2 2 2

Solution: Put x = a sin

a
sin a
sin
2
a
2
sin a a
sin a y
1
2 2 2

a
sin a
sin
2
a
2
sin a a
sin
2
a
1
2 2 2 2 2

.
2
a
cos . sin
2
a
2 2

dx
d
.
2
a
dx
d
. 2 cos 2 .
4
a
dx
dy
2 2

dx
d
2
a
dx
d
2 cos
2
a
2 2

2 cos 1
dx
d
2
a
2

2
2
cos 2 .
dx
d
.
2
a
dx
dy
since cos 2 = 2 cos
2
1

dx
d
. cos a
dx
dy
2 2

x = a sin
Differentiating w.r.t. , we get cos a
d
dx

2 2
x a
1
cos a
1
dx
d
0

2 2
2
2
2
2
x a
1
.
a
x
1 a
dx
dy

2 2
2
2
2
x a
1
.
a
x
1 a

2 2
2 2
x a
1
. x a

2 2
x a
dx
dy

6.9 Differentiation of Implicit Functions
Sometimes y may not be given as a function of x but y and x may be related
by some relations. In such cases we differentiate the given relation w.r.t. x
and then evaluate
dx
dy
from the resulting equation.
W.E.: Find if
dx
dy

a) 0 c fy 2 gx 2 y x
2 2

b)
3 2
a 2 x 4 ay 27
Solution:
a) Differentiating the given relation w.r.t.x
0
dx
d
c fy 2 gx 2 y x
dx
d
2 2

0 0
dx
dy
. f 2 1 . g 2
dx
dy
y 2 x 2
0
dx
dy
f y g x 2
g x
dx
dy
f y
Hence
f y
g x
dx
dy

b) Differentiating
3 2
a 2 x 4 ay 27 w.r.t. x,

3 2
a 2 x 4
dx
d
ay 27
dx
d


3 2
a 2 x
dx
d
4 y
dx
d
a 27
a 2 x
dx
d
a 2 x 3 . 4
dx
dy
y 2 . a 27
2

1 . a 2 x 12
dx
dy
ay 54
2

ay 4 5
a 2 x 2 1
dx
dy
9
2
2

ay 9
a 2 x 2
dx
dy
2

W.E.: If , y x y x
n m n m
Prove that
x
y
dx
dy

Solution: Taking logarithms on both sides, we get
n m n m
y x log y x log
y x log n m y log x log
n m

y x log n m y log n x log m
Differentiating this w.r.t. x,
dx
dy
1
y x
1
. n m
dx
dy
y
1
. n
x
1
. m

dx
dy
y
n
dx
dy
y x
n m
y x
n m
x
m

dx
dy
y y x
y x n n m y
y x x
n m x y x m

dx
dy
y x y
y n nx y n my
y x x
nx x m my x m

dx
dy
.
y x y
nx my
y x x
nx my
., e . i
On canceling
y x
nx my
we get
x
y
dx
dy

6.10 Differentiation from Parametric Equation
Sometimes x and y may be functions of another variable t we may have to
find .
dx
dy
In this section we give a method for finding
dx
dy
in such cases.
t f
t g
dx
dy
then , t g y and t f Ifx . (6.10)
W.E.: Find
dx
dy
when t sin a y , t cos a Z
3 3

Solution:
t cos
dt
d
. t cos 3 . a t cos a
dt
d
dt
dx
2 3

t sin t cos a 3 t sin . t cos a 3
dt
dx
2 2

t cos t sin a 3 t sin
dt
d
t sin 3 . a t sin a
dt
d
dt
dy
2 2 3

t tan
t cos
t sin
t sin t cos a 3
t cos t sin a 3
dt
dx
dt
dy
dx
dy
2
2

W.E.: Find
dx
dy
when sin a y ,
2
tan log cos a x
Solution:
2
1
.
2
sec
2
tan
1
sin a
d
dx
2


2
1
.
2
cos
1
.
2
sin
2
cos
sin a
2

2
cos
2
sin 2
1
sin a

sin
1
sin a

sin
1 sin
a
2

sin
1 cos
a
2

cos a
d
dy

tan
cos
sin
sin
cos a
cos a
d
dx
d
dy
dx
dy
2

W.E.: If
dx
dy
find cos 1 a y and sin a x
Solution:
cos 1 a
d
dx

sin a sin 0 a
d
dy

2
sin 2
2
cos
2
sin 2
cos 1
sin
cos 1 a
sin a
dx
dy
2


2
cot
2
sin
2
cos

SAQ 28: Differentiate x
x
w.r.t. x
SAQ 29: Differentiate
x log
1
x tan
1 x 3 x
2 x x 1
2

SAQ 31: Differentiate the following functions w.r.t. x
a)
2
1
x 1
x 2
tan
b)
2
2
1
x 1
x 1
cos
c)
x cos 1
x cos 1
tan
1

SAQ 32: Find if
dx
dy

a) 64 y xy 8 x
3 3

b) xy = tan xy
SAQ 33: If , e x
y x y
show that
2
x log 1
x log
dx
dy

SAQ 34: Find if
dx
dy

a) at 2 y , at x
2

b)
t
c
y , ct x

6.11 Differentiation from first Principles
If we evaluate
dx
dy
by using only the definition and not the known formulas,
then we call this differentiation from first principles. We illustrate this method
with a few examples.
W.E. : Differentiate tan x from first principles
Solution: Let y = tan x
Let x be a small increment in x and y , the corresponding increment in y.
Then x x tan y y
x tan x x tan y

x cos
x sin
x x cos
x x sin

x cos x x cos
x sin x x cos x cos x x sin

x cos x x cos
x x x sin

x cos x x cos
x sin

x cos x x cos
1
.
x
x sin
.
x
y

By definition,
x
y
It
dx
dy
0 x

x cos . x x cos
1
It
x
x sin
It
0 x 0 x

1
sin
It
x cos . x cos
1
. 1
0

x sec
x cos
1
2
2

W.E.: Differentiate sec x from first principles
Solution: Let y = sec x
Let x be a small increment in x and y be the small increment in y.
Then x x sec y y
x sec x x sec y

x cos
1
x x cos
1

x cos . x x cos
x x cos x cos

x cos x x cos
2
x x x
sin
2
x x x
sin 2

x cos . x x cos
2
x
sin
2
x x sin 2

x . x cos x x cos
2
x
sin
2
x
x sin 2
x
y

By definition
x
y
It
dx
dy
0 x

2
x
cos x x cos
2
x
sin
2
x
x sin
It
0 x

, 0 x As
2
x
2
x
It
x cos x x cos
2
x
x sin
It
0 also
2
x
0
2
x
0 x

x cos
x sin
.
x cos
1
1
sin
It 1
x cos . x cos
x sin
0

= sec x tan x
W.E.: Differentiate log (2x + 3) from this principles
Solution: Let y = log (2x + 3)
Let x be a small increment in x and y the corresponding increment in y.
Then 3 x x 2 log y y
3 x 2 log 3 x 2 x 2 log y

3 x 2
x 2 3 x 2
log dy

3 x 2
x 2
1 log

2
3 x 2
.
3 x 2
x 2
3 x 2
x 2
1 log
It
x
y
It
dx
dy
0 x 0 x

3 x 2
x 2
1 log
3 x 2
x 2
1
It
3 x 2
2
0 x

3 x 2
x 2
1
0
3 x 2
x 2
3 x 2
x 2
1 It log
3 x 2
2

e h 1 It e log
3 x 2
2
h
1
0 x

3 x 2
2

W.E.: Differentiate
3 x
2
from first principles
Solution: Let
3 x
2
y
Let be a small increment in x and y the corresponding increment in y.
Then
3 x x
2
y y

3 x
2
3 x x
2
y

3 x 3 x x
3 x x 3 x 2

3 x 3 x x
x 2

3 x 3 x x
x 2
It
x
y
It
dx
dy
0 x 0 x

2
0 x
3 x
1
. 2
3 x 3 x x
1
It 2

2
3 x
2

SAQ 35: Differentiate cot x and cosecx from first principles
SAQ 36: Differentiate x
2
+ 2x + 3 from first principles
SAQ 37: Differentiate
x
1
x from first principles
6.12 Summary
In this unit we studied how to differentiate different types of function. The
rules used to differentiate these functions are illustrated with standard
examples. Different types differentiation are illustrated step by step with
clear cut examples. Lastly to find the derivative of a function by using the
definition is discussed.

1. Differentiate the following functions w.r.t. x.
a)
5
x 4
a 3
b)
x
1
x x 3
3 4
c)
2 5 7
x 5 x 2 x
a) 1 x 3 x 17 x
3 2
b) x log x sin e
x

c) x log x 8 d) 2x cos x = x
2
sin x
3. Differentiate the following functions w.r.t.x.
a)
9 x 3 x 4
1
2
b)
1 x 2
1 x 3 x 2
2

c)
x cos
x cos x sin
d)
1 x
x sin x cos x
2

4. Find
dx
dy
if y is equal to
a) x x sin
2
b)
2
2 2
x 3 2 x 3
c)
4 x 3
1 x
2
d) x sin x cos
2 2
e)
1 x
2 x
cos
2
2
2

5. Differentiate the following w.r.t. x.
a)
x
e tan log b)
4 1
x sec log
c)
2
1
x tan x sin d)
3 1
x 2 1 x 2 sin
6. If
dx
dy
find x sin x cos e y
2 3 ax

7. If
dx
dy
find , x sin x y
x x sin

8. If
dx
dy
find , 1 x 2 x y
1 x
2

(Hint:
2 2
1 x 1 x 2 x
9. If
dx
dy
find ,
x 1 x 2
x 3 2 x
y
3

a)
2
1
x 1
x
sin b)
2
2
1
x 1
x 1
tan c)
x
1 x 1
tan
2
1

(For a), c), x = tan ; for b) x
2
= tan
Note:
. 1
4
tan
tan
4
tan 1
tan
4
tan
tan 1
tan 1

So

2 1 1
x tan
4 4
tan tan y
11. Find
dx
dy
when
a) tan (x + y) + tan (x y) = 1
b) x
4
+ y
4
= 4a
2
x
3
y
3

c) x
y
= y
x

12. If sin y = x sin (a + y), Prove that
a sin
y a sin
dx
dy
2

(Hint: Use sin A cos B cos A sin B = sin (A B))
13. Find
dx
dy
when
a) x = a sec , y = b tan
b) x = 2 sin t, y = cos 2t
c) x = a ( + sin ), y = a (1 cos )
14. Differentiate the following function from first principles
a) sin 3x b) e
5x + 3
c)
x
1
x
6.14 Answers
1. 4 2 f
2. a), b), 0; c) 3, d) 11, e), f) 1
3. a) 1, b) e, c) 2, d) 3, d) 1, f)
e
1
g) ,
2 log
1
h)
2 log log
1

4. a) ,
2
1
b) 1 c) 0 d) 0, 0 , 1 , 0 , 1 ,
2
1

5. 0 ,
2
1
, 1
6. 1, 0, 0
7.
x sin
x cos x cos x sin x sin
x sin
x cos
dx
d
x cot
dx
d
2

8. x cot ecx cos
1 sin
x cos 1 0 x sin
x sin
1
dx
d
2

9. 2 x 2 x 18 x 12
2 3

10.
5
4
x
12
x 20 x cos 2
11. x cos x x sin x x sin e
x

12. x tan x sec 2
x
log
: Answer ,
10 log
x log
x log
10
10

13. On simplifying x ec cos 20 x sec 6
dx
dy
. x cot 20 7 x tan 6 y
2 2

14.
2
2 2
x cos x sin
x cos x sin x sin x cos
dx
dy

15. b ax cos b b ax sin a .
b ax cos
e
2
bx

16.
2
2
3 x
2 x 12 x 2

17.
2
2
1 x
x 4

18.
2
2
x 2 x 1
2 x 2

19.
2
2
x 1
x 1
1
x 1
1 x 1 1 x 1
dx
dy

x x 1
1
on simplifying
20.
x 2
x
e 1
e

21.
2
x
2
2
x
e 1
xe 2

22.
2
x log 1
x
1

23. . x cot tan
x tan
1
tan x tan cot
1 1 1

Hence y = 2tan
1
(cot x) Answer: - 2
24. b ax c bx ax n 2
n
2

25. 2 sin 3x cos 4x = sin 7x sin x
(by a Standard trigonometric formula) x sin x 7 sin
2
e
y
x 2

x sin 2 x 7 sin 2 x cos x 7 cos 7
2
e
dx
dy
x 2

26.
x 2 x 1
x
e 1 e sin
e

27. a)
1 x
1
1 x x 1 x
x 1 x
1 x 2
x 2 . 1
1 .
1 x x
1
dx
dy
2
2 2
2
2 2

b) is similar
28. x
x
(1 + log x)
29.
x
x tan log
x tan x 1
x log
x tan
1
1 2
x log
1

30.
3 x
1
2 x
x
1 x 2
1
1 x 3 x
2 x x 1
2

31. a)
2
x 1
2
dx
dy
, tan x
b)
2
x 1
2
dx
dy
, tan x
c) Use
2
1
dx
dy
. etc
2
x
sin 2 x cos 1
2

32.
x
y
is
y 3 x 8
y 8 x 3
2
2

33. Taking logarithms, , y x x log y So .
x log 1
x
y Use quotient
value.
34. a)
t
1

b)
t
1

35. x ec cos
2

36. 2x + 2
37.
2
x
1
1
Terminal Questions
1. a)
6
x
a 15
b)
2
2 3
x
1
x 3 x 12 c)
3 4 6
x 10 x 10 x 7
2. a) 5x
4
+ 4x
2
+ 2x 51 b)
x
x sin
x log x cos x log x sin e
x

c)
x
x log 2 4
d) x sin x 4 x cos x 2
2

3. a)
2
2
9 x 3 x 4
3 x 8
b)
2
2
1 x 2
5 x 4 x 4

c) sec
2
x d)
2
2
3
1 x
x sin x 3 x x cos 2

4. a) (2x + 1 cos (x
2
+ x) b)
2 2
x 9 x 4 9 x 3 2 x 3 2
c)
2
4 x 3
11 x 3 1 x
d)
2 2 2
x sin x sin x 2 x cos x 2 sin
e)
2 x
2 x
sin
2 x
2 x
cos
2 x
x 16
2
2
2
2
2
2

5. a)
x x
x
e cos e sin
e
b)
4 1 2
x sec 1 x x
4

c)
2
1 1
x 1
x sin 2
x tan x cos x tan d)
3 3
3 2
x 2 1 x 2 1 x 2 2
x 10 x 3 8

6. x cot 2 x tan 3 a x sin x cos e
2 3 ax

7. x sin x log x cot x x sin x log x cos
x
x sin
x
x x sin

8.
1 x
1 x log
1 x
1 x 2
1 x 2 x
1 x
2

9.
x 2
1
x 1
x
x 3 2 2
3
x
3
x 1 x 2
x 3 2 x
3

10. a)
2
x 1
1
b)
4
x 1
x 2
c)
2
x 1 2
1

11. a)
y x sec y x sec
y x sec y x sec
2 2
2 2

b)
3 2 2
3 2 2
x a 3 y y
x y x 3 x

12.
x x log y x
y y log x y

13. a) ec cos
a
b
b) 2 sin t c)
2
tan
14. a) 3 cos 3x b) 5e
5x+3
c)
2
x
1
1

Unit 7 Integrations
Structure
7.1 Introduction
Objectives
7.2 Integration of Standard Functions
7.3 Rules of Integration
7.4 More Formulas in Integration
7.5 Definite Integrals
7.6 Summary
7.8 Answers

7.1 Introduction
Most of the mathematical operations we come across occur in inverse pairs.
For example, addition and subtraction, multiplication and division, squaring
and taking square roots are such pairs. In this chapter we study integration
as the inverse operation of differentiation. Integrals also have independent
interpretation. It generalizes the process of summation. It can be used for
evaluating the area under the graph of a function.
Objectives:
integrate standard functions
apply the concept of definite integrals in the process of summation

7.2 Integration of standard function
Definition: If f(x) is a function of a real variable, then g(x) is the integral of
f(x) if . x f x g
dx
d
It is denoted by . dx x f
Remark: Integration is the operation of determining a function whose
derivative is the given function.
Note: Clearly
dx x f
dx
d
x f (7.1)
dx x f x f (7.2)
(7.1) and (7.2) can be stated as follows:
Differential coefficient of integral of f(x) = integral of differential coefficient of
f(x) = f(x)
Remark: If f(x) = x
2
and g(x) = x
2
+ 2, then . x 2 x g x f That is, the
derivative of a function remains the same if a constant is added to it.
So while writing the integral of f(x), we need to add c, an arbitrary constant
(by arbitrary constant we mean any real value).

In table 7.1 we list the integrals of some of standard function.
c kx kdx
c
2
x
xdx
2

c
x
dx x
3
3
2

1 n when c
1 n
x
dx x
1 n
n

c x log dx
x
1

c e dx e
x x

c x cos xdx sin
c x sin xdx cos
c x tan xdx sec
2

c x cot xdx ec cos
2

c x sec xdx tan x sec
c x ec cos xdx cot ecx cos
c x tan
x 1
dx
1
2

c x sin
x 1
dx
1
2

c 1 x x log
1 x
dx
2
2

c x sec
1 x x
dx
1
2

Table 7.1: Table of integrals
We get formulas in Table 7.1 by simply reading Table 2.1 backwards.
We frequently apply constant function rule (Rule 1) and sum and difference
rule (Rule 2) for integration which are similar to differentiation. However we
do not have product rule and quotient rule in integration. So problems in
integration are more difficult their problems in differentiation.
Rule 1: (Constant function rule)
dx x f c dx x cf where c is a constant
Rule 2: (Sum and difference rule)
dx x g dx x f dx x g x f
Example: Evaluate dx x f when f(x) equals
a)
4
x b)
3
2
x
c bx ax

c)
2
x
1
x d)
x
1
e x cos 3 x sin 2
x

e)
1 x x
5
x 1
4
x 1
3
2 2 2

Solution:
a) c
3
x
c
1 4
x
dx x
3 1 4
4

c
x 3
1
3

b) dx
x
c
x
bx
x
ax
dx
x
c bx ax
3 3 3
2
3
2

dx
x
1
c dx
x
1
b dx
x
1
a dx cx bx ax
3 2
3 2 1
(by rules 1 and 2)
k
1 3
cx
1 2
bx
x log
1 3 1 2

k
x 2
c
x
b
x log
2

(Note: We use k for arbitrary constant since c appears in the function)
c) dx
x
1
. x 2
x
1
x dx
x
1
x
2
2
2

dx 2 dx
x
1
dx x
2
2
(by rule 2)
dx 2 dx x dx x
2 2
(by rule 1)
c x 2
1
x
3
x
1 3

c x 2
x
1
3
x
3

d) dx
x
1
e x cos 3 x sin 2
x

dx
x
1
dx e xdx cos 3 xdx sin 2
x
(by rule 2)
dx
x
1
dx e xdx cos 3 xdx sin 2
x
(by rule 1)
c x log e x sin 3 x cos 2
x

c x log e x sin 3 x cos 2
x

e) dx
1 x x
5
x 1
4
x 1
3
2 2 2

dx
1 x x
5
dx
x 1
4
dx
x 1
3
2 2 2
(by rule 2)

1 x x
dx
5
x 1
dx
4
x 1
dx
3
2 2 2
(by rule 1)
. c x sec 5 x 1 x log 4 x sin 3
1 2 1

S.A.Q.1: Integrate
2
2 2 1 x
x 1
1
x sec x sin x x e
7.3 Rules of Integration
We have the following rules for integrating complicated function.
Rule 1: Constant function rule
Rule 2: Sum and difference rule
Rule 3: By substitution
Rule 4: Integration by parts
Sum and difference rules:
We have already given rules 1 and 2 and used it for integrating functions in
7.1. In trigonometry some products can be expressed as um or difference of
two simpler trigonometric functions. The following formulas are useful in
integration.
2 Sin A Cos B = Sin (A + B) + Sin (A B)
2 Cos A Sin B = sin (A + B) Sin (A B)
2 Cos A Cos B = Cos (A + B) Cos (A B)
2 sin A Sin B = Cos (A B) Cos (A + B)
Worked Example: Evaluate dx x 2 cos x 5 sin

Solution:
dx x 2 cos x 5 sin 2
2
1
dx x 2 cos x 5 sin
dx x 2 x 5 sin x 2 x 5 sin
2
1

dx x 3 sin
2
1
dx x 7 sin
2
1

c
3
x 3 cos
2
1
7
x 7 cos
2
1

c
6
x 3 cos
14
x 7 cos

Worked Example: Integrate Sin 10x Sin 2x w.r.t. x
Solution:
dx x 2 sin x 10 sin 2
2
1
dx x 2 x 10 sin
dx x 2 x 10 cos x 2 x 10 cos
2
1

dx x 12 cos x 8 cos
2
1

dx x dx x 12 cos
2
1
8 cos
2
1

c
12
x 12 sin
.
2
1
8
x 8 sin
.
2
1

c
24
x 12 sin
.
2
1
x
x 8 sin
dx x 2 sin x 10 sin
Worked Example: Evaluate xdx sin
2

Solution:
dx x 2 cos
2
1
dx 1
2
1
dx
2
x 2 cos 1
xdx sin
2

c
4
x 2 sin
2
x
c
2
x 2 sin
.
2
1
2
x

Integration by substitution:
Now we state rule 3.
Rule 3 (Substitution rule) If x can be written as a function g(t) of t, then
dt t g t g f dx x f
Proof: As . t g
dt
dx
, t g x
Hence dt t g dx (Dont think that this step is obtained by cross
multiplication. dx and dt are called differentials and dt t g dx is the
relation connecting the differentials).
So dx x f dt t g t g f .
Note If f(x) cannot be integrated using known formulas, we try to write f(x)dx
as g(t)dt. Part of f(x) is written as f(g(t)) and the remaining part together with
dx is written as . dt t g
Example: Evaluate . 1 n , dx b ax
n

Solution: Let t = ax + b. Then . a
dx
dt
So dt = adx
dt
a
1
dx
c
1 n
t
a
1
dt t
a
1
dt
a
1
t dx b ax
1 n
n n n

c
1 n a
b a
1 n

Note: If c x g dx x f then
c b ax g
a
1
dx b ax f . (7.3)
So using table (7.1) we get a list of formulas for dx b ax sin etc.
For example:
c b ax sin
a
1
dx b a cos
c b ax tan
a
1
dx b ax sec
2

c e
a
1
dx e
b ax b ax

Example: Integrate the following w.r.t. x
a)
n
x 2 3 b) x 2 3 sin
c) x 4 7 sec
2
d)
3
4 x
e

Solution:
a) c
1 n . 2
x 2 3
dx x 2 3
1 n
n

c
1 n 2
x 2 3
1 n

b) c x 2 3 cos
2
1
dx x 2 3 sin
c
2
x 2 3 cos

c) c x 4 7 tan
4
1
dx x 4 7 sec
2

c
4
x 4 7 tan

d) C
3
1
e
dx e
3
4 x
3
4 x

c e 3
3
4 x

Working Example 4: Integrate the following w.r.t. x
a) a x x b)
bx a
x
c) Sin
3
x d)
3
2
bx a
x
e) Sin
2
3x

Solution: Denote the required integrals by 1
a) 1 dx a x x (say)
Put x + a = t
2
so x = t
2
a, dx = 2t dt
dt at t 2 tdt t a t l
2 4 2 2

c
3
at
5
t
2 dt t a dt t 2
3 5
2 4

c
3
a x a
5
a x
2
2
3
2
5

b) l dx
bx a
x
(say)
Put a + bx = t
2

b
dt t 2 . 1
dx
b
a t
x
2

dt a t
b
2
dt
b
t 2
.
t
1
.
b
a t
l
2
2
2

dt 1 a dt t
b
2
2
2

c at
3
t
b
2
3
2

c bx a a
3
bx a
b
2
2
1
2
3
2

c) dx x sin x sin xdx sin
2 3

dx x sin x cos 1
2

Let t = cosx; dt = sinx dx
dt t 1 l
2

dt t dt 1
2

c
3
t
_ t
3

c
3
x cos
x cos
3

d) l dx
bx a
x
3
2
(say)
Put a + bx = t. So dt
b
1
dx
b
a t
x
dt
t
a t
b
1
dt
b
1
t
b
1 t
l
3
2
3 3
2

dt
t
at 2 a t
b
1
3
2 2
3

dt t a 2 dt t a dt t
b
1
2 3 2 1
3

c
1
at 2
2
t a
2
t a
t log
b
1
1 2 2 2 2
3

c
bx a
a 2
) bx a ( 2
a
bx a log
b
1
2
2
3

e) dx x 3 . 2 cos 1
2
1
dx x 3 sin
2

dx x 6 cos dx 1
2
1

c x 6 sin
6
1
x
2
1

Your skill in integration lies in spotting a suitable variable t g(x) so that
dx x g dt can be located in f(x) dx. We illustrate the method of
substitution by more examples, so that you can master this technique
thoroughly.
Hereafter I stand for the integral to be evaluated.
Example: Integrate the following functions w.r.t. x
a)
n 1 n
x sin x b)
n
x log x
1
c)
2
x 1
tan
x 1
e

Solution:
a) If t = x
n
then dt = nx
n 1
dx and this appears in dx x sin x
n 1 n
. So let
t = x
n
, then dt = nx
n-1
dx.
c
n
t t cos
n
dt
t sin dx x x sin I
1 n n

C
n
x cos
n

b) I dx
x log x
1
n
(Say)
Put log x = t so dt dx
x
1

dt t dt
t
1
dx
x
1
x log
1
I
n
n n

c
1 n
x log
c
1 n
t
1 n 1 n

c
x log 1 n
1
1 n

c) I dx
x 1
x e
2
1
tan
(Say)
Put tan
1
x = t So dt dx
x 1
1
2

dx
x 1
1
x e dx
x 1
x e
I
2
1
tan
2
1
tan

c x tan e c e dt e
1 t t

Working Example: Integrate the following w.r.t. x
a)
6
2
1 x
x
b)
2
x
xe c)
x
x sin

Solution:
a) I dx
x 1
x
6
2
(Say)
Put x
3
= t so 3x
2
dx = dt; dt
3
1
dx x
2

c t tan
3
1
t 1
dt
3
1
x 1
dx x
I
1
2 2
3
2

c x tan
3
1
3 1

b) I dx xe
2
x
(Say)
Put dt
2
1
xdx ; dt xdx 2 ; t x
2

c
1
e
2
1
dt e
2
1
dt
2
1
e xdx e I
t
t t
2
x

c
2
e
2
x

c) I dx
x
x sin
(Say)
Put dt 2 dx
x
1
; dt dx
x 2
1
; t x
tdt sin 2 dt 2 t sin dx
x
1
x sin I
c x cos 2 c t cos 1
Working Example: Evaluate
a) d tan b) d sec c) dx
x sin x
x cos 1
2

d) dx x a x
3 3 2
e) d cot f) d ec cos

Solution:
a) d
cos
sin
d tan
Let y = cos ; dy = sin d
c y log
y
dy
y
dy
d tan
c sec log c cos log c cos log
1

b) d
tan sec
tan sec sec
d sec
Let y = sec + tan ; dy = (sec tan + sec
2
) d
d tan sec sec dy
c y log
y
dy
d sec
d tan sec log
c) I dx
x sin x
x cos 1
(Say)
Put y = x + sinx; dy = (1 + cos x) dx
c
1
y
dy y
y
dy
x sin x
dx x cos 1
I
1
2
2 2

x sin x
1

d) I dx x a x
3 3 2
(Say)
Put ; tdt
3
2
dx x ; tdt 2 dx x 3 ; t x a
2 2 2 3 3

Also t x a
2
1
3 3

dt
3
2
tdt
3
2
t dx x . x a I
2 t 2 3 3

c t
9
2
c
3
t
3
2
3
3

c x a
9
2
2
3
3 3

e) I = log sin + c (check it your self)
f) I = log (cosec + cot ) + c (Check)
Note: Remember the integrals of tan , sec , cot and cosec .
Working Example: Integrate the following w.r.t. x
a)
x x
e 1 e 1
1
b)
x sin 5 x cos 4
x sin 3 x cos 2

Solution:
a)
x
x
x x
e
1
1 e 1
dx
e 1 e 1
dx

I
e 1
dx e
e
1 e
e 1
dx
2
x
x
x
x
x

Let dx e dy ; e 1 y
x x

c
1
y
dy y
y
dy
I
1
2
2

c
e 1
1
x

b) 1 dx
x sin 5 x cos 4
x sin 3 x cos 2

x cos 5 x sin 4 x sin 5 x cos 4
dx
d

Let numerator = I (denominator) +
dx
d
m (denominator)
Put x cos 5 x sin 4 m x sin 5 x cos 4 I x sin 3 x cos 2
We have 41 + 5m = 2 and 51 4m = 3
20 + 25m = 10
20 16 m = 12

41
2
m , 2 m 41

41
92
41
10 82
41
10
2
41
2
5 2 m 5 2 41

4 41
23
2 9
I

41
2
m and
41
23
I

x cos 5 x cos 4
dx x sin 5 x cos 4
dx
d
41
2
x cos 5 x cos 4
41
23
I
dx
x sin 5 x cos 4
x sin 5 x cos 4 d
41
2
dx
41
23

c x sin 5 x cos 4 log
41
2
41
23

S.A.Q.2: Integrate the following functions w.r.t. x
a) 3 x 4 cot 3 x 4 ec cos b)
5
3 x 2
1
c)
2 x 3
1

d) x 11 7 ec cos
2
e)
x
e
4 5

S.A.Q.3: Evaluate the following integrals
a)
x 4 3 cos
dx x 4 3 tan
b) dx
x cos 1
x cos 1

c) dx x 2 sin 1 d) dx 3
x

(Hint: b) etc
2
x
sin 2 x cos 1
2
c) x cos x sin 2 x 2 sin
d)
3
log x
x
3 log
e x 3
S.A.Q. 4: Integrate the following functions w.r.t. x
a)
x
log
b)
x x
e sin e c) 11 x x
4 3
d)
x
e
x
2
tan
cos

S.A.Q.5: Integrate the following functions w.r.t. x
a)
x
x
xe
x e
2
cos
1
b)
4
3
1
2 4
x
x x
c)
x x x log
1
d) x sec x tan
3

(Hint: b) dx
x 1
x 2
dx
x 1
x 4
Evaluate
4 4
3
c) x log 1 t d) ) x sec t
a) x sin
1
b)
x
xe c) ) 1 x ( log x d) x tan x
1

a)
2
x
x log
b)
2
x
x 1
xe
c)
2
2 2
x
a x log
d) x log x
3

Integration by parts
By now you might have noticed that there are not many general rules for
integration as in the case of differentiation. Even simple functions like log
x

cannot be integrated with the rules we have come across so far.
In this section we give a method of integration called Integration by parts.
Using this method we can integrate many functions.

Rule 4: If u and v are functions of x,
vdu uv udv .. (7.4)
This follows by integrating the product rule

dx
du
v
dx
dv
u uv
dv
d

Integrating both sides we get
dx
dx
du
v dx
dx
dv
u uv
vdu udv
(7.4) Follows from the above identity while applying integration by parts, we
locate dv in f(x) dx. That is we integrate that part of f(x) and term it as v.
The remaining part is taken as u.
Working Example: Evaluate dx x log
Solution: Let u = log x dv = dx
Then
x
dx
du or
x
1
dx
du

V = x.
du v uv dx x log
dv
u

x
dx
x x log x
c x x log x
Working Example: Evaluate dx x a
2 2

Solution: Let
2 2
x a u and dv = dx
v = x
du v uv dx x a
dv u
2 2

dx
x a 2
x 2 . x
x a x
2 2
2 2

dx
x a
x
x a x
2 2
2
2 2

dx
x a
a x a
x a x
2 2
2 2 2
2 2

2 2
2 2 2 2 2
x a
dx
a dx x a x a x
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
x a x log a dx x a x a x dx x a
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
x a x log a x a x dx x a 2
c x a x log
2
a
x a
2
x
dx x a
2 2
2
2 2 2 2

a) dx x sin x
1 2
b) dx x sin x
2

Solution
a) dx x sin x I
1 2

Let
3
x
v dx x dv x sin u
3
2 1

dx
x 1
1
.
3
x
x sin
3
x
vdu uv udv I
2
3
1
3

xdx
x 1
x
3
1
x sin
3
x
I
2
2
1
3

Put 1 x
2
= t
2
in the second term; x
2
= 1 t
2
; 2x dx = 2tdt; xdxv= tdt
dt t 1
t
tdt t 1
xdx
x 1
x
2
2
2
2

c
3
t
t dt t dt 1
3
2

c 3 x 1
3
x 1
c 3 t
3
t
2
2
1
2
2

Hence c 2 x
3
x 1
3
1
x sin
3
x
I
2
2
1
2
1
3

c x 2 x 1
9
1
x sin
3
x
2 2 1
3

b) xdx sin x I
2

Let u = x dv = sin
2
x dx
Then du = dx

2
x 2 sin
x
2
1
dx x cos 1
2
1
xdx sin v
2

4
x 2 sin
2
x
v
dx
4
x 2 sin
2
x
x
4
x 2 sin
2
x
I
c
2
x 2 cos
4
x
4
x 2 sin x
2
x
2 2

C
2
x 2 cos
x x 2 sin x x 2
4
1
2 2

c
2
x 2 cos
x 2 sin x x
4
1
2

7.4 More formulas in integration
Using the method of substitution or integration by parts, we can derive the
following formulas (see table 7.2)
1)
c
a
x
tan
a
1
a x
dx
1
2 2

2)
c
a x
a x
log
a 2
1
a x
dx
2 2

3)
c
x a
x a
log
a 2
1
x a
dx
2 2

4)
c x a x log
x a
dx
2 2
2 2

5)
c a x x log
a x
dx
2 2
2 2

6)
c
a
x
sin
x a
dx
1
2 2

7)
c
2
x a x
a
x
sin
2
a
dx x a
2 2
1
2
2 2

8)
c
2
x a x
a x x log
2
a
dx x a
2 2
2 2
2
2 2

9)
c
2
x a x
a x x log
2
a
dx a x
2 2
2 2
2
2 2

Table 7.2 Additional formulas for integration
Now we are in a position to integrate functions having quadratic factors or
square root of quadratic factors in numerator or denominator of functions.
Integral of functions of the form
x sin d x cos
x sin b x cos a

Method
Step 1: Let numerator = A (Denominator) +
dx
d
B (Denominator)
Step 2: Find the values of A and B
Step 3: Split the function and integrate
We have already seen this in W.E. 7(b)
Completion of squares
All the subsequent methods use a technique called Completing the
square. It is simply writing a quadratic expression in the form, a
2
+ x
2
,
a
2
x
2
, x
2
a
2
.
Example: Consider x
2
+ 3x + 2. We can write
2 x
2
3
2 x 2 x 3 x
2 2

2 2
2
2
3
2
2
3
x
2
3
2 x

4
9 8
2
3
x
2

2 2 2
2
1
2
3
x
4
1
2
3
x
Example: Consider 2 7x x
2

x 7 x 2 x x 7 2
2 2

2 2
2
2
7
2
7
x
2
7
2 x 2

2
2
7
x
4
49
2

2
2
7
x
4
57

2
2
2
7
x
2
57

Integration of functions of the form
c bx ax
m Ix
2

Method:
Step 1: Write B c bx ax
dx
d
A m Ix
2

Working Example: Evaluate dx
x 7 x 6
4 x
2

Solution:
Here 6 x 2 x 7 x 6
dx
d
2

Let x + 4 = A (2x + 6) + B = 2 Ax + 6A + B
1 = 2A; 4 = 6A + B
7 3 4
2
1
6 4 A 6 4 B ;
2
1
A
x 6 x 7
dx
7 dx
x 7 x 6
6 x 2
2
1
dx
x 7 x 6
4 x
2 2 2

9 3 x 7
dx
7
x 7 x 6
x 7 x 6 d
2
1
2
2
2

2
2
2
3 x 2
dx
7 x 7 x 6 log
2
1

c
3 x 2
3 x 2
log
2 2
7
x 7 x 6 log
2
1
2

c bx ax
1
2

Method: Write c bx ax
2
in the form
2 2 2 2 2 2
x a or a x or a x
and integrate.
a)
2 x 4 x 4
dx
2
b)
10 x 13 x 3
dx
2

Solution:
a)
2 x 4 x 4
dx
2

2
1
x x
dx
4
1
2

2 2
2
1
2
1
x
dx
4
1

c
2
1
2
1
x
tan
2
1
.
4
1
1

c 1 x 2 tan
8
1
1

b)
3
10
3
x 13
x
dx
3
1
10 x 13 x 3
dx
2
2

2 2
6
13
3
10
6
13
x
dx
3
1

36
169
3
10
6
13
x
dx
3
1
2

2 2
6
17
6
13
x
dx
3
1

c
6
17
6
13
x
6
17
6
13
x
log
6
17
.
2
1
.
3
1

c
5 x
3
2
x
log
17
1

c
5 x 3
2 x 3
log
17
1

c bx ax
m Ix
2

Method:
dx
d
A Im
2

Working Example: Find dx
x 2 x 6
5 x 6
2

Solution:
Let B x 2 x 6
dx
d
A 5 x 6
2

B x 4 1 A 5 x 6
B A Ax 4 5 x 6
B A 5 ; A 4 6

2
13
2
3
5 A 5 B ;
2
3
A
dx
x 2 x 6
2
13
x 4 1
2
3
dx
x 2 x 6
5 x 6
2 2


2 2
x 2 x 6
dx
2
13
dx
x 2 x 6
x 4 1
2
3

2
2
1
2
2
x
2
x
3 2
dx
2
13
x 2 x 6
x 2 x 6 d
2
3

2
2
1
2
4
1
x
16
1
3
dx
2 2
13
x 2 x 6 2 .
2
3

2 2
4
1
x
4
7
dx
2 2
13
2 x 2 x 6 3
c
4
7
4
1
x
sin
2 2
13
x 2 x 6 3
1 2

c
7
1 x 4
sin
2 2
13
x 2 x 6 3
1 2

Integrals of functions of the form
c bx ax
1
2

2
in form
2 2 2 2 2 2
a x or x a or x a
and integrate
2 x x 3
dx
2

Solution:
3
2
3
x
x
dx
3
1
2 x x 3
dx
2
2


12 . 3
12 . 2
36
1
6
1
x
dx
3
1
2

2 2
6
5
6
1
x
dx
3
1

c
6
5
6
1
x
6
1
x log
3
1
2 2

c
3
2
3
x
x
6
1
x log
3
1
2

c 2 x x 3
3
1
6
1
x log
3
1
2
1
2

Integration of functions of the form c bx ax m Ix
2

Method:
dx
d
A m Ix
2

Working Example: Find dx 1 x x 2 x 3
2

Solution: Let B 1 x x
dx
d
A 2 x 3
2

B 1 x 2 A 2 x 3
3x 2 = 2Ax + A + B
3 = 2A; 2 = A + B

2
7
2
3
2 A 2 B ;
2
3
A
dx 1 x x
2
7
1 x 2
2
3
dx 1 x x 2 x 3
2 2

dx 1 x x
2
7
dx 1 x 2 1 x x
2
3
2 2

dx
3
4
2
1
x
2
7
1 x x d 1 x x
2
3
2
1
2
2
2
1
2

c 1 x x
2
1
x log
2
1
4
3
1 x x
2
1
x
2
7
2
3
1 x x
2
3
2 2
2
3
2
\
/

c 1 x x
2
1
x log
15
21
1 x x 1 x 2
2
7
1 x x
2 2
2
3
2

Integration of functions of the form c bx ax
2

2
in the form
2 2 2 2 2 2
a x or x a or x a and integrate.
Working Example: Find dx x 2 x 1
2

Solution: dx x
2
x
2
1
2 I
2
1
2

dx
4
1
x
16
1
2
1
2
2
1
2

dx
4
1
x
16
9
2
2
1
2

dx
4
1
x
4
3
2
2
1
2 2

c
4
3
4
1
x
sin
16
9
.
2
1
4
1
x
16
9
4
1
x 2
1
2
1
2

c
3
1 x 4
sin
32
9
x
2
x
2
1
4
1 x 4
2
1 2

Integration using partial fractions
Consider the function .
1 x 2 x
1
Expanding the denominator as
, 2 32 x
2
we can integrate the function using the method given in 7.3.3.
We can also integrate the same function using partial fractions.
2 x
1
1 x
1
1 x 2 x
1 x 2 x
1 x 2 x
1

Now it is easy to integrate
2 x
1
1 x
1
. We illustrate this method using an
example.
Working Example: Evaluate dx
2 x 1 x
6 x 7

Solution: Let us write the given function as
2 x
B
1 x
A

Then
2 x
B
1 x
A
2 x 1 x
6 x 7

Multiplying both sides by (x 1) (x 2), we get
7x 6 = A(x 2) + B(x 1) (*)
Put x = 1 in (*). We get 7(1) 6 = A(1 2)
That is, 1 = A of 1 A
Put x = 2 in (*). We get 7(2) 6 = B(2 1)
That is, 8 = B 8 B
dx
2 x
B
1 x
A
I
dx
2 x
8
dx
1 x
1

= log (x 1) + 8 log (x 2) + c

7.5 Definite integrals
dx x f is called the indefinite integral in integral calculus. You will be
curious to know why it is called indefinite integral. Rieman defined a definite
integral first. It is the form . dx x f
b
a

If
b
a
a g b g dx x f then , dx x f x g
Note that the definite integral
b
a
dx x f is a real number whereas dx x f is
a function.
Working Example 18: Evaluate
1
0
2
x x 1
dx

Solution:
c
x 2 1 5
x 2 1 5
log
5
1
x x 1
dx
2
(Check)

Hence
c
1 2 1 5
1 2 1 5
log
5
1
c
0 2 1 5
0 2 1 5
log
5
1
x x 1
dx
1
0
2

3 5
1 5
log
5
1
1 5
1 5
log
5
1

Note: The arbitrary constant c gets cancelled while finding g(0) g(a).
S.A.Q 8: Integrate the following functions w.r.t. x
a)
8 x 3 x
3 x 4
2
b)
1 x x
2 x 3
2

S.A.Q 9: Integrate the following functions w.r.t. x
a)
2
x x 8
1
b)
1 x 2 x
3 x 4
2

a)
2
x x 8
1
b)
20 x 8 x
1
2

a)
2
x x 2 3 b) 16 x 9
2

a)
2
x x 3 2
1
b)
2 x 1 x
x
2

2
1 x
C
1 x
B
2 x
A
as function given the Write b) (Hint
S.A.Q. 14: Evaluate the following definite integrals
a) dx
3 x 2 x
1 x
1
0
b)
1
0
4 4
dx 3 x 2 3 x 5
7.6 Summary
In this unit we studied the standard forms of integration. The different rules
of integration is given and explained with the help of standard examples. All
the formula concerned with integration is followed by good examples. The
concept of definite integral and its application is explained clearly with good
examples.

1. Integration of the following w.r.t. x
a) x sin
x 1
1
2
b) x sec x cos
x 2
7 x
2

c)
x 4
5 x 4 x 3
2
d)
2
x
1
x
e) x cos tamx x sec
2. Evaluate the following integrals
a) dx x 5 cos 3
2
b) dx x sin 1
c) dx x 3 cos x 5 cos d) dx x 5 cos x 7 sin
3. Integrate the following functions w.r.t. x
a)
x cos x sin
1
2 2
b)
x cos 1
x sin
2
c) x sin 1
2
d)
x 4
2
x
e 1 e
(Hint: a) sin
2
x + cos
2
x=1 b) sin
2
x=1 cos
2
x c) sin2x=2 sin x cos x
d) Expand and integrate.)
a)
3 2
x cos x 3 b)
x
x log sin

c)
x log x
1
d)
x 2
x
xe cos
x 1 e

a)
2
x
1
x
e 6
b)
x 2
x
e 9 4
e

c) 0 n
x tan x sec
x sec
n
d)
x sin
x cos
3

a)
a
x
cos
1
b) x sin2x
c) x tan
1
d) x log x
n

(Hint: a)
a
x
cos u
1
b) u = x c) u = tan
-1
x d) u = log x)
a) x tan
2
x b) e
x
(sin x + cos x) c) x
2
sin x
(Hint: a) u = x b) use integration by parts to
x x
e xd sin xdx sin e and proceed c) take u = x
2
, evaluate
dx x sin x
8. Integrate the following functions w.r.t.x
a)
3 x x 2
1 x 3
2
b)
35 x 2 x
1 x 5
2

a)
10 x 13 x 3
1
2
b)
10 x 4 x 4
1
2

a)
2
x x 4 3
x 2
b)
5 x 4 x
7 x 6

a)
10 x 3 x
1
2
b)
2
x x 1
1

12. Integrate the following function w.r.t. x
a) 6 x 4 x
2
b) x 1 x 2
a)
x 3 1 1 x 2
3 x 2
b)
1 x 2 1 x
1 x
2
2

(Hint: x
2
1 = (x + 1) (x 1). Write the given function as
1 x 2
C
1 x
B
1 x
A
)
a)
0
4
dx
x 2 1
x 3
b)
1
0
8
3
x 1
x

7.8 Answers
Self Assessment Question
1. x tan x tan x cos
x
2
x log e
1
3
x

2. a)
4
3 x 4 ec cos
b)
4
3 x 2 8
1

c)
3
2 x 3 log
d)
11
x 11 7 cot

e)
4
e
x 4 5

3. a)
4
x 4 3 sec
b) x
2
x
tan 2
c) x cos x sin d)
3 log
x 3

4. a)
2
x log
2
b)
x
e cos
c)
2
3
4
11 x
6
1
d)
x tan
e
5. a)
x
xe tan b)
2 1 4
x tan x 1 log
c) x log 1 log d) x sec
3
sec
x 3

6. a)
2 1 1
x 1 x sin x ; x sin u b) 1 x e ; x u
x

c)
2
x
4
x
1 x log 1 x
2
1
; 1 x log u
2
2

d) x x tan 1 x
2
1
1 2

7. a)
x
x log 1
; x log u b)

x 1
e
;
x 1
dx
dv , xe u
x
2
x
Answer
c)
a
x
tan
a
2
x
a x log
; a x log u
1
2 2
2 2
d)
16
x
4
x log x
4 4

8. a)
23
3 x 2
tan
23
18
8 x 3 x log 2
1 2

b)
3
1 x 2
tan
3
1
1 x x log
2
3
1 2

9. a)
3
5 x 2
tan
3
2
1
b)
29 7 x 2
29 7 x 2
log
29
1

10. a)
33
1 x 2
sin
2
3
x x 8
1 2
b)
1 x 2 x 1 x log 7 1 x 2 x 4
2 2

11. a)
33
1 x 2
sin
1
b) 20 x 8 x 4 x log
2

12. a)
2
1 x
sin 2 x x 2 3 1 x
2
1
1 2
b)
16 x 9 x 3 log 16 16 x 9 x 3
6
1
2 2

13. a)
1 x
2 x
log b)
1 x
1
.
3
1
2 x
1 x
log
9
2

14. a) The indefinite integral is 2 log (x + 3) log (x + 2) + c
Answer: 2 log 4 3 log 3 + log 2
b) Answer:
2
625 3
2
5
5 0 2
10
3
0 3 1 2
10
3
1
5 5 5

Terminal Questions:
1. a) x cos x tan
1
b) x tan x sin x log
2
7
2
x

c) x log
4
5
x x
8
3
2
d) x log x 2
2
x
2

e) x sin x sec
2. a) x 10 sin
20
3
x
2
3
b)
2
x
4
cos 2 2
c) x 2 sin
4
1
x 8 sin
10
1
d)
2
x 2 cos
12
x 12 cos

3. a) x cot x tan b) x sin x
c) x sin x cos d)
4
e
3
e 2
2
e
x 4 x 3 x 2

4. a) sin (x
3
) b) cos (log x)
c) log (log x) d) tan (xe
x
)
5. a)
x
1
e 6 b)
2
e 3
tan
6
1
x
1

c)
n
x tan x sec n
1
d)
5
x sin
1 x sin 2
2

6. a)
2 2 1
x a
a
x
cos x b)
4
x 2 sin
2
x 2 cos x

c)
2 1
x 1 log
2
1
x tan x d)
2
1 n 1 n
1 n
x
1 n
x log x

7. a)
2
x
x cos log x tan x
2
b) x sin e
x

c) x cos 2 x sin x 2 x cos x
2

8. a)
23
1 x 4
tan
23 2
1
3 x x 2 log
4
3
1 2

b)
5 x
7 x
log
2
1
35 x 2 x log
2
5
2

9. a)
15 x 3
2 x 3
log
17
1
b)
2
1 x 2
tan
6
1
1

10. a)
7
2 x
sin 4 x x 4 3 2
1 2

b) 20 x 9 x
2
9
x log 34 20 x 9 x 6
2 2

11. a) 10 x 3 x
2
3
x log
2
b)
5
1 x 2
sin
1

12. a) 6 x 4 x 2 x log 6 x 4 x
2
2 x
2 2

b)
3
1 x 2
sin 9 x x 2 1 x 2 2
8
1
1 2

13. a) x 3 1 log
15
11
1 x 2 log
5
2

b) 1 x 12 log
6
5
1 x log 1 x log
3
1

14. a) The indefinite integral is c x 2 tan
4
2 3
2 1
(Put t = x
2
and
integrate).
Answer:
.
8
2 3
0 .
4
2 3
2
.
4
2 3
0 tan
4
2 3
tan
4
2 3
1 1

b) c x sin
4
1
4 1
is the indefinite integral (Put t = x
4
and integrate).
Answer:
.
8
0
2
.
4
1
0 sin
4
1
1 sin
4
1
1 1

Unit 8 Differential Equations
Structure
8.1 Introduction
Objectives
8.2 First Order Differential Equations
8.3 Practical Approach to Differential Equations
8.4 First Order and First Degree Differential Equations
8.5 Homogeneous Equations
8.6 Linear Equations
8.7 Bernoullis Equation
8.8 Exact Differential Equations
8.9 Summary
8.11 Answers

8.1 Introduction
Differential equation is a branch of Mathematics which finds its application in
a variety of fields. First of all a given problem is converted to differential
equations, which is then solved and the solution to the problem is found out.
Objectives:
to find the solution of Differential Equations
apply differential equations in practical situations

8.2 First order Differential Equations
Definitions
A differential equation is an equation which involves differential coefficients
or differentials.
Thus,
i) , 0 dy e dx e
y x
ii) 0 x n
dy
x d
2
2
2

iii)
dx / dy
x
dx
dy
. x y iii) c
dx
y d
dx
dy
1
2
2
2
3
2

v) u 2
y
u
y
x
u
. x
are all examples of differential equations.
An ordinary differential equation is that in which all the differential
coefficients have reference to a single independent variable. Thus the
equation (i) to (iv) are all ordinary differential equations.
A partial differential equation is that in which there are two or more
independent variables and partial coefficients with respect to any of them.
Thus equation (v) is an example for the partial differential equation.
The order of a differential equation is the order of the highest derivative
appearing in it.
The degree of a differential equation is the degree of the highest derivative
occurring in it, after the equation has been expressed in a form free from
radicals and fractions as far as the derivatives are concerned.
Thus from the examples above,
i) is of the order and first degree;
ii) is the second order and first degree;
iii) can be written as , 1
dx
dy
. x
dx
dy
y
2
and is clearly a first order but
second degree equation.

8.3 Practical Approach to Differential Equations
Differential equations arise from many problems in oscillations of
mechanical, electrical systems, bending of beams, conduction of heat,
velocity of chemical reactions etc., and as much play a very important role in
al modern scientific and engineering studies.
The approach of an engineering student to the study of differential equations
has got to be practical unlike that a student of mathematics, who is only
interested in solving the differential equations without knowing as to how the
differential equations are formed and how their solutions are physically
interpreted.
Thus for the applied mathematics, the study of the differential equation
consists of 3 phases:
i) Formation of the differential equation from the given problem
ii) Solution of this differential equation, evaluating the arbitrary constants
from the given conditions, and
iii) Physical interpretation of the solution
Formation of a differential equation
An ordinary differential equation is formed in an attempt to eliminate certain
arbitrary constants from a relation in the variables and constants. In applied
mathematics, every geometrical or physical problem when translated into
mathematical symbols gives rise to a differential equation.
Examples
From the differential equation of simple harmonic motion given by t,
nt cos A x
Solution: To eliminate the constant A and , differentiating it twice, we have,
nt sin nA
dt
dx
.
and x n nt cos A n
dt
x d
.
2 2
2
2

thus, , 0 x n
dt
x d
.
2
2
2
is the desired differential equation.
Example: Form the differential equation of all circles of radius a.
Solution: The general equation of a circle with centre at (h, k) is given by
(x h)
2
+ (y k)
2
= a
2
.. (1)
Where h and k, the co-ordinates of the centre, and a are the constants.
Differentiate twice, we have,
0
dx
dy
. k y h x 0
dx
dy
. k y 2 h x 2
and 0
dx
dy
dx
y d
k y 1
2
2
2

Then,
2
2
2
dx
y d
dx
dy
1 k y
And x h = -(y k)
dx
dy

2
2
2
dx
y d
dx
dy
1
dx
dy

Substituting these in (1), and simplifying, we get,
, a
dx
y d
dx
dy
1
2
2
2
3
2

It states that the radius of curvature of a circle at any point is constant
Solution of a differential equation
A solution (or integral) of a differential equation is a relation between the
variables which satisfies the given differential equation.
For example, nt cos A x ------------ (1)
Is a solution of 0 x n
dt
x d
.
2
2
2
------------ (2)
The general or complete solution of a differential equation is that in which
the number of arbitrary constants is equal to the order of the differential
equation. Thus, (1) is a general solution of (2) as the number of arbitrary
constants (A, ) is the same as the order of (2).
A particular solution is that which can be obtained from the general
solution by giving particular values to the arbitrary constants
For example, ,
4
nt cos A x
is the particular solution of the equation (2) as it can be derived from the
general solution by putting .
4

8.4 First Order and First Degree Differential Equations
One can represent the general and particular solution of a differential
equation geometrically. But it is not possible to solve a family of parabola
y = x2 + c, in this approach. We shall, however, discuss some special
methods of solution which are applied to the following types of equations:
(i) Equations where variables are separable
(ii) Homogeneous equations
(iii) Linear equations
(iv) Exact equations
Variables separable
If in any equation if it is possible to collect all functions of x and dx on one
side and all the functions of y and dy on the other side, then the variables
are said to be separable. Thus the general form of such equation is f(y), dy
= (x) dx.
Integrating both the sides, we get,
c dx x dy y f as its solution.
Example:
Solve
y 2 2 y 2 x 3
e x e
dx
dy

Solution: Given equation is
2 x 3 y 2
x e e
dx
dy

dx x e dy e
2 x 3 y 2

Integrating on both the sides,
c dx x e dy e
2 x 3 y 2

c
3
x
3
e
2
e
3 x 3 y 2

1 3 x 3 y 2
c x e 2 e 3

8.5 Homogeneous Equations
Homogeneous Equations are of the form
y , x
y , x f
dx
dy

Where f(x, y) and (x, y) are homogeneous functions of the same degree in
x and y.
To solve a homogeneous equation,
i) Put y = vx, then ,
dx
dv
. x v
dx
dy

ii) Separate the variables v and x and then integrate.
Example:
Solve xydy 2 dx y x
2 2

Solution: The given equation is ,
xy 2
y x
dx
dy
2 2
which is homogeneous in x
and y.
Put y = vx then
dx
dv
. x v
dx
dy

Then the given problem becomes,
v 2
v 1
dx
dv
. x v
2

or
v 2
v 3 1
v
v 2
v 1
dx
dv
. x
2 2

Separating the variables, we get,
x
dx
dv
v 3 1
v 2
2

Integrating both the sides
c
x
dx
dv
v 3 1
v 2
2

or c
x
dx
dv
v 3 1
v 6
3
1
2

or c x log v 3 1 log
3
1
2

or c 3 v 3 1 log x log 3
2

or c 3 v 3 1 x log
2 3

or
1 c 3 2 2 3
c e x / y 3 1 x
Hence the required solution is
1 2 2
c y 3 x x
Equations reducible to homogeneous form
The equations of the form
c y b x a
c by ax
dx
dy
---------- (1)
can be reduced to the homogeneous form as follows:
Case 1: when
b
b
a
a

Putting x = X + h, y = Y + k (h, k being constants)
So that, dx = dX = dY, becomes,

c k b h a Y b X a
c bk ah bY aX
dX
dY
----------- (2)
Choose h, k so that (2) may becomes homogeneous.
Put ah + bk + c = 0,
and 0 c k b h a
So that,

a b b a
1
a c a c
k
c b c b
h

or

a b b a
c b c b
h ---------- (3)

a b b a
a c a c
k
Thus when 0 , a b b a then (2), becomes

Y b X a
bY aX
dX
dY
--------- (4)
Which is a homogeneous in X, Y and can be solved by putting Y = vX.
Case II: When
b
b
a
a

i.e. , 0 a b b a the above method fails as h and k become infinite or in
determinant
Now, ) say (
m
1
b
b
a
a

bm b , am a and (1) becomes

c by ax m
c by ax
dx
dy

Put ax + by = t, so that
dx
dy
dx
dy
b a
or a
dx
dt
b
1
dx
dy

therefore we have
c mt
bc c a t b am
c mt
bc bt
a
dx
dt
c mt
c t
a
dx
dt
b
1

so that the variables are separable. In this solution, putting t = ax + by, we
get the required solution of (1).
Examples
1. Solve
4 x y
2 x y
dx
dy

Solution: The given equation is
4 x y
2 x y
dx
dy
[this is where
]
b
b
a
a
--------- (1)
Putting x = X + h, y = Y + k (h, k being constants)
So that dx = dX, dy = dY, (1) becomes
) 4 h k ( X Y
) 2 h k ( X Y
dX
dY
--------- (2)
Put x + h 2 = 0 and k h 4 = 0,
So that, h = 1, k = 3.
Therefore (2) becomes,
X Y
X Y
dX
dY

Which is homogeneous in X and Y.
Put Y = vX, then
dx
dv
X v
dX
dY

1 v
1 v
dX
dv
X v
Or
X
dX
dv ,
v v 2 1
1 v
1 v
v v 2 1
v
1 v
1 v
dX
dv
X
2
2

c
X
dX
dv
v v 2 1
v 2 2
2
1
2

Or c X log v v 2 1 log 2 / 1
2

c X log v v 2 1 log
2
1
2

Or
c 2 X log
X
Y
X
Y 2
1 log
2
2
2

Or log (X
2
+ 2XY Y
2
) = 2c
Or X
2
+ 2XY y
2
= e 2c = c
Putting X = x h = x + 1, and Y = y k 3, equation (4) becomes,
c 3 y 3 y 1 x 2 1 x
2 2

Which is the required solution.

8.6 Linear Equations
A differential equation is said to be linear if the different variable and its
differential coefficients occur only in the first degree and are not multiplied
together.
Thus the standard form of a linear equation of the first order, commonly
known as Leibnitzs linear equation, is
Q py
dx
dy
---------- (1)
Where P, Q are any functions of x.
To solve the equation, multiply both the sides by
Pdx
e so that we get,

Pdx Pdx Pdx
Qe P e y e
dx
dy

Pdx Pdx
Qe ye
dx
d
,. e . i
c dx Qe ye
Pdx Pdx

As the required solution
Example
1. Solve
2 x 3
1 x e y
dx
dy
1 x
Solution: The given equation is,
2 x 3
1 x e y
dx
dy
1 x
Dividing both the sides by (x + y), given equation becomes,

1 x 3
1 x e
1 x
y
dx
dy
---------- (1)
Which is Leibnitzs equation.
Here
1 x
1
P
Therefore,
1
1 x log 1 x log
1 x
dx
Pdx
And
1 x
1
e
e
1
1 x log
Pdx

Thus the solution of (1) is,
c dx
1 x
1
1 x e ye
x 3
Pdx

c e
3
1
c dx e
1 x
y
x 3 x 3

1 x c e
3
1
y
x 3

8.7 Bernoullis Equation
The equation , Qy Py
dx
dy
n
-------- (1)
Where P, Q are functions of x, is reducible to the Leibnitzs linear equation
and is usually called the Bernoullis equation.
To solve (1), divide both the sides of y
n
, so that
Q Py
dx
dy
y
n 1 n
-------- (2)
Put ,
1
z y
n
so that

dx
dz
dx
dy
y n 1
n

Q Pz
dx
dz
n 1
1

(2) Becomes,
) n 1 ( Q z ) n 1 ( P
dx
dz

Which is Leibnitzs linear in z and can be solved easily.
Examples
1. Solve
6 3
y x y
dx
dy
x
Solution: The given equation is,
6 3
y x y
dx
dy
x -------- (1)
Dividing throughout by xy
6
,

2
5
6
x
x
y
dx
dy
y -------- (2)
Put y
5
= z, so that dx / dz dx / dy y 5
6

2
x
x
z
dx
dz
5
1

Or
2
x 5 z
x
5
dx
dz
--------- (3)
Which is Leibnitzs linear in z, and the intermediate form I.F. is,
I.F. =
5
5
x log
dx
x
5
Pdx
x e e
Therefore the solution of (3) is,
c dx F . I x 5 F . I z
2

c dx x x 5 zx
5 2 5

Or c
2
x
. 5 x y
2
5 5
[since z = y
5
]
Dividing both sides by , x y
5 5
we get,
1 = (2.5 + cx
2
) x
3
y
5

8.8 Exact Differential Equations
1. Definition: A differential equation of the form
, 0 dy y , x N dx y , x M
Is said to be exact if its left hand member is the exact differential of
some function u(x, y).
i.e., 0 Ndy Mdx du
Its solution therefore, is u(x, y) = c.

2. Theorem: The necessary and sufficient condition for the differential
equation Mdx + Ndy = 0 to be exact is

x
N
y
M

Condition is necessary:
The equation M(x, y) dx + N(x, y) dy = 0 will be exact, if Mdx + Ndy
du ----- (1)
Where u is some function of x and y.
But dy
y
u
dx
x
u
du ------- (2)
Equating coefficients of dx and dy in (1) and (2), we get

x
u
M and
y
u
N

x y
u
y
M
2
and
y x
u
x
N
2

But,
y x
u
x y
u
2 2
(Assumption)

x
N
y
M

Which is the necessary condition of exactness.
Condition is sufficient:
i.e., if ,
x
N
y
M
then Mdx + Ndy = 0 is exact.
Let , u Mdx where u is supposed constant while performing integration.
Then
x
u
M ., e . i
x
u
Mdx
y
------- (3)
x y
u
y
M
2
since
x
N
y
M
(given)
Or
y
u
x y x
u
x
N
and
y x
u
x y
u
2 2

Integrating both the sides, w.r.t x (taking y as constant
y f
y
u
N , where f(y) is a function of y alone. -------- (4)
dy y f
y
u
dx
x
u
Ndy Mdx [by (3) and (4).]
dy y f dy
y
u
dx
x
u
-------- (5)
dy y f u d dy y f du
Which shows that Mdx + Ndy = 0 is exact.
Method of solution: By equation (5), equation Mdx + Ndy = 0 becomes
0 dy y f u d
Integrating c dy y f u
But y f and
t tan ycons
c Mdx
u =terms of N not containing x.
The solution of Mdx + Ndy = 0 is

) yconst (
Mdx (terms of N not containing x) dy = c
Provided
x
N
y
M

Examples
1. Solve 0
x y cos x x sin
y y sin x cos y
dx
dy

Solution: Given equation can be written as,
(y cos x + sin y + y) dx + (sin x + x cos y + x) dy = 0
Here,
M = y cos x + sin y + y
N = sinx + x cos y + x

x
N
1 y cos x cos
y
M

Thus the equation is exact and its solution is
c dy ) x containing not N of terms ( Mdx
) yconst (

i.e., c dy 0 dx y sin x cos y
Or y sin x + (sin y + y)x = c

1. Solve y cos x y 2 sin x
dx
dy
2 3

2. Solve dy x y tan dx y 1
1 2

3. Solve 0 dy 5 y 6 x 4 dx 4 x 2 y 3

8.9 Summary
In this unit we study the first order differential equations. The practical
approach to differential equations is clearly explained with suitable
examples. Solving first order first degree differential equation by the variable
separable method is discussed here. Equations reducible to homogeneous
form is discussed here with example. The linear equations, Bernoullis
equation and exact differential equation is solved here in a simple manner
with proper examples.

1. Derive the necessary and sufficient condition for the differential equation
Mdx + Ndy to be exact
2. Briefly describe Bernoullis equation

8.11 Answers
1. Dividing throughout by cos
2
y,

3
2
2
x
y cos
y cos y sin
x 2
dx
dy
y sec

3 2
x y tan x 2
dx
dy
y sec -------- (1)
Put tan y = z, so that
dx
dz
dx
dy
y sec
2

Therefore equation (1) becomes,
, x xz 2
dx
dz
3

Which is Leibnitzs linear equation in z.

2
x
xdx 2 Pdx
e e e . F . I
Therefore the solution is,
c e 1 x
2
1
c dx x e e
2
x 2 3
2
x
2
x

Replacing z by tan y, we get

2
x 2
e . c 1 x
2
1
y tan
Which is the required form

2. This equation contains y
2
and tan
1
y and is, therefore not a linear in y,
but since only x occurs, it can be written as,
x y tan
dy
dx
y 1
1 2

2
1
2
y 1
y tan
y 1
x
dy
dx

Which is leibnitzs equation in x.
Therefore, we have intermediately form I.F. as,
y e e e . F . I
1
tan
dy
2
y 1
1
Pdx

Thus the solution is,
c dy F . I
y 1
y tan
F . I x
2
1

Or c dy . y tan e .
y 1
y tan
e . x
1
2
1
y
1
tan

dt y 1 / dy
y tan t Put
2
1

Therefore
c dt . e . t y e . x
t
1
tan

c dt . e . 1 e . t
t t

c e e . t
t t

c y tan e . 1 y tan
1 1

Or y e . c 1 y tan x
1
tan 1

3. The given equation is,
5 y 3 x 2 2
4 y 3 x 2
dx
dy
-------- (1)
Putting 2x + 3y = t, so that
dx
dt
dx
dy
3 2

5 t 2
4 t 7
2
dx
dt
3
1

(1) becomes,
5 t 2
22 t 7
5 t 2
12 t 3
2
dx
dt

dx dt
22 t 7
5 t 2

Integrating both the sides, c dx dt
22 t 7
5 t 2

Or c x dt
22 t 7
1
.
7
9
7
2

Or c x 22 t 7 log
49
9
t
7
2

Putting t = 2x + 3y, we have
14(2x + 3y) 9 log (14x + 21y + 22) = 49x + 49 c
Or c 22 y 21 x 14 log 9 y 42 x 21
Which is the required solution

Terminal Questions
1. Refer to Section 16.8

Unit 9 Complex Numbers
Structure
9.1 Introduction
Objectives
9.2 Complex Numbers
9.3 Conjugate of a Complex Number
9.4 Modulus of a Complex Number
9.5 Geometrical Representation of Complex Number
9.6 Exponential Form of a Complex Number
9.7 De Moiveres* Theorem
9.8 n
th
Roots of a Complex Number
9.9 Summary
9.11 Answers

9.1 Introduction
We recall that, if x and y are real numbers and 1 i then x + iy is called
a complex number. The complex numbers were first introduced by Cardan
(1501 1576). Two hundred years later Euler (1707 1783) and John
Bernoulli recognized the complex numbers introduced by Cardan and
studied their properties in detail. In 1983, Sir William Rowan Hamilton (1805
1865) an Irish mathematician introduced the complex number as an
ordered pair of real numbers. In this chapter we begin the study of complex
numbers as ordered pairs.

Objectives:
understand the concept of complex numbers.
apply De Moiveres Theorem in finding the roots of complex
numbers.

9.2 Complex Numbers
Let C denote the set of all ordered pairs of real numbers.
That is, . R y , x ; y , x C
On this set C define addition + and multiplication . by,
(x
1
, y
1
) + (x
2
+ y
2
) = (x
1
+ x
2
, y
1
+ y
2
) (1)
(x
1
, y
1
) . (x
2
, y
2
) = (x
1
x
2
y
1
y
2
, x
1
y
2
+ x
2
y
1
) (2)
Then the elements of C which satisfy the above rules of addition and
multiplication are called complex numbers. If z = (x, y) is a complex number
then x is called the real part and y is called t he imaginary part of the
complex number z and they are denoted by x = Re z and y = Im z. If (x
1
, y
1
)
and (x
2
, y
2
) are two complex numbers then (x
1
, y
1
) = (x
2
, y
2
) if and only if
x
1
= x
2
and y
1
= y
2
.
(a) Properties of addition
1. Closure law: If z
1
= (x
1
, y
1
), z
2
= (x
2
, y
2
) then from (1) z
1
+ z
2
= (x
1
, y
2
) +
(x
2
, y
2
)
= (x
1
+ x
2
, y
1
+ y
2
), which is also an ordered pair of real numbers. Hence
z
1
+ z
2
C. Therefore for every z
1
, z
2
C, z
1
+ z
2
C.
2. Commutative law: z
1
+ z
2
= z
2
+ z
1
for every z
1
, z
2
C
Consider z
1
+ z
2
= (x
1
, y
1
) + (x
2
, y
2
) = (x
1
+ x
2
, y
1
+ y
2
)
= (x
2
+ x
1
, y
2
+ y
1
) = (x
2
, y
2
) + (x
1
, y
1
) = z
2
+ z
1
.
3. Associative law: z
1
+ (z
2
+ z
3
) = (z
1
+ z
2
) + z
3
for every z
1
, z
2
, z
3
C
Proof of this is similar to (2)
4. Existence of identity element: There exists an element (0, 0) C such
that,
(x, y) + (0, 0) = (x + 0, y + 0) = (x, y).
for every (x, y) C. Here (0, 0) is called the additive identity element
of C.
5. Existence of inverse: For every (x, y) C there exists (x, y) C
such that
(x, y) + (x, y) = (x x, y y) = (0, 0).
Hence (x, y) is the additive inverse of (x, y).
Thus we have shown that the set C is an abelian group w.r.t. the
addition of complex numbers defined by (1).
(b) Properties of multiplication
1. Closure law: If z
1
= (x
1
, y
1
), z
2
= (x
2
, y
2
) C then from (2)
z
1
z
2
= (x
1
, y
1
) (x
2
, y
2
) = (x
1
x
2
y
1
y
2
, x
1
y
2
, x
1
y
2
+ x
2
y
1
), which is also an
ordered pair of real numbers. Hence z
1
z
2
is also a complex number.
Thus for every z
1
, z
2
C, z
1
z
2
C.
2. Commutative law: z
1
z
2
= z
2
z
1
for every z
1
, z
2
C.
Now z
1
z
2
= (x
1
, y
1
) (x
2
, y
2
) = (x
1
x
2
y
1
y
2
, x
1
y
2
+ x
2
y
1
) .. (i)
and z
2
z
1
= (x
2
, y
2
) (x
1
, y
1
) = (x
2
x
1
y
2
y
1
, x
2
y
1
+ x
1
y
2
)
= (x
1
x
2
y
1
y
2
, x
1
y
2
+ x
2
y
1
) .. (ii)
From (i) and (ii) z
1
z
2
= z
2
z
1
.
3. Associative law: z
1
(z
2
z
3
) = (z
1
z
2
) z
3
, for every z
1
, z
2
, z
3
C Proof is
similar to (2)
4. Existence of identity element: There exists (1, 0) C such that
(x, y) (1, 0) = (x . 1 y . 0, x . 0 + 1 . y) = (x, y) for every (x, y) C.
Here (1, 0) is called the multiplicative identity element.
5. Existence of inverse: Let z = (x, y) (0, 0), be a complex number. Let
(u, v) be the inverse of (x, y).
Then (u, v) . (x, y) = (1, 0), the identity element.
i.e. (ux vy, uy + vx) = 1, 0).
Hence ux vy = 1, and uy + vx = 0.
Solving for u and v, we get,
2 2 2 2
y x
y
v ,
y x
x
u
Hence C
y x
y
,
y x
x
2 2 2 2
is the multiplicative inverse of (x, y).
Thus we have shown that the set of non-zero complex numbers forms an
abelian group w.r.t. the multiplication defined by (2).
Also we can prove that the multiplication is distributive over addition.
(c) Distributive law: For all z
1
, z
2
, z
3
C
i) z
1
(z
2
+ z
3
) = z
1
z
2
+ z
1
z
3
(left distributive law)
ii) (z
2
+ z
3
) z
1
= z
2
z
1
+ z
3
z
1
(right distributive law)
The complex numbers whose imaginary parts are equal to zero possess the
following properties.
(x
1
, 0) + (x
2
, 0) = (x
1
+ x
2
, 0).
and (x
1
, 0) . (x
2
, 0) = (x
1
x
2
, 0).
Which are essentially the rules for addition and multiplication of real
numbers. We identify the complex number (x, 0) with the real number x.
Denote the complex number (0, 1) by i.
Now i
2
= I . I = (0, 1) (0, 1) = (0 . 0 1 . 1, 0 . 1 + 1 . 0)
= (1, 0) = 1.
Hence i2 = 1.
With this convention we shall show that the ordered pair (x, y) is equal to x + iy.
For, (x, y) = (x, 0) + (0, y)
= (x, 0) + (0, 1) (y, 0)
= x + iy
Since (x, 0) = x, (y, 0) = y and (0, 1) = i.
Because of the extreme manipulative convenience we shall continue to use
the notation x + iy for the complex number (x, y).

9.3 Conjugate of a Complex Number
Let z = x + iy be a complex number. Then the complex number x iy is called
the complex conjugate or simply, the conjugate of z and is denoted by . z
Thus, if z = x + iy then . iy x z
For example, if z = 3+4i then . i 4 3 z
Clearly
, z z

, z Re 2 x 2 iy x iy x z z
and . z lm i 2 iy 2 iy x iy x z z
Also, iy x . iy x z . z
= x
2
i
2
y
2

=x
2
+ y
2
, which is a real number.
Thus the product of two conjugate complex numbers is a real number.
Theorem: For all z
1
, z
2
C
1.
2 1 2 1
z z z z
i.e., the conjugate of a sum is equal to the sum of the conjugates.
2.
2 1 2 1
z . z z . z
i.e., the conjugate of a product is equal to the product of the conjugates.
3. 0 z ,
z
z
z
z
2
2
1
2
1

i.e., the conjugate of a quotient is equal to the quotient of then
conjugates.

9.4 Modulus of a Complex Number
If z = x + iy is a complex number then
2 2
y x is called the modulus or
absolute value of z and is denoted by | z |.
Thus . y x z
2 2

Clearly | z | is a non-negative real number i.e., . 0 z
then . 5 16 9 4 3 z
2 2

We can easily verify the following:
1.
2
z z . z 2. z z 3. . z z Re z
Theorem: For all z
1
, z
2
C
1.
2 2 2 1
z . z z . z
i.e., modulus of a product is equal to the product of their moduli.
2. 0 z ,
z
z
z
z
2
2
1
2
1

i.e., modulus of a quotient is equal to the quotient of the moduli.
3.
2 1 2 1
z z z z
4.
2 1 2 1
z z z z

9.5 Geometrical Representation of Complex Number
A complex number x + iy can be represented by a point P(x, y) in the
Cartesian plane with x as the abscissa and y as the ordinate. Thus every
point on the x-axis corresponds to a real number and every point on the y-
axis corresponds to a pure imaginary number (iy) and vice versa. Hence x-
axis is called the real axis and y-axis, the imaginary axis. And the plane
whose points are represented by complex numbers is called the complex
plane or Argand plane named after the French mathematician J.R. Argand
(1768 1822). Although the geometric representation of complex numbers
is usually attributed to J.R. Argand but it was Casper Wessel of Norway
(1745 1818) who first gave the geometric representation of complex
numbers.

Now draw PM perpendicular to the x-axis. Let P O
X and OP = r. Clearly
OM = x and MP = y.
Now ) 1 ...(
sin r y
r
y
OP
MP
sin
cos r x
r
x
OP
OM
cos

Hence x + iy = r (cos + i sin )
Thus every complex number z = x + iy can be represented in the form
. sin i cos r This form of a complex number is called the polar form or
the trigonometric form.
Squaring and adding the equations given in (1), we get
. r sin 2 r cos r y x
2 2 2 2 2 2

, y x r
2 2
which is the modulus of the complex number z = x + iy.
Thus z represents the distance of the point z from the origin.
The angle is called the argument or the amplitude of z and is denoted by
= arg z or = amp z.
Since sin (2n + ) = sin , cos (2n + ) = cos , when n is any integer, is
not unique. The value of satisfying < < is called the principal value
of the argument.
Note:
1. If z
1
= x
1
+ iy
1
and z
2
= x
2
+ iy
2

Then z
1
z
2
= (x
1
x
2
) + i(y
1
y
2
).
, y y x x z z
2
1 1
2
2 1 2 1
which is the distance between
the points z
1
and z
2
.
2. cos + I sin is briefly denoted by cis
Theorem: 1.
2 1 2 1
cis cis cis
2.
2 1
2
1
cis
cis
cis

Theorem:
1. amp z
1
z
2
= amp z
1
+ z
1
+ amp z
2

2.
2 1
1
1
z amp z amp
z
z
amp
Remark:
1. To find the amplitude of a complex number we use the following rule:
sin cos
+ + (say)
+
+
( )

For example,
i) if
2
1
cos ,
2
3
sin then
3

ii) If
2
1
cos ,
2
3
sin then
3
2
3

iii)
2
1
cos ,
2
3
sin then
3

iv) if
2
1
cos ,
2
3
sin then .
3
2
3

2. The value of the amplitude must satisfy the equations
r
x
cos and
,
r
y
sin where . y x r
2 2
Some times we combine these
equations dividing one by another. In that case we get
x
y
tan or
.
x
y
tan
1
Because of the difference in principal values of
1 1 1
tan and cos , sin the value of the argument is not necessarily the
principal value of .
x
y
tan
1
For example,
4
3
sin i
4
3
cos 2 i 1
and so
4
3
i 1 amp but .
4
1 tan
1

9.6 Exponential Form of a Complex Number
If x is real, it can be proved, in the advanced mathematics that the functions
e
x
, sin x, cos x etc. can be expressed in the form of an infinite series.
i.e. ......
! 3
x
! 2
x
! 1
x
1 e
3 2
x
(1)
.....
! 7
x
! 5
x
! 3
x
x x sin
7 5 3
(2)
....
! 6
x
! 4
x
! 2
x
1 x cos
6 4 2
(3)
Assuming that (1) holds good for a complex number also, replacing x by ix
in (1) we get,
....
! 3
x i
! 2
x i
! 1
ix
1 e
3 3 2 2
ix

....
! 7
x
! 5
x
! 3
x
x i ......
! 6
x
! 4
x
! 2
x
1
7 5 3 6 4 2

= cos x + i sin x
Thus x sin i x cos e
ix

This is called the Eulers formula.
We know that a complex number z = x + iy can be expressed in the polar
form as
sin i cos r iy x z
where .
x
y
tan and y x r
1 2 2

The complex number can also be written in the form
. , e r iy x z
i

This is called the exponential form of a complex number.
Example: Express the following complex numbers in the polar form and
hence find their modulus and amplitude.
1) i 3 2) 1 i 3) 3 i 1
Solution:
1) Let sin i cos r i 3 .
On equating the real and imaginary parts, we get
3 cos r and r sin = 1.
Squaring and adding,
2
2
2 2 2 2
1 3 sin r cos r
2 r or 4 r
2

Hence
2
1
sin and
2
3
cos
Hence .
6

6
sin i
6
cos 2 i 3
Therefore modulus = 2 and amp
6
i 3
2. Let 1 I = r (cos + i sin )
r cos = 1, r sin = 1
2 r or , 2 r . e . i 1 1 sin r cos r
2 2 2 2 2
.

2
1
sin ,
2
1
cos
Therefore
4

4
sin i
4
cos 2 i 1
i.e. Modulus = .
4
i 1 amp , 2
3. Let . sin i cos r 3 i 1
Hence r cos 3 sin r , 1
2 r or , 4 r or , 3 1 sin r cos r
2 2 2 2 2

Hence ,
2
1
cos ,
2
3
sin
3
2
3

3
2
sin i
3
2
cos 2 3 i 1
Modulus = 2, amp
3
2
3 i 1
Example: If a = cos + i sin , 2 0 prove that
2
cot i
a 1
a 1

Solution:
sin i cos 1
sin i cos 1
. S . H . L

2
cos
2
sin i 2
2
sin 2
2
cos
2
sin i 2
2
cos 2
2
2

2
cos i
2
sin
2
sin i
2
cos
2
sin 2
2
cos 2

Multiplying and dividing b y i,

2
sin i
2
cos
2
sin i
2
cos
2
cot i
. S . H . R
2
cot i
1. Find the smallest positive integer n such that . 1
i 1
i 1
n

Example: If
id c
ib a
iy x prove that
2 2
2 2
2
2 2
d c
b a
y x
Solution:
Now
id c
ib a
iy x . Taking the conjugate on both sides
We get,
id c
ib a
iy x
Multiplying,
id c id c
ib a ib a
iy x iy x
2 2
2 2
2
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
d c
b a
y x
d c
b a
y x

9.7 De Moiveres* Theorem
If n is any integer then
(cos + i sin )
n
= cos n + i sin n .. (1)
And if n is a rational fraction say
q
p
then q
p
sin i cos has q values and
one of its values is .
q
p
sin i
q
p
cos
Proof: Case (i) Let n be a positive integer.
In this case we shall prove (1) by mathematical induction.
If n = 1 then (cos + i sin )
1
= cos 1 . + I sin 1 . .
= cos + i sin .
Hence (1) is true for n = 1. Assume that (1) is true for n = m,
i.e., (cos + i sin )
m
= cos m + i sin m (Induction hypothesis)
Multiplying both sides of (2) by cos + i sin we get
(cos + i sin )m+1 = (cos m + i sin m ) cos + i sin )
= (cos m cos - sin m sin ) + i (sin m cos + cos m sin )
= cos (m + ) + i sin (m + )
= cos (m + 1) + i sin (m + 1)
Hence the theorem is true for n = m + 1.
Hence by mathematical induction the theorem is true for all positive
integers n.
Case (ii). Let n be a negative integer.
n = m, where m is a positive integer.
Consider (cos + i sin )
n
= (cos + i sin )
-m

m
sin i cos
1

) i ( case from
m sin i m cos
1

m sin i m cos m sin i m cos
m sin i m cos

1 i
m sin i m cos
m sin i m cos
2
2 2

= cos m i sin m
= cos (m) + i sin (m)
= cos n + i sin n .
Case (iii). Let n be a rational fraction i.e., ,
q
p
n where p and q are integers
and q > 0.
Let
q
p
sin i
q
p
cos z

q
q
q
p
sin i
q
p
cos z

q
p
sin i
q
p
q cos
= cos p + i sin p
z
q
= (cos + i sin )
p
, from Cases (i) and (ii),
which is an algebraic equation of degree q. Hence from fundamental
theorem of algebra it has q roots. Therefore taking q
th
root on both sides, we
get Q
P
sin i cos z
Hence q
p
sin i cos has q values and one of them is
.
q
p
sin i
q
p
cos z
This completes the proof of the theorem.
Note: Replacing by in (1), we get
(cos i sin )
n
= cos n i sin n
2. Simplify

4 2
3 5
5 sin i 5 cos . 4 sin i 4 cos
2 sin i 2 cos . 3 sin i 3 cos

Example: Prove that , 2 2 3 i 1 1 3 i 1
1 n 3 n 3
n 3 n 3
where n is
any integer
Solution:
Expressing 3 i 1 in the polar form, we get

3
2
sin isu
3
2
cos 2 3 i 1
Taking conjugate on both sides, we get

3
2
sin i
3
2
cos 2 3 i 1
L.H.S. =
n 3 n 3
3
2
sin i
3
2
cos 2
3
2
sin i
3
2
cos 2
n 2 sin i n 2 cos 2 n 2 sin i n 2 cos 2
n 3 n 3

Using De Moivres theorem

1 n 3 n 3
2 n 2 cos 2 . 2 since cos 2n = 1
= R.H.S.
Example: Prove that
2
n
cos .
2
cos 2 sin i cos 1 sin i cos 1
n 1 n n n

Where n is any integer.
Solution:
n
2
n
2
2
cos
2
sin 2 i
2
cos 2
2
cos
2
sin 2 i
2
cos 2 . S . H . L

n n
2
sin i
2
cos
2
cos 2
2
sin i
2
cos
2
cos 2

2
n
sin i
2
n
cos
2
cos 2
2
n
sin i
2
n
cos
2
cos 2
n n n n

From De Moivres theorem.
. S . H . R
2
n
cos
2
cos 2
2
n
cos 2 .
2
cis 2
n 1 n n n

9.8 n
th
Roots of a Complex Number
If z
n
= a, where a is a non-zero complex number and n, is a positive integer
then z is called the n
th
root of a. Since the given equation is of degree n,
there are n roots of the equation. Hence solving z
n
= a, we obtain n, n
th
roots
of a.
Example: Find the cube roots of i 3 and represent them on the Argand
plane. Also find their continued product.
Let sin i cos r i 3
. 1 sin r and 3 cos r
Squaring and adding r
2
cos
2
+ r
2
sin
2
= 3+1
r
2
= 4, r = 2

Hence;
2
1
sin ;
2
3
cos
6
(Principal value)
6
n 2
6
n 2 cis . 2
6
n 2 sin i
6
n 2 cos 2 i 3
3
1
3
1
6
n 2 cis 2 i 3
6
n 2
3
1
cis . 2
3
1

18
1 n 12
cis . 2
3
1

Substituting n = 0, 1, 2 (or any three consecutive values of n), we obtain the
cube roots of i 3
They are
18
25
cis 2 ,
18
13
cis 2 ,
18
cis 2
3
1
3
1
3
1

i.e., . 250 cis 2 , 130 cis 2 , 10 cis 2
3
1
3
1
3
1

To represent these roots on the Argand plane consider a circle whose
centre is at the origin and whose radius is . 2
3
1
Since modulus of each of
these roots is , 2
3
1
these roots lie on the circle.

In above figure the points A, B, C represent the cube roots of . i 3
Since C , B , A , 120 A O
C C O
B B O
A are the vertices of an equilateral

triangle
Continued product =
18
25
cis 2 .
18
13
cis 2 .
18
cis 2
3
1
3
1
3
1

18
25
18
13
18
cis 2
3
3
1

6
2 cis 2
6
13
cis 2
. i 3
6
cis 2
Note:
1. The cube roots of unity are
2
, , 1 where .
3
2
cis Also,
. 0 1
2

2. The fourth roots of unity are . i , i , 1 , 1
3. In general the nth roots of unity are
1 n 2
.......... , , , 1 where
.
n
2
cis
9.9 Summary
In this we discuss about the concept of complex numbers in detail. The idea
of representing a complex number in Polar Form is explained in a simple
manner. The method of finding the roots of a Complex Numbers using De
Moiveres Theorem is well illustrated.
1. State and prove De Moveres Theorem
2. Find the Cube roots of the Complex Numbers 1+i and express it in the
Argand Diagram
9.11 Answers
1. Now
i 1 i 1
i 1
i 1
i 1
2

. i
2
i 2
i 1
i i 2 1
2
2

Therefore
n
n
i
2
i 2
i 1
i 1

Now by inspection n = 4 is the smallest positive integer such that . 1 i
n

2. Given expression
4 2
3 5
5 cis . 4 cis
2 cis . 3 cis

4
5
2
4
3
2
5
3
cis . cis
cis . cis

20 8
6 15
cis . cis
cis , cis

21 20 8 6 15
cis cis
= cis 21
= cos 21 + i sin 21
Unit 10 Matrices and Determinants
Structure
10.1 Introduction
Objectives
10.2 Definition of a Matrix
10.3 Operations on Matrices
10.4 Square Matrix and Its Inverse
10.5 Determinants
10.6 Properties of Determinants
10.7 The Inverse of a Matrix
10.8 Solution of Equations Using Matrices and Determinants
10.9 Solving equations using determinants
10.10 Summary
10.12 Answers

10.1 Introduction
The theory of matrices, introduced by French mathematician Cayley in
1957, is presently a powerful tool in the study of branches of Mathematics,
Physical sciences, biological sciences and business applications. The
concept was initially developed for solving equations.
Objectives:
solve determinant using their properties
find the solution of equations using matrices and determinant

10.2 Definition of a Matrix
Definition: A matrix A is a rectangular array of numbers arranged as m
horizontal lists, called rows, each list having n elements; the vertical lists are
called columns.
It is written as
mn 1 m
n 2 22 21
n 1 12 11
a ... .......... a
.
.
.
.
a a a
a ......... a a
A
Note: The element in the i
th
row and j
th
column is a
ij
. So A is also written as
j
i
a n j 1
m i 1
or simply . a
ij
A is called an m n matrix. We also
write the (I, j)
th
entry as (A)
ij
. When m = n, A is called a square matrix (also
called an n square matrix A)
Example
3 8 6 4
5 6 0 1
1 4 3 2
A ,
6 0 5
4 1 3
2 0 1
D ,
1
8
7
5
C , 3 1 2 B
are 3 4,1 3, 4 1 and 3 3 matrices respectively.
Definition: Two matrices
ij ij
b B and a A are equal if (i) the number
of rows of A and B are the same (ii) the number of columns of A and B are
the same (iii)
ij ij
b a for all i, j.
Example: Find the values of a, b, c, d if
10 14
2 6
d c d c 2
b 2 a 2 b 2 a 2

Solution: Equating the corresponding entries of the matrix, we get
2a + 2b = 6 2a 2b = 2
2c + d = 14 c d = 10
By adding the first two equations we get 4a = 8. so a = 2.
2b = 6 2a = 6 4 = 2. So b = 1
Similarly,
3c = 24. So c = 8, d = 14 2c = 14 16 = 2
S.A.Q.1 How many entries are there in an m n matrix ?

10.3 Operations on Matrices
In this section we define sum of two matrices, difference of two matrices, the
scalar multiple of a matrix A by a scalar (real number) k.
An m n matrix is said to be of size (m, n)
Definition: If
ij ij
b B and a A are two m n matrices then A + B is
defined as an m n matrix as follows:
n j 1
m i 1
ij ij
b a B A
Note: For getting the sum of A and B, we add to an entry in A, the entry in B
in the same place. We can add only two matrices of the same size.
Definition: If
ij ij
b B and a A are two m n matrices then A B is
defined as an m n matrix as follows:
n j 1
m i 1
ij
ka kA
Example: If
7 6 5
4 3 2
A and
3 2 1
9 8 7
B find A + B, A B, 2A + 3B

Solution:
3 2 1
9 8 7
7 6 5
4 3 2
B A

10 8 6
13 11 9
3 7 2 6 1 5
9 4 8 3 7 2

4 4 4
5 5 5
3 7 2 6 1 5
9 4 8 3 7 2
3 2 1
9 8 7
7 6 5
4 3 2
B A
3 2 1
9 8 7
3
7 6 5
4 3 2
2 B 3 A 2

3 3 2 3 1 3
9 3 8 3 7 3
7 2 6 2 5 2
) 4 ( 2 ) 3 ( 2 ) 2 ( 2

9 6 3
27 24 21
14 12 10
8 6 4

9 14 6 12 3 10
27 8 24 6 21 4

23 18 13
35 30 25

We list some special matrices in the next example.
Example:
a)
0 0 0
0 0 0
is called the zero matrix.

We can write it as O. We can have zero matrix of any order.
b)
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
is called then n square unit matrix.

(Note: The number of rows is equal to the number of columns in the unit
matrix. It is denoted by I
n
or simply I when n is understood.)
c)
3 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 4 0
0 0 0 2
is called a diagonal matrix. A square matrix is diagonal
matrix if only the entries on the diagonal are nonzero and other entries
are 0 s.
d) A diagonal matrix having the same number along the diagonal is called
a scalar matrix. A scalar matrix is simply kI
n
for some scalar k and some
positive integer n.
Definition: If
ij
a A is an m n matrix then the transpose of A denoted by
A
T
is defined as
m i 1
n j 1 ij
T
a A
Note: The transpose of an m n matrix is an n m matrix.
Just as addition of real numbers is commutative, the addition of matrices is
also commutative. As far as addition is concerned matrices behave like
numbers. The following theorem lists properties of addition of matrices.
Theorem: If A, B, C and m n matrices and k and I are scalars.
a) A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C
b) A + 0 = 0 + A where 0 is the m n zero matrix
c) A + (A) = (A) + A = 0 (Here A denotes (1) A)
d) A + B = B + A
e) k(A + B) = kA + kB
f) (k + I) A = kA + IA
g) (kI) A = k (lA) = l(kA)
h) lA = A
i) (A + B)
T
= A
T
+ B
T

j) A A
T
T

k)
n
T
n
I I
The theorem can be proved by using the definition of sum of two matrices
and scalar multiple of a matrix.
If A and B are two matrices AB is defined only when the number of columns
of A = number of rows of B. We defined AB in Definition 4.7.
Definition: If A is an m n matrix and B is an n p matrix then the product
of A and B, denoted by AB, is an m p matrix and is defined by

nk in k 2 2 i ik 1 i ik
b a ...... b a b a AB
for , p k 1 , m i 1
Note (AB)
ik
can be understood as follows.
in 2 i 1 i
a ........ , a , a is the i
th
row of A,
nk
k 2
ik
b
b
b
Is the k
th
column of B and both
these have n elements. For calculating (AB)
ik
, multiply the respective
elements of i
th
row of A and k
th
column of B and add them. The resulting
number is (AB)
ik
.
Example: Find AB when
1 0 1
1 0 2
A and
1 0
6 4
2 1
B
Solution A is a 2 3 matrix and B is a 3 2 matrix. So AB is a 2 2 matrix.
1 1
5 2
1 1 6 0 2 1 0 1 4 0 1 1
1 1 6 0 2 2 0 1 4 0 1 2
AB
S.A.Q. 2 Find BA for matrices A and B given in above example
We have seen that A + B = B + A when A and B are matrices of the same
size. But AB BA in general. It can happen that one of the products is
defined whereas the other product is not defined. Let us illustrate this with
an example.
Example: Find two matrices A and B such that
a) AB is defined but BA is not
b) BA is defined but AB is not
c) Both are defined but AB BA
d) Both are defined and AB = BA
Solution:
a) Assume
1 0 2
3 2 1
A and
2 1 0
0 4 3
1 2 4
B
Then AB is defined as the number of columns of A = 3 = number of
rows of B.
Number of columns of B = 3 number of rows of A. Hence BA is not
defined.
b) If
0
3
4
A and
1 0 2
3 2 1
B then BA is defined, as number of
columns of B = 3 = number of rows of A.
Number of columns of A = 1 number of rows of rows of B. Hence
AB is not defined.
c) Assume
3 2
1 0 2
3 2 1
A and
2 3
1 0
5 3
2 4
B
1 1 5 0 2 2 0 1 3 0 4 2
1 3 5 2 2 1 0 3 3 2 4 1
AB

3 8
15 2


1 0 2
3 2 1
1 0
5 3
2 4
BA

1 1 3 0 0 1 2 0 2 1 1 0
1 5 3 3 0 5 2 3 2 5 1 3
1 2 3 4 0 2 2 4 2 2 1 4

1 0 2
14 6 7
10 8 8

Hence AB BA
d) Consider
0 4 3
3 1 2
2 1 0
A and
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
B
Then
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
0 4 3
3 1 2
2 1 0
AB

1 0 0 4 0 3 0 0 1 4 0 3 0 0 0 4 1 3
1 3 0 1 0 2 0 3 1 1 0 2 0 3 0 1 1 2
1 2 0 1 0 0 0 2 1 1 0 0 0 2 0 1 1 0

0 4 3
3 1 2
2 1 0

0 4 3
3 1 2
2 1 0
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
BA

0 1 3 0 2 0 4 1 1 0 1 0 3 1 2 0 0 0
0 0 3 1 2 0 4 0 1 1 1 0 3 0 2 1 0 0
0 0 3 0 2 1 4 0 1 0 1 1 3 0 2 0 0 1


0 4 3
3 1 2
2 1 0

Thus AB = BA
Theorem 4.2 lists the properties of multiplication.
Theorem: If A is an m n matrix and B is an n p matrix and k is any
scalar, then
a) (AB)
T
= B
T
A
T

b) A A l and A Al
m n

c) k(AB) = (kA)B = A(kB)
d) OA = O, BO = O where the four zero matrices are k m, k n, p t
and n t matrices respectively (for some k and t).
The proof of theorem 10.2 follows from the definition of product of two
matrices.
We can define the product of 3 matrices A, B, C when
C of rows of Number B of columns of Number And
B of rows of Number A of columns of Number
(10.1)
The following theorem describes the properties of product of three matrices.
Theorem 10.3 Let A, B, C be 3 matrices. Then the following hold good
whenever the sums and products of matrices appearing below are defined.
a) (AB) C = A(BC) (Associative law)
b) A(B + C) = AB + AC (Left distributive law)
c) (B + C) A = BA + CA (Right distributive law)
Theorem 10.3 follows from the definition. The proof is technical in nature
and it is enough if you remember these properties.
S.A.Q. 3 If
2 6
2 4
4 2
A and
0 1
6 4
2 1
B find A + B, 2A 3B, 3B 2A, (A
B)
T
and (B A)
T
.
S.A.Q. 4 If
2 1 0
0 6 4
A and
1 1 1
6 4 2
B
Verify that (A + B)
T
= A
T
+ B
T

S.A.Q. 5 Find a matrix A such that
4 1
2 2
1 2
1 4
A 3
S.A.Q. 6 If
4 3
2 1
Y X and
0 1
2 3
Y X find X and Y.
S.A.Q. 7 A matrix A is said to be symmetric if A = A
T
. Show that A + A
T
is
symmetric for a 3 3 matrix A
S.A.Q. 8 If
2 4 0
1 2 1
3 1 2
A and
1 2
3 1
2 1
B
Show that
10 0
5 5
10 5
AB Does BA exist ?
S.A.Q.9 If
4 2 5
3 1 3
1 3 2
A
show that (A I) (A + 2I) =
11 11 11
3 3 3
10 10 10

10.4 Square Matrix and its Inverse
We know that a square matrix is an n n matrix for some integer n. The set
of n n square matrices satisfy some additional properties.
In theorem 4.2 we saw that AI
n
= I
n
A = A for any n n square matrix A. We
can multiply 2n n matrices and the product is an n matrix. In general we
can define AA, AAA etc.
We define powers of a square matrix as follows. We define A
0
= I
n
,

times n
n 3 2
a ..... AA A ,....., AAA A , AA A .. (10.2)
The set of all n n matrices satisfy the properties of indices (powers) of
numbers.
Note A
m
A
n
= A
m+n
= A
n
. A
m
......... (10.3)
If a is a non zero real number then we know that . 1 a
a
1
a
1
a
A similar property holds good for some square matrices. In the case of
numbers
a
1
is called the reciprocal of a. But in the case of matrices it is
called the inverse of a square matrix.
Definition: A square matrix A is invertible (or non singular) if there exists a
square matrix B such that AB = BA = I
n
.. (10.4) B is called the
inverse of A and is denoted by A 1.
Note: If A has an inverse then A is called as invertible matrix.
Example: Let
2 1
5 3
A If
3 1
5 2
B then
3 1
5 2
2 1
5 3
AB
1 0
0 1
3 2 5 1 1 2 2 1
3 5 5 3 1 5 2 2

Hence
3 1
5 2
is the inverse of A.
Theorem: If B is the inverse of a square matrix A then A is the inverse of
the matrix B.
Proof: As B is the inverse of A, by definition (4.8), AB = BA = I
n
.
(10.5)
So BA = AB = I
n
.. (10.6)
From (10.6) we see that A satisfies the condition for the inverse of B. Hence
A is the inverse of B.
Note In the case of numbers
a
1
is the reciprocal of a and a is the reciprocal
of
a
1
. Theorem 10.4 guarantees this property for square matrices.
We are going to see a method for finding the inverse of a matrix. However
you will have a formula for the inverse of a 2 2 matrix (Example 10.7)
Example: If ,
d c
b a
A then
a c
b d
bc ad
1
A
1
.. (10.7)
For the present, you can verify that
I
1 0
0 1
bc ad
bc ad
ad bc 0
0 bc ad
bc ad
1
a c
b d
d c
b a
bc ab
1
AA
1

S.A.Q. 10 If ,
0 1
1 0
A show that
0 1
1 0
A
1

S.A.Q. 11 Verify that
2 1 5
5 3 11
12 7 26
is the inverse of
1 9 4
2 8 3
1 2 1

10.5 Determinants
The determinant of an n square matrix A is a unique number associated
with A and is denoted by det (A) or | A|. | A | is called a determinant of order n.
If
nn 2 n 1 n
n 2 22 21
n 1 12 11
a a a
a a a
a a a
A
then | A | is denoted by
nn 2 n 1 n
n 2 22 21
n 1 12 11
a a a
a a a
a a a

As the definition of | A | is complex for a general n square matrix A, we
define determinant of orders 1, 2, 3 and then extend it for a general n
square matrix A.
Evaluation of determinants
Definition: The determinants of orders 1, 2, 3 are defined as follows
a)
11 11
a a
b)
21 12 22 11
22 21
12 11
a a a a
a a
a a

(We can understand the determinant in the following way).
We (1) multiply the elements in the diagonal from left to right (ii) multiply the
elements in the diagonal from right to left (iii) subtract product got in (ii) from
the product got in (i)
c)
32 31
22 21
13
33 31
23 21
12
33 32
23 22
11
33 32 31
23 22 21
13 12 11
a a
a a
a
a a
a a
a
a a
a a
a
a a a
a a a
a a a

Note: We can calculate the value of a determinant of order 3 as follows:
1. Consider the first element a
11
in the first row. Attach the sign + (plus)
2. Delete the row and column in which a
11
appears; that is first row and first
column. We get
33 32
23 22
a a
a a

3. Multiply + a
11
and the value of
33 32
23 22
a a
a a

4. Consider the second element a
12
in first row. Attach the sign (minus)
5. Delete the row and second column in which a
12
appears; that is the first
row and second column. We get
33 31
23 21
a a
a a

6. Multiply a
12
and the value of
33 31
23 21
a a
a a

7. Consider the third element a
13
in the first row. Attach the sign + (plus)
8. Delete the row and column in which a
13
appears; that is the first row and
third column. We get
32 31
22 21
a a
a a

9. Multiply + a
13
and the value of
32 31
22 21
a a
a a

Add the values got in steps 3, 6 and 9. This is the value of the given
determinant.
Note: We usually denote a determinant by the symbol (read as Delta).
Example: Evaluate the determinant
4 0 2
7 4 1
3 2 0

Solution:
0 2
4 1
3
4 2
7 1
2
4 0
7 4
0
= 0 2[1(4) 2(7)] + 3[1(0) 2(4)]
= 0 2 (4 14) + 3(0 8)
= 2(10) 24
= 20 24
= 4
Thus 4

Evaluation of a determinant in term of any row or column
Recall the definition 10.9(c). we obtained
32 31
22 21
13
33 31
23 21
12
33 32
23 22
11
a a
a a
a
a a
a a
a
a a
a a
a A
The 2 order determinants
32 31
22 21
33 31
23 21
33 32
23 22
a a
a a
,
a a
a a
,
a a
a a
are called
the minors of a
11
, a
12
, a
13
. We can denote the minors by M
11
, M
12
, and M
13
.
If we attach the signs, these are called cofactors of a
11
, a
12
, a
13
. We denote
them by A
11
, A
12
, A
13
. Then (10.7) can be written as
| A | = a
11
A
11
,

a
12
A
12
, a
13
A
13
.
We can also define minors of a
21
, a
22
, a
23
, a
31
, a
32
, a
33
in a similar manner.
For example.

32 a 31
12 11
23
a
a a
M
(M
23
is got by deleting the second row and third column of | A |)
The cofactors can be defined in a similar manner using the rule of signs
given by (10.8)
.. (10.8)
Any cofactor is got by multiplying the minor and its sign given in (4.8). For
example cofactor for a
32
is M
32
.
So
23 21
13 11
32
a a
a a
A
Thus we can expand in term of any row or column in a similar way. (10.9)
gives the expansion in term of various rows and columns.
33 33 23 23 13 13
32 32 22 22 12 12
31 31 21 21 11 11
33 33 32 32 31 31
23 23 22 22 21 21
13 13 12 12 11 11
A a A a A a
A a A a A a
A a A a A a
A a A a A a
A a A a A a
A a A a A a
. (10.9)
You may wonder why so many expansions given in (10.9) are necessary. If
a row or column has many zeros then evaluating by the elements of that row
or column makes the evaluation simpler.
Example:: Evaluate
5 4 1
0 0 4
4 2 1

Solution: As the second row has two zeros, we expand by the elements of
the second row.
23 23 22 22 21 21
A a A a A a
23 22 21
A 0 A 0 A 4
5 4
4 2
1 4
(Note: For (2, 1) position, the sign is . See (4.8)).
= 4[2(5) 4(4)]
= 4(10 16)
= 4(6)
= 240
The evaluation of a determinant of order n is similar.
For example, if
44 43 42 41
34 33 32 31
24 23 22 21
14 13 12 11
a a a a
a a a a
a a a a
a a a a
A
Then | A | = a
11
A
11
+ a
12
A
12
+ a
13
A
13
+ a
14
A
14

The signs of cofactors can be defined by
(10.10)
Example: Evaluate
0 3 2 1
1 0 0 4
4 8 4 2
2 7 4 1

Solution As the third row has two zeros we expand by the elements of third
row. The signs of cofactors of A determined by using (10.10)
| A | = a
31
A
31
+ a
32
A
32
+ a
33
A
33
+ a
34
A
34

= 4A
31
+ 0A
32
+ 0A
33
+ 1A
34

3 2 1
8 4 2
7 4 1
1 1
0 3 2
4 8 4
2 7 4
1 4
2 1
4 2
7
3 1
8 2
4
3 2
8 4
1 1
3 2
8 4
2
0 2
4 4
7
0 3
4 8
4
= 4[4(0 12) 7 (0 8) + 2(12 16)] 1[1 (12 16) 4(6 8) + 7(4 4)]
= 4[4(12) 7 (8) + 2 (4)] 1[1 (4) 4 (2) + 7(0)]
= 4 ( 48 + 56 8) 1 (4 + 8)
= 4(56 + 56) 1 (4)
= 4(0) 4
= 4
Thus | A | = 4

S.A.Q. 12: Evaluate the following determinants
a)
2 1 0
2 1 3
1 2 1
b)
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
c)
6 1 2
3 4 7
4 6 5

S.A.Q. 13: Evaluate the following determinants
a)
2 1 0 0
4 1 1 1
2 1 3 0
1 2 1 0
b)
1 1 1 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0
c)
6 1 2 7
3 4 7 4
4 6 5 1
0 0 0 1

10.6 Properties of Determinants
In this section we list some properties of determinants. These properties
enable us to evaluate a determinant in an easier way.
Property 1: If
33 32 31
23 22 21
13 12 11
a a a
a a a
a a a
then
33 32 31
23 22 21
13 12 11
a a a
a a a
ma ma ma
m
Let A
11
, A
12
, a
13
denote the cofactors of a
11
, a
12
, a
13
in . These are also t he
cofactors of ma
11
, ma
12
, ma
13
, in m .
So
33 32 31
23 22 21
13 12 11
a a a
a a a
ma ma ma
= ma
11
A
11
+ ma
12
A
12
+ ma
13
A
13

= m (a
11
A
11
+ a
12
A
12
+ a
13
A
13
)
= m .
Note: This property holds good when any row or column of is multiplied by
m. This property essentially means that any common factor of a row or
column can be taken outside the determinant.
Remark: If A is a matrix then mA is got by multiplying each entry of A by m.
In the case of determinant m is got by multiplying the entries of a single
row or column by m.

Example:
5 3 1
1 4 2
5 3 2
6
5 3 1
1 4 2
6 5 6 3 6 2
5 3 1
1 4 2
30 18 12

Property 2: If |A| = det (a), then det (A
T
) = |A|
Proof: If
d c
b a
B then
d b
c a
B
T

So | B | = ad bc = |B
T
|
So the second order minors of A and A
T
have the same value. As the sign of
a cofactor is the same in both A and A
T
, the value det (A
T
) through
expanding along the first column is equal to det (A) through expanding along
the first row.
Hence dt (A
T
) = |A|
Property 3: If two rows or columns of a determinant are interchanged
then the value of the is unchanged but the sign is changed.
Proof: Let
33 32 31
23 22 21
13 12 11
a a a
a a a
a a a
A If the second and third rows are
interchanged we get
23 22 21
33 32 31
13 12 11
a a a
a a a
a a a
B
22 21
32 31
13
23 21
33 31
12
23 22
33 32
11
a a
a a
a
a a
a a
a
a a
a a
a B
= a
11
(a
32
a
23
a
22
a
33
) a
12
(a
31
a
23
a
21
a
33
) + a
13
(a
31
a
22
a
32
a
21
)
22 31 32 21 13 23 31 33 21 12 23 32 33 22 11
a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a
32 31
22 21
13
33 31
23 21
12
33 32
23 22
11
a a
a a
a
a a
a a
a
a a
a a
a
| A |
Property 4: If a determinant has two identical rows then the value of the
determinant is 0.
Proof: If we interchange two identical rows then the value of the new
determinant is . (By property 3). But the new determinant is the same as
. So = or = 0.
Example: Evaluate
9 7 4 1
9 7 8 9
7 4 5 2
9 7 4 1

Solution: The first and fourth rows of are identical. By property 4, = 0.
Property: The value of a determinant remains the same when multiple of
some rows are added to a particular row. The same is true for columns.
Note: For example,
i h g
f e d
li kf c lh ke b lg kd a
i h g
f e d
c b a

Since we add k times the second row and l times the third row to the first
row.
Example: Evaluate
5 2 1
6 4 2
10 7 4

Solution The first entry in the first row (R
1
) is 4. To make it 0, we subtract 4
times the third row (R
3
). Thus R
1
of is replaced by R
1
4R
3
(This is
indicated on the right of the determinant). Similarly if we subtract 2R
3
from
R
2
we get 0, as the first element in R
2
. In the resulting determinant the first
column has two zeros and a one. This makes the evaluation (along the first
column) easier.
5 2 1
6 4 2
10 7 4

3
3 2
3 1
R
R 2 R
R 4 R
5 2 1
5 2 6 2 2 4 1 2 2
5 4 10 2 4 7 1 4 4

5 2 1
4 0 0
10 1 0

4 0
10 1
1 A 0 A 0
21 11
(by expanding along the first column)
= 0 + 0 +1 (4 0)
= 4
Example: Evaluate
c 1 1 1 1
1 b 1 1 1
1 1 a 1 1
1 1 1 1

Solution
c 1 1 1 1
1 b 1 1 1
1 1 a 1 1
1 1 1 1

1 4
1 3
1 2
1
R R
R R
R R
R
c 0 0 0
0 b 0 0
0 0 a 0
1 1 1 1

41 31 21
A 0 A 0 A 0
c 0 0
0 b 0
0 0 a
1
0 0
b 0
0
c 0
0 0
0
c 0
0 b
a
= a (bc 0)
= abc.
Example: Show that
a c c b b a
b a a c c b
b a a c c b
1 1 1
2 2 2 2 2 2

Solution
2 2 2 2 2 2
b a a c c b
b a a c c b
1 1 1

1 3
1 2
1
2 2 2 2 2 2
C C
C C
C
b a a c c b
c a b a c b
1 1 1

13 12
2 2 2 2
A 0 A 0
c a b a
c a b a
1

2 2 2 2
b a c a c a b a
= (a b) (a c) (a + c) (a c) (a b) (a + b)
= (a b) (a c) [a + c a b]
= (a b) (a c) (c b)
= (a b) [ (c a)] [(b c)]
= (a b) (b c) (c a)
S.A.Q. 14 Evaluate
1
2
2
c c 1
b b 1
a a 1

S.A.Q. 15 Prove that 0
0 c b
c 0 a
b a 0

S.A.Q. 16 Evaluate
1 4 x 4 x 3 x
1 3 x 3 x 2 x
1 2 x 2 x 1 x

S.A.Q. 17 Evaluate the following determinants
a)
7 6 5 4
6 5 4 3
5 4 3 2
4 3 2 1
b)
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0

10.7 The Inverse of a Matrix
In this section we give a method of finding the inverse of a matrix.
Definition: If
33 32 31
23 22 21
13 12 11
a a a
a a a
a a a
A then the adjoint matrix of A (denoted by
Adj A) is given by Adj
T
33 32 31
23 22 21
13 12 11
A A A
A A A
A A A
A
Example 10.17 Find the adjoint of matrix
5 4 3
4 3 2
3 2 1
A

Solution
1 4 4 5 3
5 4
4 3
1 A
11

2 12 10 1
5 3
4 2
1 A
12

1 9 8
4 3
3 2
1 A
12

2 12 10 1
5 4
3 2
1 A
21

4 9 5
5 3
3 1
1 A
22

2 6 4 1
4 3
2 1
1 A
23

1 9 8
4 3
3 2
1 A
31

2 6 4 1
4 2
3 1
1 A
32

1 4 3
3 2
2 1
1
33
A
T
33 32 31
23 22 21
13 12 11
A A A
A A A
A A A
A Adj

T
1 2 1
2 4 2
1 2 1


1 2 1
2 4 2
1 2 1

We use Adj A for evaluating the inverse of a matrix.
A square matrix is invertible if and only if . 0 A When , , 0 A the
inverse of a matrix A is given by
A Adj
A
1
A
1
. (10.11)
If |A| = 0, the matrix a is called singular; otherwise it is non singular. So a
matrix is invertible if and only if it is nonsingular.
Example: Find the inverse of
d c
b a

Solution A
11
= d, A
12
= c, A
21
= b, A
22
= a.
So Adj
a c
b d
a b
c d
A
T

|A| = ad bc. Hence
a c
b d
bc ad
1
A
1
. (10.12)
Example: Find the inverse of
1 1 2
1 1 1
1 1 1
A
Solution
; 3 2 1 1
1 2
1 1
1 A ; 0
1 1
1 1
1 A
12 11

; 2 1 1 1
1 1
1 1
1 A ; 3
1 2
1 1
1 A
21 13

; 1 2 1 1
1 2
1 1
1 A ; 3
1 2
1 1
1 A
23 22

; 0 1 1 1
1 1
1 1
1 A ; 2 1 1
1 1
1 1
1 A
32 31

2 1 1
1 1
1 1
1 A
33

Adj
2 1 3
0 3 3
2 2 0
2 0 2
1 3 2
3 3 0
A
T

|A| = a
11
A
11
+ a
12
A
12
+ a
13
A
13

= 1 (0) = 1(3) + 1(3)
= 6
13
6
1
2
1
0
2
1
2
1
3
1
3
1
0
2 1 3
0 3 3
2 2 0
6
1
| A |
A adj
A
1

S.A.Q.18 Find the inverse of
1 1 3
1 1 1
1 3 2
A
S.A.Q. 19 Test whether A
-1
exists when
3 2 1
6 4 2
1 0 1
A
S.A.Q. 20 Find the inverse of
4 3 1
3 4 1
3 3 1
A

10.8 Solution of Equations using Matrices and Determinants
Matrices are useful in representation of data. For example if we want to
classify the students of a class in terms of gender and their grades then we
can use a matrix for representing the information. Suppose we have three
grades A, B, C. Then the matrix
23 22 21
13 12 11
a a a
a a a
represents.
The classified data:
a
11
denotes the number of male students who got grade A.
a
12
denotes the number of male students who got grade B
a
13
denotes the number of male students who got grade C.
a
21
denotes the number of female students who got grade A.
a
22
denotes the number of female students who got grade B.
a
23
denotes the number of female students who got grade C.
Solving linear equations using matrices
We can also use matrices for solving n equations in n variables. The ideas
is to represent n equations as a single matrix equation and then solve the
matrix equation. The next example illustrates this.
Example: Solve x + y = 3
2x + 3y = 8
Solution The given system of equations is equivalent to the single matrix
equation AX = B where
8
3
B
y
x
X
3 2
1 1
A
Multiplying both side of AX = B by A
1
. we get X = A
1
B. By (10.12)
1 2
1 3
1 2
1 3
1 2 3 1
1
A
1

2
1
8 1 3 2
8 1 3 3
8
3
1 2
1 3
X
Hence x = 1, y = 2
Example: Solve the equations
x + y + z = 6
x + 2y + 3z = 14
x + y z = 2
Solution: The given systems of equations is equivalent to A X = B where
2
14
6
B
z
y
x
x
1 1 1
3 2 1
1 1 1
A
5 3 2
1 1
3 2
1 A
11

2 3 1 1
1 1
3 1
1 A
12

; 3 2 1
1 1
2 1
1 A
13

; 2 1 1 1
1 1
1 1
1 A
21

; 0 1 1
1 1
1 1
1 A
22

; 2 1 1 1
1 1
1 1
1 A
23

; 1 2 3
3 2
1 1
1 A
31

; 2 1 3 1
3 1
1 1
1 A
32

1 1 2
2 1
1 1
1 A
33

|A|=a
11
A
11
+ a
12
A
12
+ a
13
A
13

= 1(5) + 1(2) + 1(3)
= 5 2 + 3
= 7 + 3
= 4.
T
1
1 2 1
2 0 2
3 2 5
4
1
| A |
A Adj
A
1 2 3
2 0 2
1 2 5
4
1
A
1

2
14
6
1 2 3
2 0 2
1 2 5
4
1
B A X
1

2 1 14 2 6 3
2 2 14 0 6 2
2 1 14 2 6 5
4
1

2 28 18
4 0 12
2 28 30

12
8
4
4
1

3
2
1

Hence x = 1, y = 2, z = 3

10.9 Solving equations using determinants
We can also solve a system of n linear equations in n variables using
determinants. The method is provided by Cramers rule. Cramers rule for
three equations in three variables.
Consider the system of three linear equation in three variables x, y, z.
a
11
x + a
12
y + a
13
z = b
1
a
21
x + a
22
y + a
23
z = b
2
a
31
x + a
32
y + a
33
z = b
3

Let be the co-efficient determinant i.e., the determinant of the coefficients
of the variables x, y, z such that 0
a a a
a a a
a a a
33 32 31
23 22 21
13 12 11

(If = 0 the system has no unique solution).
By Cramers rule we have
3 32 31
2 22 21
1 12 11
33 3 31
23 2 21
13 11 11
33 32 3
23 22 2
13 12 1
b a a
b a a
b a a
z
a b a
a b a
a b a
y
a a b
a a b
a a b
x
or
1
x
2
y
3
z
Note: As in the previous section the system of equations Ax = B. Then |A| =
. Now
1
is obtained by replacing the first column of by B. Similarly
2

and
3
are obtained by replacing the second and third columns of by B
respectively.
Example: Solve
2x + 3y + 4z = 20
x + y + 2z = 9
3x + 2y + z = 10
Solution: In this example,
10 2 3
9 1 1
20 3 2
1 10 3
2 9 1
4 20 2
1 2 10
2 1 9
4 3 20
1 2 3
2 1 1
4 3 2
3 2 1

= 2(1 4) 3 (1 6) + 4(2 3) = 5
1
= 20(1 4) 3(9 20) + 4 (18 10) = 5
2
= 2(9 20) 20(1 6) + 4 (10 27) = 10
3
= 2(10 18) 3 (10 27) + 20(2 3) = 15
Hence
. 3 z , 2 y , 1 x
3 2 1

S.A.Q. 21. Solve the following system of equations using matrices
a) 2x + 3y z = 9 b) 2x y + 3z = 9
x + y + z = 9 x + y + z = 6
3x y z = 1 x y + z = 2
S.A.Q. 22 Solve the following system of equations using Cramers rule
a) 5x 6y + 4z = 15 b) x + y + z = 9
7x + 4y 3z = 19 2x + 5y + 7z = 52
2x + y + 6z = 46 2x + y z = 0

10.10 Summary
In this unit we discuss about the concept of matrices and determinants. The
different types matrices is defined, the concept of inverse of matrix is well
defined with good examples, Determinants, the different properties of
determinants and solving equations using matrices and determinants is
explained with the help of standard examples.

10.11 Terminal questions
1. Find the values of x, y, z and t satisfy the matrix relationship

20 1 x 2 5
5 t 2 4 1
1 t 3 5 x 4 5 y 2
2 t 4 z 3 x

2. Find the values for x, y, z that satisfy the matrix relationship

3 z y
2 x 4
z 2 1
6 2
z y
x 2
3
3. Find a matrix A satisfying

1 5
4 3
A 2
1 5
2 3

4. If
1 1 1
3 2 1
B ,
0 1 1
0 2 1
A and
1 1
1 1
2 1
C
Show that AB = AC. (In the case of real numbers, ab = ac will imply that
b = c. But this is not so for matrices as this example shows)
5. If
0 1 2
1 3 0
2 0 1
A and
1 2 0
3 0 2
0 1 3
B evaluate AB BA.
6. If
6 3
4 2
A , show that A A 4
2

7. If
1 3
2 1
A , show that A
2
2A 5I = 0
8. If
1 3
2 1
A find AA
T
and A
T
A
9. If
3 4
2 1
A Evaluate A
2
and A
3
.
10. If
1 2
6 4
A
3 1
5 2
find A.
11. If
2 3
1 2
4 7
3 5
A find A
12.
1 3
4 2
3 5
2 3
A
2 3
1 2
If , find A.
13. Evaluate the following determinants
a)
25 16 9
16 9 4
9 4 1
b)
c f g
f b h
g h a
c)
a b c
c a b
b c a

a)
3 2 3 2
3 1 0 2
0 1 2 1
3 2 4 2
b)
0 5 2 1
1 1 3 0
2 4 2 1
3 1 1 2
c)
2 0 3 2
1 4 2 3
3 2 1 2
2 1 2 4

15. Show that a c c b b a
1 b a ab
1 a c ca
1 c b bc

a)
20 10 4 1
10 6 3 1
4 3 2 1
1 1 1 1
b)
35 15 5 1
20 10 4 1
10 6 3 1
4 3 2 1

17. Show that 0
b a c 1
a c b 1
c b a 1

18. Prove that 0
b a ab b a
a c ca a c
c b bc c b
2 2
2 2
2 2

19. Solve the following system of equations using (i) matrices (ii) determinants
a) x + 2y z = 3 b) 2x + 3y z = 9
3x y + 2z = 2 x + y + z = 9
2x 2y + 3z = 2 3x y z = 1
c) a + b + z = 6 d) 2a + 3b + c = 8
a + 2b + 3c = 14 4a + b + c = 6
a + b z = 2 a + b + c = 3

10.12 Answers
1. mn entries
2.
1 0 1
10 0 2
3 0 0

3.
2 4 2
7 0 1
,
2 4 2
7 0 1
6 20
6 4
8 4
,
4 15
14 4
2 1
,
2 5
8 8
6 3

5.
1 1
1 2

6.
2 2
2 1
Y ,
2 1
0 2
X
8. BA does not exist since the number of columns of B = 2 3 = the
number of rows of A.
12. a) 9 b) 2 c) 419
13. a) 9 b) 2 c) 419
(Expand using the first column, first column and first row respectively.)
14. By row operations R
2
R
1
and R
3
R
1
,
2 2
2 2
a c a c
a b c b
.
So = (a b) (b c) (c a) on simplification.
16. The row operations are R
2
R
1
and R
3
R
2
. Answer is 2.
17. a) Answer 0; the row operations are R
1
, R, R
1
, R
3
R
2
, R
4
. b) 3.
The row operations R
1
, R
2
, R
3
R
2
, R
4
, R
3
reduce to
.
1 1 0
0 1 1
1 1 1
1 Apply R
1
, R
2
R
1
, R
3
.
18.
1 11 4
3 1 4
4 4 0
16
1

19. As |A| = 0, A
1
does not exist.
20.
1 0 1
0 1 1
3 3 7

21. a) x = 2, y = 3, z = 4 b) x = 1, y = 2, z = 3
22. a) x = 3, y = 4, z = 6 b) x = 1, y = 3, z = 5

Terminal Questions
1. x = 2, y = 5, z = 8, t = 7
2. x = 4, y = 1, z = 3
3.
1 0
3 3

5.
1 5 6
14 1 2
9 8 0

8.
5 1
1 10
,
10 1
1 5

9.
17 8
4 9
A
2
,
67 60
30 7
A
3

10.
8 0
23 2
1 2
6 4
3 1
5 2
A
1
(Use (10.7))
11.
1 2
1 1
4 7
3 5
2 3
1 2
A
1
(Use (10.7))
12. Let
1 3
4 2
D ,
3 5
2 3
C ,
2 3
1 2
B
Then BAC = D. So A = B
1
DC
1
, Using (10.7),

18 34
13 24
A ,
3 5
2 3
c ,
2 3
1 2
B
1 1

13. a) 8 b) abc + 2fgh af
2
bg
2
ch
2
c) a
3
+ b
3
+ c
3
3abc
14. a) 15 (Row operations: R
1
, R
2
, R
3
R
1
, R
4
R
1
)
b) 102 (Row operations: R
1
+ 2R
4
, R
2
+ R
4
, R
3
, R
4

c) 87 (column operations: C
1
+ 4C
3
, C
2
+ 2C
3
, C
3
, C
4
+ 2C
3
).
15. Apply row operations R
1
, R
2
R
1
, R
3
R
1
. Expand using last column.
16. a) and b) answer 1 (Apply row operations R
1
, R
2
R
1
, R
3
R
1
, R
4
R
1
)
17. Apply R
1
, R
2
R
1
, R
3
R
1
, we get .
c a a c
b a a b
This is equal to (b
a) (a c) (a c) (c a) (b a) (a c) (1) (1) (b a) (a c) = 0
18. Multiplying R
1
by a, R
2
by b and R
3
by c and then dividing by abc we
get

b a c abc c b a
a c b abc bc a
c b a abc c ab
abc
1
2 2
2 2
2 2

bc ca 1 ab
ab bc 1 ca
ac ab 1 bc
abc
c b a
2 2 2
(By taking out abc from columns 1 and 2)

1 3
C C
ab bc ca 1 ab
ca ab bc 1 ca
bc ac ab 1 bc
abc

1 1 ab
1 1 ca
1 1 bc
ca bc ab abc (by taking out ab + bc + ca from C
3
)
19. a) x = 1, y = 4, z = 4 b) x = 2, y = 3, z = 4
c) a = 1, b = 2, c = 3 c) a = 1, b = 2, c = 0

Unit 11 Infinite Series
Structure
11.1 Introduction
Objectives
11.2 Convergence and Divergence
11.3 Series of Positive Terms
11.4 Binomial Series
11.5 Exponential Series
11.6 Logarithmic Series
11.7 Summary
11.9 Answers

11.1 Introduction
Infinite series: If u
n
is a real sequence, then an expression of the form
u
1
+ u
2
+ u
3
+ . + . . + u
n
+ .
Which can be written also as
1
n
1 n
n
u or or u is called an INFINITE
SERIES.
Example, 1) ......
4
1
3
1
2
1
1
2) 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 +

Objectives:
understand the properties of infinite series
test the convergence or the divergence of an infinite series

Partial Sum
The expression u
1
+ u
2
+ u
3
+ + .. + u
n
+ .. involves addition of
infinitely many term. To give meaning to this expression we define its
sequence of partial sums S
n
by
S
n
= u
1
+ u
2
+ u
3
+ + + u
n

We know that an infinite series is given by
1 n
n 3 2 1
. .......... u ...... ... u u u
n 3 2 1 n 3 2 1 3 2 1 2 , 1 1
u ....... u u u S ,....... u u u S , u u S u S
are called partial sums.
S
1
is called the 1
st
partial sum, S
2
is called the 2
nd
partial sum, . S
n
is the
nth partial sum.
The sequence (S
n
) is called the sequence of partial sums, then we say
n
u converges, diverges, Oscillates according as its sequence of partial
sums S
n
, converges, diverges or oscillates.
Examples
1. The expression 1+(1) + 1 + (1) + .. + (1)
n+1
+ (i)
Or as it is usually written as 1 1 + 1 1 + 1 1 + .. is a series. The
meaning of expression (i) is that from the terms 1, 1, +1, 1, .. (
1)
n+1
, .. we form the partial sums,
S
1
= 1, S
2
= 1 1 = 0, S
3
= 1 1 + 1 = 1, .
S
1
= 1 1 + . + (1)
n+1
=
2
1 n 1 1

(ii)
2. The expression ........
2
1
.........
8
1
4
1
2
1
1
1 n
is a series. This
series can also be written as, ... ,.........
2
1
,.........
8
1
,
4
1
,
2
1
, 1
1 n

the partial sums,
,.......
2
1
2 S ,......
4
3
1 S ,
2
1
1 S , 1 S
1 n
n 3 2 1

General properties of Series
Following are the fundamental rules or properties of a series:
1. The coverage or divergence of an infinite series remains unaffected by
the addition or removal of a finite number of the terms; for the sum of
these terms being the finite quantity addition or removal doesnot change
the nature of its sum.
2. If a series in which all the terms are positive is convergent, the series
remain convergent even when some or all of its terms are negative; for
the sum is clearly the greatest when all the terms are positive.
3. The convergence or divergence of an infinite series remains unaffected
by multiplying each term by a finite number.

11.2 Convergence and divergence
Convergence of the infinite series
A series is called convergent if the sequence of its partial sums has a finite
limit, this limit is termed as the sum of the convergent series.
An infinite series
1 n
n
u is said to be convergent if
n
lim S
n
= l where l is a
unique real number.
Examples
1) Show that
1 n
2 n 2 1 n
......
2
1
......
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
is convergent
series.
a 2
2
1
1
2
1
1
lim S lim
n
n
n
n
unique real number.
The given series is a convergent series.
Divergence of the infinite series
If a sequence of its partial sums has no finite limit, then the series is called
divergent. A divergent series has no sum.
An infinite series
1 n
n
u is said to be divergent.
If . S lim
n
n

Example
Show that ... .......... .......... n ....... .......... 4 3 2 1 u
1 n
n
is a
divergent
Since
2
1 n n
lim S lim
n
n
n

and hence the given series is divergent.
Necessary condition for convergence of a series
The series,
u1 + u2 + u3 + .+ .. + un + .. (1)
can converge only when the term un (the general term of the series) tends
to zero.
i.e
n
lim u
n
= 0
if the general term u
n
does not tend to zero, then the series diverges.

Examples:
a) The series, 0.0 + 0.44 + 0.444 + 0.4444 + .. diverges because the
general term u
n
does not tend to zero.
b) The series 1 1 + 1 1 + .. diverges because the general term u
n

does not tend to zero (and has no limit at all).
The remainder of a series
Let us consider and infinite series
u
1
+ u
2
+ u
3
+ .+ . +u
m
+ u
m+1
+ u
m+2
+ .. ----------- (I)
If we discard first m terms of a series, we get the series,
u
m+1
+ u
m+2
+ .. ----------- (II)
which converges (or diverges) if the series (I) converges (or diverges) and
diverges if the series (I) diverges. Therefore, while finding the convergence
of a series we can distinguish between a few terms.
When the series (I) converges, the sum Rm = u
m+1
+ u
m+2
+ Of series
(II) is called the remainder or (remainder term) of the first series. (R
1
= u
2
+
u
3
+ + .. is the first remainder. R
2
= u
3
+ u
4
+ . + . is the
second, etc.) the remainder R
m
is the error committed by substituting the
partial sum S
n
(or the sum S of the series (I)). The sum S of the series and
the remainder R
m
are connected by
S = S
m
+ R
m
.
As m the reminder term of the series approaches to zero. It is of
practical importance that this approach be sufficiently rapid, that is, that the
remainder R
m
should become less than the permissible error, for m not too
great. Then we say that the series (I) converges rapidly, otherwise that
series is said to converge slowly.
For example consider the series ..........
4
1
3
1
2
1
1 converges very
slowly. Summing the first 20 terms, we get the value of the sum of the series
only to within 0.5 10
1
; to attain the accuracy up to 0.5 10
4
; we have to
take at leat 19,999 terms.
Examples
1. .... ..........
4 . 3
1
3 . 2
1
2 . 1
1

Solution:

1 n n
1
...... ..........
4 . 3
1
3 . 2
1
2 . 1
1
S
n

Here
1 n
1
n
1
1 n n
1
u
n

1 n
1
n
1
u . .......... ,
4
1
3
1
u ,
3
1
2
1
u ,
2
1
1
1
u
n 3 2 1

1 n
1
n
1
......
4
1
3
1
3
1
2
1
2
1
1 S
n

1 n
1
1 all the other terms cancel]
1
1 n
1
1 lim S lim
n n n
which is a unique finite quantity.
The given series is convergent.
2. Show that the given series divergent. ..... 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 n
n

Solution: S
n
= 1+1 1+1 1+1 .. to n terms
= 0 or 1 according as n is even or odd.
1 or 0 S lim
n n

The given series oscillates between 2 finite values 0 and 1.
3. Test for divergence of the following series: 1
2
+ 2
2
+ 3
2
+ +
Solution:
6
1 n 2 1 n n
n ....... 3 2 1 S
2 2 2 2
n


6
1 n 2 1 n n
lim S lim
n n n

given series diverges to + .
4. Test for divergence the following series: 1 + 2 + 3 + .. + n + ..
Solution:
2
1 n n
n ... .......... 3 2 1 S
n

1 n n lim
2
1
2
1 n n
lim S lim
n n n n

given series in divergent.
5. Show that the series 1 + r + r
2
+ r
3
+ . +
(i) converges if | r | < 1
(ii) diverges if r > 1 and
(iii) oscillates if r < 1
Solution: Let S
n
= 1 + r + r
2
+ r
3
+ . + r
n 1

Case (i), when | r | < 1, , 0 lim
n
n
r since it is a G.P. series,

r 1
r
r 1
1
r 1
r 1
S
n n
n

r 1
1
S lim
n n

given series is convergent.
Case (ii), when r = 1,
S
n
= 1+ 1 + 1 + 1 + . + 1 = n
And,
n n
S lim
given series is divergent.
Case (iii), when r = 1, the series becomes
S
n
= 1 1 + 1 1 + .
Which is an oscillatory series.
(ii) when r < 1, let r = p, so that p > 1,
then
n n n
p 1 r
and
p 1
p 1 1
r 1
r 1
S
n n n
n

as
n
n
P lim
or S lim
n n
, from this n is even or odd.
Hence the series oscillates.

11.3 Series of Positive terms
If the terms of a series of
n
u are positive, then its sequence of partial
sums
n 3 2 1 n
u ........ u u u S is monotonically increasing for
0 u S S
1 n n 1 n
for all the values of n.
u
n
of positive terms converges or diverges to according as S
n
is
bounded or unbounded. If S
n
is bounded then
1 n 1 n
u S S for all n, gives
. 0 u S lim
1 n

Theorem1: A positive term series either converges to a positive number or
diverges to , according as its sequence of partial sums is bounded or not.
Proof:
Let
n 3 2 1 n n
a .......... a a a S a
1 n n 3 2 1 1 n
a a ....... a a a S
0 a S S
1 n n 1 n

n
S is monotonically increasing.
According to
n
S we have the following 2 possibilities.
(i)
n
S is bounded, or
(ii)
n
S is unbounded above
(i) If
n
S is bounded, then
n
S is bounded above. Hence
n
S is a
monotonically increasing sequence which is bounded above.

n
S is convergent.
a S lim
n n
unique real number.

n
a is convergent.
(ii) If
n
S is unbounded above
The
n
S is a monotonically increasing sequence which is unbounded
above

n
S diverges to +

n n
S lim

n
a diverges to +
Therefore
n
a converges to diverges to
Theorem 2: Necessary constant for the convergence of a series of a
positive terms. If a a
n
series is convergent then
n
lim a
n
= 0. The
converse is not true.
Theorem 3: The nature of the series is not altered by the multiplication of all
the terms of the series by the same non-zero constant C.
Theorem 4: The nature of the series is not altered by addition of a finite
number of terms to the series or by removing a finite number of terms from
the beginning.
Theorem 5: If
n
a and
n
b are 2 series which converge to l and m
respectively then the series
n n
b a converges to l m.

11.4 Binomial Series
According to the Binomial theorem, we have,
n 3 2 n
x ....... x
! 3
2 n 1 n n
x
! 2
1 n n
x
! 1
n
1 x 1
If the right hand side is extended to ,
to ....... x
! 3
2 n 1 n n
x
! 2
1 n n
x
! 1
n
1 x 1
3 2 n

Become a finite series and this series is called as Binomial series.
The Binomial series is absolutely convergent if | x | < 1, and when the series
is convergent, the sum of the finite series is (1 + x)
n
.
Replacing x by x,
to ....... x
! 3
2 n 1 n n
x
! 2
1 n n
x
! 1
n
1 x 1
3 2 n

While finding the sum of the Binomial series we can use some of the
following cases.
1. When n = 1,

1 3 2
x 1 .......... x x x 1
2. When n = 1, and x is changed to x,
1 + x + x
2
+ x
3
+ .. = (1 + x)
1
3. When n = 2,
1 2x + 3x
2
4x
3
+ .. = (1 + x)
2

4. When n = 2, and x is changed to x,
1 + 2x + 3x
2
+ 4x
3
+ .. = (1 + x)
2

5. When
q
p
n where p and q are integers and q 0, we get
to .........
q
x
! 3
q 2 p q p p
q
x
! 2
q p p
q
x
! 1
p
1 x 1
3 2
q
p

6. When
q
p
n , x is replaced by x, we get,
to . ..........
q
x
! 3
q 2 p q p p
q
x
! 2
q p p
q
x
! 1
p
x 1
3 2
q
p

7. When ,
q
p
n we get,

to .........
q
x
! 3
q 2 p q p p
q
x
! 2
q p p
q
x
! 1
p
1 x 1
3 2
q
p

8. When ,
q
p
n x is replaced by x, we get,
to .........
q
x
! 3
q 2 p q p p
q
x
! 2
q p p
q
x
! 1
p
1 x 1
3 2
q
p

Examples
1. Solve the following: .........
150 . 100 . 50
33 . 18 . 3
100 . 50
18 . 3
50
3

Solution: Let ..........
150 . 100 . 50
33 . 18 . 3
100 . 50
18 . 3
50
3
S
S can be written as,
........
50
1
! 3
33 . 18 . 3
50
1
!. 2
18 . 3
50 !. 1
1 . 3
S
3 2

q
p
x 1 1 S

10
3
50
15
x
50
1
q
x
, 15 q , 3 P

5
1
5
1
15
3
7
10
10
7
10
3
1 1 S
1
7
10
S
5
1

2. Solve: .......... ..........
3
1
3 . 2 . 1
7 . 5 . 3
3
1
.
2 . 1
5 . 3
1
3
2

Solution: Comparing the given series with one of the general Binomial
series, we get

3
1
q
x
, 2 q , 3 p

3
2
x
But the power of
3
1
is not equal to the number factors. Hence we have
to multiply and divide by 3,
Let ..... ..........
3
1
3 . 2 . 1
7 . 5 . 3
3
1
.
2 . 1
5 . 3
1
3
S
2

.......... ..........
3
1
! 3
7 . 5 . 3
3
1
.
! 2
5 . 3
3
1
! 1
3
3 S
3 2

....... ..........
3
1
! 3
7 . 5 . 3
3
1
.
! 2
5 . 3
3
1
! 1
3
1 1 3
3 2

. to ...... ..........
3
1
! 3
7 . 5 . 3
3
1
.
! 2
5 . 3
3
1
! 1
3
1 3 3
3 2

q
p
x 1 3 3

2
3
3
2
1 3 3

2
3
3
1
3 3

2
3
3 3 3
2
5
3 3 S
11.5 Exponential series
The exponential function e
x
expressed as an infinite series in the form
......
! n
x
. ..........
! 3
x
! 2
x
! 1
x
1 e
n 3 2
x

This series is convergent for all values of x.
In finding the sum of the exponential series, the following are to be used.
I.
0 n
3 2 n
x
. ..........
! 3
x
! 2
x
! 1
x
1
! n
x
e
II. Putting x = 1, in form (I) we get,

0 n
n
. ..........
! 3
1
! 2
1
! 1
1
1
! n
x
e
III. By changing x to x, in form (I) we get,

0 n
3 2 n
x
. ..........
! 3
x
! 2
x
! 1
x
1
! n
x
e
IV. Putting x = 1 in form (I), it gives,

0 n
n
1
. ..........
! 3
1
! 2
1
! 1
1
1
! n
1
e
V. By adding (I) and (III), results in,

0 n
n 2 4 2 x x
! n 2
x
..... ..........
! 4
x
! 2
x
1
2
e e

VI. Subtracting (III) from (I),

0 n
1 n 2 5 3 x x
! 1 n 2
x
..... ..........
! 5
x
! 3
x
! 1
x
2
e e

VII. Putting x =1 in (V),

0 n
1 1
! n 2
1
.......
! 4
1
! 2
1
1
2
e e

VIII. Putting x = 1 in (VI),

0 n
1 1
! 1 n 2
1
.......... ..........
! 5
1
! 3
1
! 1
1
2
e e

Note: In exponential series it should be carefully observed whether the
summation is from 0 to or 1 to or 2 to etc.
Examples
Problem 1. to ..........
! 7
6
! 5
4
! 3
2

The solution is:

1 n
! 1 n 2
n 2
S

1 n
! 1 n 2
1 1 n 2

1 n
! 1 n 2
1
! 1 n 2
1 1 n 2

1 n
! 1 n 2
1
! 1 n 2
1

1 n 1 n
! 1 n 2
1
! 1 n 2
1

......
! 7
1
! 5
1
! 3
1
.......
! 6
1
! 4
1
! 2
1

1
2
e e
1
2
e e
1 1

1
e
or
e
1
s
Problem 2. .........
! 4
7 . 6 . 3
! 3
5 . 4 . 2
! 2
3 . 2 . 1

Solution: The given series can be written as,
1 n
2 3
1 n
! 1 n
n 2 n 4
! 1 n
1 n 2 n 2 n
S
Consider 1 n n 1 n d n 1 n c 1 n b a n 2 n 4
2 3

dn dn cn cn b bn a
3 2

b a n d c b cn dn
2 3

. 2 b 0 4 2 b 0 d c b , 2 c , 4 d
2 a or 0 2 a 0 b a
1 n n 1 n 4 n 1 n 2 1 n 2 2 n 2 n 4
2 3

1 n 1 n
2 3
! 1 n
1 n n 1 n 4 n 1 n 2 1 n 2 2
! 1 n
n 2 n 4

1 n 1 n 1 n 1 n
! 2 n
1
4
! 1 n
1
2
! n
1
2
! 1 n
1
2
e 4 e 2 1 e 2
! 1
1
1 e 2
S = 6e + 2

11.6 Logarithmic Series
The series:
......
n
x
1 ......
4
x
3
x
2
x
1
n
1 n
4 3 2

is called the logarithmic series and is denoted by
1 n
n
1 n
n
x
1
Theorem: If u
n
is a positive term series and x
u
u
log n lim
1 n
n
n
(finite
or infinite).
Then the series
1 n
n
u
(i) Converges if x > 1
(ii) Diverges if x < 1
(iii) May converge or diverge if x < 1
The logarithmic series convergent if 1 < x < 1. When it is convergent the
sum of the logarithmic series is given by,
1. x 1 log ....... ..........
4
x
3
x
2
x
x
e
4 3 2

2. Replacing x by x, in (1) we get,
x 1 log ....... .......... ..........
4
x
3
x
2
x
x
e
4 3 2

x 1 log ....... .......... ..........
4
x
3
x
2
x
x
e
4 3 2

3. Adding (1) and (2) we get,
x 1 log x 1 log ........ ..........
5
x
3
x
x 2
e e
5 3

x 1
x 1
log .... ..........
5
x
3
x
x 2
e
5 3

4. Subtracting (2) from (1) we get,
x 1 log x 1 log ..... ..........
6
x
4
x
2
x
2
e e
6 4 2

Therefore,
2
e
6 4 2
x 1 log ....... ..........
5
x
4
x
2
x
2 where x
2
< 1
5. Putting x = 1 in (1) it gives,
2 log . ..........
4
1
3
1
2
1
1
e

Note: Usually the sum of the logarithmic series is found by resolving the nth
term into partial fractions.
Examples
1. Solve to . ..........
7
x
5
x
3
x
1
3 2

Solution:
Let to .......
7
x
5
x
3
x
1 S
3 2

to ......
7
x
5
x
3
x
1
6 4 2

to .......
7
x
5
x
3
x
x
x
1
7 5 3

x 1
x 1
log
2
1
x
1
e

x 1
x 1
log
x 2
1
S
e

2. ........
7 . 6 . 5
1
5 . 4 . 3
1
3 . 2 . 1
1

Solution:
Let .........
7 . 6 . 5
1
5 . 4 . 3
1
3 . 2 . 1
1
S

1 n
1 n 2 n 2 1 n 2
1

Consider,
1 n 2
C
n 2
B
1 n 2
A
1 n 2 n 2 1 n 2
1

therefore, 1 = A (2n) (2n + 1) + B(2n 1) (2n + 1) + C(2n) (2n 1)
Put n = 0, 1 = B(1) B = 1
Put m = , 1 = 2A or A =
2
1
.
Put n = 1/2, then C = (1) (2) = 2 or 2C = 1.
Substituting these vales in
1 n
,
1 n 2 n 2 1 n 2
1
we get,

1 n 1 n
1 n 2 n 2
1
n 2
1
1 n 2 2
1
1 n 2 n 2 1 n 2
1

1 n 1 n
1 n 2
1
n 2
1
2
1
n 2
1
1 n 2
1
2
1

Splitting
n 2
1
as
n 2
1
2
1
n 2
1
2
1

......
5
1
4
1
3
1
2
1
2
1
........
4
1
3
1
2
1
1
1
2
1
S
2 log 1
2
1
2 log
2
1

2
1
2 log
1. Solve ......
1296
4 1 2
72
1 2
6
2
1
2. Show that harmonic series of order ......
3
1
2
1
1
1
n
1
p
p p p p

converges for p > 1 and diverges for 1 p

11.7 Summary
In this unit initially we discussed about the partial sum and general
properties of series. Then we studied different rules for convergence or
divergence of series. Lastly in this unit we studied binomial series,
exponential series, logarithmic series with properly illustrated examples.

1. Write the general properties of a series
2. Explain the binomial series

11.9 Answers
1. Let .. ..........
1296
4 1 2
72
1 2
6
2
1 S
S can be written as
..........
6
1
! 3
4 1 2
6
1
! 2
1 2
6
1
! 1
2
1 S
3 2

Comparing with the expansion of , 1
/ q p
x

6
1
q
x
, 3 q , 2 p

2
1
x

q / p
x 1 S

3
3
2
3
2
4
1
2
1
2
1
1

3
4
1
S
2. But the above test, this series will converge or diverge according as
1
p
x
dx
is finite. If
p 1
1 m
lim
x
dx
lim
x
dx
, 1 p
p 1
n
m
1
p
n
1
p

,
p 1
1
i.e. finite for p > 1
for p < 1
If
1 1
p
x log
x
dx
, 1 p
Therefore the series converges for p > 1 and p < 1.

Terminal Questions
1. Refer to Section 11.1.3
Unit 12 Probability
Structure
12.1 Introduction
Objectives
12.2 Concept of Probability
12.3 Sample Space and Events
12.4 Three Approaches to Probability
12.5 Kolmogorovs Axiomatic Approach to Probability
12.6 Conditional Probability and Independence of Events
12.7 Bayes theorem
12.8 Summary
12.10 Answers

12.1 Introductions
Even in day to day life uncertainty plays an important role. When we are
unable to forecast the future with certainty, we make statements like
probably it will rain in the evening, Ram has a better chance of winning
the elections etc. Although we are not sure of the happening of some event
we make statements like those mentioned above.
It is interesting to note that the seed of probability theory was thrown when a
French nobleman Anokine Gombould (1607 1684) sought an explanation
from the mathematician Blaise Pascal (1623 1662) regarding the frequent
occurrence of some combinations of number in the roll of dice. Pierre de
Fermat (1601 1655) and Blaise Pascal were working on this problem.
Another problem was posed to Blaise Pascal. If a game of change is
stopped in the middle, how should the two players divide the stake ? This
was another problem leading to the concept of probability, J. Bernoullis
(1654 1705) first treatise on probability was published in 1718. Other
mathematicians who were instrumental in the development of probability
were chebyshev (1821 1894), A. Markov (1856 1920), Liapounoff (who
enunciated central limit theorem), De Moivre, T. Bayes and P.S. Laplace.
Initially ideas of probability and statistics were used to explain natural
phenomena. Now it is an indispensable tool in many decisions regarding
business also.
Objectives:
- understand the idea of Probability
- apply Bayes theorem in problems

12.2 Concept of Probability
Consider the following statements.
1. A particular medicine is effective except for one out of 1000 patients.
2. There is likely to be moderate to heavy rains in most part of Karnataka
3. Getting a head or a tail in the toss of a coin are equally likely
4. When a single die is rolled, any number from 1 to 6 is equally likely
5. Only 3 out of 2 million parts is likely to be defective
In all the above statements the outcome is not certain. But we are able to list
all possible outcomes. For example, we are not certain about the number
likely to be seen in a roll of a single die but we know that only one of the six
numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 will definitely be seen. Statement 4 is about the
likelihood of something to happen. From statement 1 we are not able to say
to whom the medicine is likely to be ineffective but we can say that it is
ineffective only for one patient when the medicine is administered to 1000
patients. Let us consider statement 3. Although we cannot say whether we
get a tail or head, we can say that we will be getting head half the number of
times when a coin is tossed several times.
Before proceeding to study the rigorous definition of probability let us
understand that Probability is a numerical measure of the likelihood of an
event to happen.
It is a number between 0 and 1, 0 and 1 representing the impossibility and
certainty.

Figure 12.1 Probability of an event
For example, non occurrence of rain is more likely in summer and
occurrence of rain is more likely in rainy season. Head or tails are equally
likely in the toss of a coin.

12.3 Sample Space and Events
For defining probability we need the definition of an experiment. (to be more
precise random experiment).

Definition: An experiment is a process that generates well defined
outcomes.
When we perform an experiment we call it a trial.
- - - - -
0 0.2 0.5 0.8 1
Impossible
event
Non
occurrence
more likely
Occurrence and
nonoccurrence
equal more
likely
Occurrence
more likely
Certain event
or
deterministic
event
For each trial there is one and only one outcome among the several well
defined outcomes.
Example: Find all the possible outcomes of the following experiments
a) Tossing a single coin
b) Tossing two coins
c) Tossing three coins
d) Roll of a single die
e) Roll of two dice
f) Play a one day cricket match
Solution: The possible outcomes are
a) H, T (H and T denotes head and tail respectively)
b) HH, HT, TH, TT
c) HHH, HHT, THH, HTH, HTT, TTH, THT, TTT
d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
e) 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16
21, 22, 23, 25, 25, 26
31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36
41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46
51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56
61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66
f) win, defeat, tie
Definition: The sample space for an experiment is the set of all possible
outcomes.
Example: Find the sample space for the following experiments.
a) Number of heads in a toss of two coins
b) Sum on the roll of two dice
c) Sum on the roll of three dice
d) Play a cricket game
Solution: the sample space is
a) {2, 1, 0}
b) {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12}
c) {3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18}
d) {win, defeat, tie}
Definition: An event in an experiment is a subset of the sample space.
Definition: A single outcome is called an elementary event.
Note: Any event consists of elementary events.
Example: Write down the following events as a subset of the respective
sample space
a) Getting at least one head in a toss of two coins
b) Getting a sum of 6 or more in a roll of two dice
c) Getting two defective parts when five parts are inspected
d) India winning at least one in 3 matches played against Australia.
Solution:
a) {HT, TH, HH} c {HT, TH, HH, TT}
b) {6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12} c {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12}
c) {2} c {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
d) {1, 2, 3} c {0, 1, 2, 3}
S.A.Q. 1 Write the following events as a subset of the respective sample
space.
a) Getting even number of heads in a toss of 3 coins
b) Winning in alternate matches when 5 matches are played
c) Getting a sum of 4 or 10 in a roll of two dice
d) Winning at least one match when three matches are played

12.4 Three approaches to Probability
As the concept of probability was developed for more than two centuries,
the statisticians defined it in several ways. In 1933 the Russian
mathematician A. N. Kolmogorov developed probability theory using the
axiomatic approach which was used to define various mathematical objects
in the last century. The axiomatic approach unified all the three approaches
of probability. We study three approaches to probability which were
developed before Kolmogorovs unified approach in this section.
Kolmogorovs axiomatic approach is developed in the next section.
Classical Probability
The classical probability is also called mathematical, or a priori probability.
We need a few preliminary definitions before defining the classical
probability of an event.
Definition: The outcomes of an experiment are equally likely if there is no
reason to expect one outcome in preference to other outcomes.
For example, Head or Tail are equally likely in tossing a single coin. Any
number from 1 to 6 is equally likely in the roll of a die.
Definition: Two or more events are mutually exclusive. If Head falls then
Tail cannot fall and vice versa. The appearance of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 are
mutually exclusive. For when outcome of the appearance of 1 occurs, the
remaining cannot occur.
Definition: A collection of events is collectively exhaustive if they, when
taken together constitute the entire sample space.
For example, the events 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 are collectively exhaustive. So also
Head and Tail in the toss of a single coin.
Definition: If the outcomes of an experiment are, equally likely, collectively
exhaustive and mutually exclusive then the probability of an event E is
defined by
experiment the of outcomes of number Total
E of happening the to favourable outcomes of Number
E of y Probabilit =
Note: The classical probability is called a priori probability since we are able
to calculate the probability of an event in advance (that is, without repeating
the experiment). Of course this definition is applicable only when the
outcomes of an experiment are mutually exclusive, collectively exhaustive
and equally likely. In the case of the toss of a coin, if we can assume the
validity of these three conditions then we say that the coin is unbiased.
Similarly we defined an unbiased die.
Example: Find the classical probability of the following events.
a) Getting at least one Head in a toss of two coins
b) Getting a sum of 10 in a roll of two dice.
Solution: Let E denote the given event.
a) HT, TH, HH are the 3 outcomes favorable to the event E and the total
number of outcomes is 4. So 75 . 0
4
3
) E ( P = =
b) (4,6), (5,5) and (6,4) are the 3 outcomes favorable to the event and the
total number of outcomes is 36. Hence
12
1
36
3
) E ( P = =
Note A classical way of monitoring possibility is as follows: If odds in favour
of E are x : y or x to y, then
y x
x
) E ( P
+
=
Statistical or empirical Probability
In this approach we repeat the experiment a large number of times and
define the probability of an event.
Definition: If n trials are performed and m trials are favourable to the
occurrence of an event E, then the probability of the event E is defined by
Probability of
n
m
It E
n
=
Note: We assume that such a limit exists.
Example: A bag contains 3 red balls, 4 green balls and 5 blue balls. Find
the probability of choosing 2 red balls, 1 green ball and one blue ball.
Solution: Denote the required event by E. As there are 12 balls in all, the
total number of choosing 4 balls is C (12, 4). We can choose 2 red balls
from 3 red balls in C (3, 2) ways. One green ball can be chosen in C(4, 1)
ways and one blue ball can be chosen in C(5, 1) ways. By multiplication
principle, the number of outcomes favorable to E is C(3, 2) , C(4, 1) C(5, 1).
So ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) 4 , 12 C
1 , 5 C 1 , 4 C 2 , 3 C
E P =
4 . 3 . 2 . 1
9 . 10 . 11 . 12
5 . 4 . 3
=

33
4
=
Example: There are 25 cards having the numbers 1, 2, .., 25, written in
them. If one card is chosen what is the probability that the number in the
card is divisible by 3 or 7.
Solution: The numbers divisible by 3 are 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, 24 and
those divisible by 7 are 7, 14 (and 21 which is already considered). So the
number of favourable outcomes is 10.
( ) 4 . 0
25
10
E P = =

Bayesian or subjective probability
In the last two approaches either we make certain assumptions about the
outcomes or we assume that we can have a large number of trials. When
we have an experiment that can be performed only once or only a few
times, the earlier methods fail. In such cases we resort to subjective
approach.
Definition: The subjective probability of an event is the probability assigned
to an event by an individual based on the evidence available to him, if there
is any.
Many of the social and managerial decisions are concerned with specific
unique situations. In such cases the decision makes has to frame subjective
probability for these events.
When a new product is developed, the marketing manager makes prediction
based on subjective probability framed by him.
S.A.Q. 2 A bag contains 3 red, 6 yellow and 7 blue balls. What is the
probability that the two balls drawn are yellow and blue ?
S.A.Q. 3 A ball is drawn from a bag containing 10 black and 7 white balls.
What I the probability that it is white ?
S.A.Q. 4 One number is chosen from each of the two sets {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
8, 9} and {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}. What is the probability that the sum of these two
numbers is 13 ?

12.5 Kolmogorovs Axiomatic Approach to Probability
As we saw earlier, Kolmogorov proposed axiomatic theory of probability in
1933. In axiomatic approach to any theory, a minimal set of properties are
taken as axioms (by an axiom we mean an assumption). They are taken as
a basis and all other properties are deduced from the axioms. This is how
many of modern mathematical objects are defined.
Before proceeding further, recall the definition of a sample space and events
discussed in earlier sections.
Definition: Let S be a sample spacer and | be a collection of events
defined in the sample space S.
Then the probability of an event A is defined by a function P: B R (R is
the set of all real numbers) Satisfying the following axioms.
(A
1
) for each ( ) A P , A | e satisfies ( ) . 1 A P 0 s s
(A
2
) P(S) = 1
(A
3
) If A
1
, A
2
, .., A
n
, . Is a sequence of mutually exclusive (disjoint
events in | then
( )
=
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
1 i
i
1 i
i
A P A P
Y

Note: In most of the applications we take only a finite number of disjoint
events A
1
, ., A
n
. In this case, (A
3
) reduces to
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
=
+ + + = =
n
1 i
n 2 1 i n 2 1
A P ...... A P A P A P A .......... A A P (12.1)
In particular if A and B are mutually exclusive then
( ) ( ) ( ) B P A P B A P + = (12.2)

Using the axiomatic approach, we can deduce all properties of probability
which hold good for classical and statistical probabilities.
We derive a few important properties of probability using (A
1
) (A
2
) (A
3
) or
(12.1). In most of the proofs (12.1) or (12.2) is used.
Property 12.1 The probability of an impossible event is zero.
Proof: The impossible event is the empty set |. We know that | = S S
and the union | S is a disjoint union. Then
( ) ( ) | = S P S P
( ) ( ) | P S P + = (by 12.2)
Canceling P(S) on both sides. We get ( ) . 0 P = |
Property 12.2: If A is the complement of the event A, that is , A S A =
then ( ) ( ) A P 1 A P =
Proof: We know that A A s = (see figure 12.2)

Figure 12.2 The complementary event

So ( ) ( ) ( ) A P A P S P + =
As ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 1 A P A P , A by 1 S P
2
= + = or
( ) ( ) A P 1 A P =
Theorem: (Addition theorem) If A and B are any two events, then
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ) 3 . 12 .......( .......... .......... B A P B P A P B A P + =
Proof: We write B A as a disjoint union.

A A

Figure 12.3 B A as disjoint union

From Fig 12.3, we see that ( ) ( ) B A B A A =
and the union is disjoint.
By (12.2), ( ) ( ) ( ) B A P B A P A P + = (12.4)
Similarly ( ) ( ) B A A B B =
And the union is disjoint. By (12.2), ( ) ( ) ( ) B A P A B P B P + = . (12.5)
As ( ) ( ) ( ) A B B A B A B A = and the union on RHS is disjoint.
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) A B P B A P B A P B A P + + =
( ) ( )

( ) ( )

( ) B A P B A P A B P B A P B A P + + + =
( ) ( ) ( ) B A P B P A P + = by (12.4) and (12.5)
Note: (12.4) and (12.5) are useful for doing problems.
Thus (12.3) is proved
Corollary (Extended Addition theorem)
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) C B A P A C P C B P B A P C P B P A P C B A P + + + =
. (12.6)
Note: Fig. 12.5 will help you to prove (12.6)

A B
A B
A B
B A
Property 12.3 If , A B _ then ( ) ( ) A P B P s
Proof: From Fig. 12.4, we see that

Figure 12.4, Venn Diagram for property 12.3
( ) B A B A = and the union is disjoint. Hence
( ) ( ) ( ) B A B P A P =
( ) ( ) B A P B P + = by (12.2)
As ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) A P B P or B P A P , A by 0 B A P
1
s > >
Example: If A, B, C are any three events, write the following events using
C , B , A , C , B , A and set operations.
a) only A occurs
b) A and B occur but not C
c) All the three events occur
d) None of them occur
e) At least one of them occur
f) At least two of them occur
g) Exactly one of them occurs
h) Exactly two of them occur

A B
A
B
Solution: We represent A, B, C and their complements in Fig. 12.5

Figure 12.5: Three events

Now using the Venn diagram given in Fig 12.5, we can represent the events
as follows.
a) C B A b) C B A
c) C B A d) ( ) C B A
e) C B A f) ( ) ( ) ( ) A C C B B A
g) ( ) ( ) ( ) C B A C B A C B A
h) ( ) ( ) ( ) C B A C B A C B A
Example: If two dice are thrown what is the probability that the sum is a)
greater than 9 b) neither 3 or 9 c) less than 4

Solution:
a) The favourable outcomes are (4,6), (5,5), (6,4), (5,6), (6,5), (6,6). So
( ) .
6
1
36
6
E P = =
C
B
A
C B A
C B A
C B A
C B A
C B A
C B A
b) Let A and B denote the events that the sum is 3 and 9 respectively.
Then ( )
36
2
A P = and ( ) .
36
4
B P = As A and B are mutually exclusive
( ) . 0 B A P =
So ( )
6
1
36
6
36
4
36
2
B A P = = + = .
P(Sum is neither 3 or 9).
( ) B A P =
( ) B A P = (By De Morgans law B A B A =
( ) B A P = 1

6
1
1 =

6
5
=
c) The favorable outcomes are 11, 12, 21. So probability is .
12
1
36
3
=
Example: A bag contains two red balls, three blue balls and five green balls.
Three balls are drawn at random. Find the probability that
a) the three balls are of different colours
b) two balls are of the same colour
c) all the three are of the same colour

Solution Let E denote the given event..
a) We can choose one red ball in C (2, 1) ways, etc. So
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) 3 , 10 C
1 , 5 C 1 , 3 C 1 , 2 C
E P =

4
1
3 . 2 . 1 .
8 . 9 . 10
5 . 3 . 2
= =
b) Let E
1
, E
2
, E
3
denote the events that two balls among the three are red,
blue and green respectively.
( )
( ) ( )
( ) 15
1
3 . 2 . 1 .
8 . 9 . 10
8 . 1
3 , 10 C
1 , 8 C 2 , 2 C
E P
1
= = =
Similarly
( )
( ) ( )
( ) 40
7
3 . 2 . 1 .
8 . 9 . 10
7 . 3
3 , 10 C
1 , 7 C 2 , 3 C
E P
2
= = =
( )
( ) ( )
( ) 12
5
3 . 2 . 1 .
8 . 9 . 10
5
.
2 . 1
4 . 5
3 , 10 C
1 , 5 C 2 , 5 C
E P
3
= = =
So P(E) = P(E
1
) + P(E
2
) + P(E
3
)

12
5
40
7
15
1
+ + =

120
50 21 8 + +
=

120
79
=
c) As there are only two red balls, the chosen three balls are of the same
colour only if they are all blue or green.
Let E
1
, E
2
denote the events that the three balls are blue and green
respectively.
( )
( )
( ) 120
1
3 . 2 . 1 .
8 . 9 . 10
1
3 , 10 C
3 , 3 C
E P
1
= = =
( )
( )
( ) 12
1
3 . 2 . 1 .
8 . 9 . 10
3 . 2 . 1
.
2 . 1
4 . 5
3 , 10 C
3 , 5 C
E P
2
= = =
So P(E) = P(E
1
) + P(E
2
)
12
1
120
1
+ =
120
10 1 +
=
120
11
=
Example: Two dice are rolled. If A is the event that the number in the first die is
odd and B is the event that the number in the second die is at least 3, find
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) A B P , B A P , B A P , B A P .
Solution: ( ) ( )
3
2
B P ,
2
1
A P = =
The outcomes favourable to B A are 13, 14, 15, 16, 33, 34, 35, 36, 53,
54, 55, 56. So ( ) .
3
1
36
12
B A P = =
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) B A P B P A P B A P + =

3
1
3
2
2
1
+ =

6
5
=
( ) ( ) ( ) B A P A P B A P = (By (12.4))

3
1
2
1
=

6
1
=
( ) ( ) ( ) B A P B P A B P = (By (12.5))

3
1
3
2
=

3
1
=
S.A.Q.5 A bag contains 6 white and 10 black balls. Three balls are drawn at
random. Find the probability that
a) all the three are black
b) none of them is black
c) two of them are black
d) two of them are white
e) all the three are of the same colour
.
S.A.Q.6 The following table gives a distribution of wages of 1,000 workers:
Wages (in
Rs.)
120 140 140 160 160 180 180 200 200 220 220 240 240 260
No. of
workers
9 118 478 200 142 35 18
An individual is selected at random from the above group. What is the
probability that his wages are (i) under Rs. 160 (ii) above Rs. 200, (iii)
between Rs. 169 to 200 ?
S.A.Q. 7 Let a sample space be S = {a
1
, a
2
, a
3
}. Which of the following
defines probability space on S?
i) ( ) ,
4
1
a P
1
= ( ) ,
3
1
a P
2
= ( ) .
2
1
a P
3
=
ii) ( ) ,
3
2
a P
1
= ( ) ,
3
1
a P
2
= ( ) .
3
2
a P
3
=
iii) ( ) , 0 a P
1
= ( ) ,
3
1
a P
2
= ( )
3
2
a P
3
=
S.A.Q. 8 Out of numbers 1 to 100, one is selected at random. What is the
probability that it is divisible by 4 or 5?
S.A.Q. 9 The chance of an accident in a factory in a year is 1 in 5 in Bomay,
2 in 20 in Poona, 10 in 120 in Nagpur. Find the chances that a accident may
happen in (i) at least one of them (ii) all of them.
S.A.Q. 10 A person is known to hit a target in 3 out of 5 shots, whereas
another person is known to hit in 2 out of 3 shots. Find the probability that
the target being hit in all when they both try.
S.A.Q. 11 A six faced dice is biased that is twice as likely to show an even
number as an odd number when it is thrown. What is the probability that the
sum of the two numbers is even ?
S.A.Q. 12 The odd in favour of one student passing a test are 3 : 6. The
odds against another student passing at are 3:5. What are odds that (i) both
pass, (ii) both fail ?
S.A.Q. 13 If two dice are thrown, what is the probability that the sum is (a)
greater than 8, and (b) neither 7 or 11 ?
S.A.Q. 14 Let A and B two events such that ( ) ( ) .
8
5
B P and
4
3
A P = =
Show that i) ( )
4
3
B A P >
ii) ( )
8
5
B A P
8
3
s s
S.A.Q. 15 From a group of children, 5 boys and 3 girls, three children are
selected at random. Calculate the probabilities that the selected group
contain i) no girl, ii) only one girl, iii) one particular girl, (iv) at least one girl,
and v) more girls than boys.
S.A.Q. 16 According to the census Bureau, deaths in the United States
occur at a rate of 2, 425,000 per year. The National Centre for Health
statistics reported that the three leading causes of death during 1997 were
heart disease (725, 790), cancer (537, 390) and stroke (159, 877). Let H, c
and o represent the events that a person dies of heart disease, cancer and
stroke, respectively.
a) Use the data to estimate P(H), P(C) and P(S).
b) Are the events H and C mutually exclusive. Find ( ). C H P
c) What is the probability that a person dies from heart disease or cancer?
d) What is the probability that a person dies from cancer or a stroke?
e) Find the probability that someone dies from a cause other than one of
these three.
12.6 Conditional Probability and Independence of Events
Let us consider a class having both boys and girls. Suppose a girl is
selected. What is the probability that the selected girl gets a first class? The
required probability is the probability of B (getting a first class) given that
A(The selected student is a girl) has already happened. Such a probability is
called conditional probability.
Definition 12.12 Let A and B be two events in the same sample space and
P(B) > 0. Then the conditional probability P(A/B) is the probability for A to
happen given that B has already happened.
The following theorem gives us a method of finding the conditional probability.
Theorem 12.2 (Multiplicative law for probability and conditional probability)
For any two events A and B,
( ) ( ) ( ), B / A P B P B A P = provided P(B) > 0.
= P(A) P(B/A), provided P(A) > 0.
Proof Let the total number of outcomes be N. Let n
A
, n
B
, n
AB
denote the
number of outcomes favourable to the events A, B and B A respectively.
Then ( ) ( )
N
n
B P ,
N
n
A P
B A
= = and ( ) .
N
n
B A P
AB
= Let us calculate P(A/B)
using the classical approach. As B has already happened, the total number
of outcomes is n
B
. The number of outcomes favourable to A given B is the
number of outcomes favourable to . B A Hence
( )
B
AB
n
n
B / A P =

N
n
N
n
B
AB
=

( )
( ) B P
B A P
=
So ( ) ( ) ( ) B / A P B P B A P = proving the first identity. The second identity
can be proved similarly.
Example 12.11 The following table shows the distribution of blood types in a
state in India
A B AB O
Rh+ 33% 11% 4% 42%
Rh- 3% 2% 2% 3%
Find the following probabilities
a) The probability that a person has type O blood.
b) The probability that a person is Rh-
c) The probability that a married couple are both Rh+
d) The probability that a married couple have type AB blood
e) The probability that a person has type B blood given that the person is
Rh-
f) The probability that a person has type B blood given that the person is
Rh+
Solution Let A, B, AB, O, Rh+ and Rh- denote the events that a person has
type A blood etc.
a) ( ) ( ) ( ) 36 . 0 33 . 0 33 . 0 Rh O P Rh O P O P = + = + + =
b) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) + + = Rh PO Rh AB P Rh B P Rh A P Rh P ) (
= 0.03 + 0.02 + 0.02 + 0.03 = 0.10
c) P (Married couple are both Rh+)
= P[(husband is Rh+) (wife is Rh+)]
= [P (husband is Rh+)][ P(wife is Rh+) ]assuming independent.
= [1 P (Rh )] [1 P(Rh )]
= (0.9) (0.9) = 0.81
d) P(a couple have AB)
= P(husband has AB) P(wife has AB)
= (0.04 + 0.02) (0.04 + 0.02)
= 0.0036
e) ( )
( )
( )
3 . 0
10 . 0
03 . 0
Rh P
Rh O P
Rh / O P = =

=
f) ( )
( )
( )
122 . 0
90 . 0
11 . 0
Rh P
Rh B P
Rh / B P = =
+
+
= +
Let A be the event that it rains heavily in Sikkim and B be the event that you
will score a first class in Bio informatics. Obviously the events A and B have
no dependence among themselves. We formulate this in the following
definition.
Definition: Two events A and B are independent if the occurrence or non
occurrence of one does not affect the occurrence of the other. This happen
when
( ) ( ) A P B / A P = and ( ) ( ) B P A / B P = .. (12.7)
Note: We know that ( )
( )
( ) B P
B A P
B / A P

=
P(A/B) = P(A), ( as P(A B) = P(A) P(B))
Also, ( )
( )
( )
( ) B P
A P
B A P
A / B P =
= when ( ) ( ) ( ) B P . A P B A P =
So P(A/B) = P(A) implies P(B/A) = P(B)
So we note the following
A and B are independent if P(A B) = P(A) P(B) (12.8)
So (12.8) can be taken as the working definition of independence of two
events.
Example: A bag has 20 blue balls and 10 green balls. Two balls are taken
from the bag one after the other. Find the probability that both are blue if.
i) The first ball is not replaced before taking out the second ball
ii) The first ball is replaced before taking out the second

Solution Let A denote the event that the first ball is blue and B be the event
that the second ball is blue. So we have to find P(A B)
As the bag has 20 blue balls and the total number of balls is 30,
( )
( )
( ) 3
2
30
20
1 , 30 C
1 , 20 C
A P = = =
i) When the first ball is not replaced and the second ball is taken out there
are 19 balls. So
( )
( )
( ) 29
19
1 , 29
1 , 20
= =
C
C
A P
So P(A B) = P(B/A) P(A) (By theorem 12.2)

3
2
.
29
19
=

87
38
=
ii) When the first ball is replaced before the second ball is taken out, there
are 20 blue balls and 30 balls in all before the second choice
So ( )
( )
( ) 30
20
1 , 30 C
1 , 20 C
A / B P = =
So ( ) ( ) ( )
9
4
30
20
.
30
20
A P A / B P B A P = = =
Note in the above example, A and B are not independent in (i) but
independent in (ii)
Example 12.13 If A and B are independent show that
a) B and A are independent
b) B and A are independent
Solution As A and B are independent
( ) ( ) ( ) B P A P B A P =
We know that ( ) ( ) B A B A A = and the union is disjoint. Hence
( ) ( ) ( ) B A P B A P A P + =
( ) ( ) ( ) B A P A P B A P =
( ) ( ) ( ) O ( B P A P A P = A and B are independent)
= P(A) [1 P(B)]
( ) ( ) B P A P = (by property 12.2)
Hence A and B are independent
b) ( ) ( ) law s Morgan De by B A B A B A P B A P ' ) ( = = O
= 1 P (A B)
= 1 [P(A) + P(B) P(A B)] (by Addition theorem)
= 1 [P(A) + P(B) P(A) P(B)] (since A and B are independent)
= 1 P(A) P(B) + P(A) P(B)
= 1 P(A) P(B) [1 P(A)]
= [1 P(A)] [1 P(B)]
( ) ( ) B P A P =
Hence B and A are independent.
Example: One third of the students in a class are girls and the rest are
boys. The probability that a girl gets a first class is 0.4 and that of a boy is
0.3. If a student having first class is selected, find the probability that the
student is a girl.
Solution: Let A, B and C denote the event that a student is a boy, a girl and
a student having first class. We are given the following
( ) ,
3
2
A P = ( ) ,
3
1
B P = ( ) ( )
10
4
B / C P and
10
3
A / C P = =
So ( ) ( ) ( ) .
5
1
3
2
.
10
3
/ = = = A P A C P C A P Similarly ( )
30
4
B C P =
( ) ( ) ( ) B A C P C P = since 5 B A =
= P((C A) (C B)) by Demorgans law
= P(C A) + P(C B) by Addition theorem

30
13
30
4
10
3
= + =
We are required to find P(B/C)
( )
( ) 13
4
30
13
30
4
)
) / ( = =
=
C P
C B P
C B P
Example: The probability that a 60 year old man to be alive for 5 years is
0.80 and the same probability for a 55 year old woman is 0.85. Find the
probability that a couple of ages 60 and 50 respectively will be alive for the
next 5 years.
Solution: We assume that the age expectation of the couple are
independent. Let A, B denote the probability that the husband and wife will
be alive for the next 5 years.
P(both will be alive for next 5 years)
= P(A B)
= P(A) P(B)
= (0.80) (0.85)
= 0.68
We can extend the concept of independence to more than two events.
Definition: Three events A, B and C are mutually independent if the
occurrence or non occurrence of any one of the events does not affect the
occurrence of other events.
Note: When A, B, C are mutually independent then A and B are
independent etc. So the working definition of 3 mutually independent events
A, B, C can be given as follows.
A, B, C are mutually independent if
P(A B) = P(A) P(B), P(B C) = P(B) P(C),
P(C A) = P(C) P(A) and
P(A B C) = P(A) P(B) P(C) .. (12.9)
Example: A difficult problem is given to the students of 1
st
, 2
nd
and 3
rd
rank
by a professor. The probability that these students solve the problem are
5
2
,
2
1
,
4
3
respectively. Find the probability that the problem is solved.
Solution Let A denote the event that A solves the problem etc. Let us find
the probability that the problem is not solved by any of them (Assume
independence of A, B, C and hence ) C and B , A
Then ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) C P B P A P C B A P =
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
5
2
1
2
1
1
4
3
1
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
5
3
2
1
4
1

40
3
=
Probability that the problem is solved = ( ) ( ) C B A P 1 C B A P =
( ) C B A P 1 =

law s ' Morgan De by
C B A C B A = O

40
3
1 =

40
37
=

S.A.Q. 17 If P(A) = 0.25, P(B/A) = 0.5 and P(A/B) = 0.25 find
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) B A P and B A P , B A P , B A P , B A P , B A P
S.A.Q. 18 An article consists of two parts A and B. The probabilities of
defect in A and B are 0.08 and 0.04. What is the probability that the
assembled part will not have any defect?
S.A.Q. 19 From a bag containing 3 red and 4 black balls two balls are drawn
in succession without replacement. Find the probability that both the balls
are (i) red (ii) black (iii) of the same colour.

12.7 Bayes theorem
We have seen that subjective probability is used when some event may
happen only once or a few times. But after assuming subjective probability
we may get some new information. This information can be used to revise
the subjective probability. Bayes theorem is used for revising probability on
the basis of new information.
Reverend Thomas Bayes (1702 1761), a Christian Priest, enunciated
Bayes theorem which has significant applications in many areas of
business administration especially marketing.
Theorem (Bayes theorem)
If E
1
, E
2
, , E
n
are mutually exclusive events with P(E
i
) > 0, i = 1, 2, .. n
then for any arbitrary event A which is a subset of
Y
n
1 i
i
E
such that P(A) > 0,

we have
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
=
=
n
1 i
i i
i i
i
E / A P E P
E / A P E P
A / E P
Note: P(E
1
). , P(E
n
) are called a priori or prior probabilities. A denotes
some new information. Then we revise the probabilities P(E
i
) as P(E
i
/A). The
revised probabilities are called posteriori probabilities.
This process is illustrated in Fig. 12.6

Figure 12.6 Prior and posterior probabilities
Example: A company has three plants A, B and C manufacturing the same
spare part in the ratio 30:45:25. The percentage of defective parts in the
plants are 3%, 2% and 5% respectively. A part is chosen at random and
found to be defective. What is the probability that it is manufactured by
plants A, B or C ?
Solution Let A, B, C denote the event that it is manufactured in plants A, B
and C respectively.
Let P(D) be the probability that a spare part is defective. Given
P(A) = 0.3 P(B) = 0.45, P(C) = 0.25
P(D/A) = 0.03 P(D/B) = 0.02 P(D/C) = 0.05
Probability that the chosen defective part is manufactured by plant
A = P(A/D)

( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) C / D P C P B / D P B P A / D P A P
A / D P A P
+ +
=

( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 05 . 0 25 . 0 02 . 0 45 . 0 03 . 0 3 . 0
03 . 0 3 . 0
+ +
=
Prior
Probabilities
New
information
Application
of Bayes
Theorem
Posterior
Probabilities
= 0.295

Similarly,
P(B/D) = 0.295
P(C/D) = 0.410
Example: A physician believes that the people in a particular region are
prone to diseases A and B. He estimates that P(A) = 0.6 and P(B) = 0.4.
The diseases have symptoms S
1
, S
2
and S
3
. Given that the patient has the
diseases, the probabilities for him to have symptoms S
1
, S
2
and S
3
are given
in the following table.
Disease
Symptoms
S
1
S
2
S
3

A 0.15 0.10 0.15
B 0.80 0.15 0.03

If a patient has symptom S
1
, find the probability that he has disease A.
Solution We are given that
P(A) = 0.6 P(B) = 0.4
P(S
1
/A) = 0.15 P(S
2
/A) = 0.10 P(S
3
/A) = 0.15
P(S
1
/B) = 0.80 P(S
2
/B) = 0.15 P(S
3
/B) = 0.03
The required probability
= P(A/S
1
)
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) B / S P B P A / S P A P
A / S P A P
1 1
1
+
=
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 80 . 0 4 . 0 15 . 0 6 . 0
15 . 0 6 . 0
+
=
= 0.738

S.A.Q.20 The contents of vessels I, II and III are as follows:
1. white, 2 black and 1 red balls
2. white, 1 black and 1 red balls, and
4. white, 5 black and 3 red balls.
One vessel is chosen at random and two balls are drawn. They happen to
be white and red. What is the probability that they come from vessels I, II or
III ?
S.A.Q. 21 A company has three machines M
1
, M
2
, M
3
which produces 20%,
30% and 50% of the products respectively. Their respective defective
percentages are 7, 3 and 5. From these products one is chosen and
inspected. It is defective. What is the probability that it has been made by
machine M
2
?

12.8 Summary
In this unit we discussed about the concept of probability. The different basic
term of probability is well defined with examples. Different types of
probability, Bayes theorem and its application is discussed with clear cut
examples.

1. Five persons are selected from a group of 8 men, 6 women and 6
children. Find the probability that 3 of the 5 persons selected are
children.
2. A bag contains 5 white, 6 black and 3 green balls. Find the probability
that a ball drawn at random is white or green.
3. Find the probability of getting (i) only one head and (ii) at least 4 heads
in six tosses of an unbiased coin.
4. Find the chance of getting more than 15 in rolling three dice
5. A five-digit number is formed from the digits 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, no repetition
being allowed. Find the probability that the number is (i) odd (ii) even.
6. A sample space has 5 elementary events E
1
, E
2
, E
3
, E
4
, E
5
. If P(E
3
) =
0.4, P(E
4
) = 2, P(E
5
) and P(E
1
) = P(E
2
) = 0.15, determine P(E
4
), P(E
5
),
P({E
4
, E
5
}), P({E
1
, E
2
, E
3
})
7. A problem is probability is given to three students A, B and C. The
probabilities that they solve the problem are
4
1
,
3
1
,
2
1
respectively. Find
the probabilities that
i) A alone solves the problem
ii) Just two of them solve the problem
iii) The problem is solved
(Mention the assumptions you make in solving the problem).
8. A large company dumps its chemical waste in a local river. The
probability that either a fish or an animal dies on drinking the water is
.
21
11
The probability that only a fish dies is
3
1
and the probability that
only an animal dies in .
7
2
What is the probability, (i) that both will dies ?
(ii) none of them will die ?
9. In a college, the percentage of students reading the new Indian Express,
Deccan Herald and both are 20%, 30% and 15%. Find the probability
that a student of the college
i) reads at least one newspaper
ii) reads none of them
iii) reads only Deccan Herald
10. A team of 6 students is to be selected from a class consisting of 7 boys
and 4 girls. Find the probability that the team consists of a) exactly two
girls b) at least 2 girls.
11. 40 candidates appeared for examination in Papers A and B. 16 students
passed in paper A, 14 passed in Paper B and 16 failed in both. If one
student is selected at random what is the probability that he
a) passed in both papers
b) failed only in A
c) failed in A or B
12. In a town, only 80% of the children born reach the age of 15 and only
85% of them reach the age of 30. 2.5% of persons aged 30 die in one
year. What is the probability that a person will reach the age of 31.
13. If A, B, C are mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive and 2 P(C)
= 3P (A) = 6P(B) find P(A), P(B), P(C).
14. Two vessels contain 20 white, 12 red and 18 black balls; 6 white, 14 red
and 30 black balls respectively. One ball is taken out from each vessel.
Find the probability that a) both are red b) both are of the same colour
15. The probability that a candidate passes in Biostatistics is 0.6 and that
the probability that he passes in Genetics 50.5. What is the probability
that he passes in only one of the papers ? (Mention the assumption you
make).
16. The following table gives the frequency distribution of 50 professors
according to age and their salaries.

Age in
years
Salary
10000 15000 15000 20000 20000 25000 25000 30000
20 30 16 6
30 40 4 10 4 4
40 50 4 18 12
50 60 12 10

If a professor is chosen at random find the probability that
a) he is in the age group 30 40 years and earns more than 20,000
b) he earns in the range 15000 20000 and less than 40 years old.
17. In a class of 20 boys and 40 girls, half the boys and half the girls have
two wheelers. Find the probability that a randomly selected student is
a boy or has a two wheeler.
18. Three fair (unbiased) coins are tossed. If the first coin shows a head find
the probability of getting all heads.
19. If ( ) ( ) ( )
2
1
B A P and
4
1
B P ,
3
1
A P = = = find P B/A and P(A/B).
20. If ( ) ( ) ,
6
1
B / A ( P ,
2
1
B P ,
3
1
A P = = = find P(B/A) and P(B/A).
21. The records of 400 examinees are given below.
Score
Educational Qualification
B.A. B.Sc B.Com Total
Below 50 90 30 60 180
Between 50 & 60 20 70 70 160
Above 60 10 30 20 60
Total 120 130 150 400

If an examinee is selected from this group find
i) The probability that he is a commerce graduate
ii) The probability that he is a science graduate given that his score is
above 60
iii) The probability that his score is below 50 given that he is a B.A
graduate.
22. There are 3 boxes containing respectively 1 white, 2 red, 3 black balls; 2
white, 3 red, 1 black ball; 3 white, 1 red and 2 black b alls. A box is
chosen at random and from it two balls are drawn at random. The two
balls are 1 red and 1 white. What is the probability that they come from
(i) the first box (ii) second box (iii) third box?
23. An item is manufactured by three machines M
1
, M
2
and M
3
. Out of the
total manufactured during a specified production period, 50% are
manufactured on M
1
, 30% on M
2
and 20% on M
3
.
It is also known that 2% of the item produced by M
1
and M
2
are
defective, white 3% of those manufactured by M
3
are defective. All the
items are put into one bin. From the bin, one item is drawn at random
and is found to be defective. What is the probability that it was made on
M
1
, M
2
or M
3
.

12.10 Answers
1. a) {TTT, HHT, HTH, THH}
b) {WLWLW, LWLWL}
c) {13, 22, 31, 46, 55, 64}
d) {WLL, LWL, LLW, WWL, WLW, LWW, WWW}
2.
( ) ( )
( ) 20
7
2 , 16 C
1 , 7 C 1 , 6 C
=
3.
17
7

4. The sum 13 can be obtained from the pairs (3, 10), (5, 8), (7, 6), (9, 4).
The total number of pairs that can be chosen is 9(5) = 45.
5. Answer:
45
4

a)
( )
( ) 14
3
3 , 16 C
3 , 10 C
=
b)
( )
( ) 28
1
3 , 16 C
3 , 6 C
=
c)
( ) ( )
( ) 56
27
3 , 16
1 , 6 2 , 10
=
C
C C

d)
56
15

e)
4
1
28
1
14
3
= +
6. Total number of workers = 1000. (i) 0.127 (ii) 0.195 (iii) 0.596
7. i) As P(S) = P(a1) + P(a2) + P(a3) = 1, answer is No.
ii) As ( ) No ,
3
1
a P
3

=
iii) P(S) = 1; Yes
8. Let A and B denote divisibility by 4, 5. Outcomes favourable to A are 4,
8, , 100. So P(A) = 0.25. Similarly P(B) = 0.2 and P(A B) = 0.05.
Answer: 0.4
9. i) Prob (accident occurs in none of them)
( ) .
50
33
12
11
,
10
9
,
5
4
C B A P = = =
Answer:
50
17

ii) ( )
600
1
C B A P =
10. Assume independence. (In case of independence, P(A B) = P(A)
P(B). See later sections).
Answer:
15
13

11. Let P (odd number) = a. Treat the die as a coin showing even or odd.
Then 2a + a = 1 or .
3
1
a = Prob (sum is even = Prob (both are even) +
Prob (both are odd) = .
9
5
3
1
.
3
1
3
2
.
3
2
= +
12. ( ) .
3
1
6 3
3
A P =
+
= For the second, odds for passing are 5 : 3. So
( ) .
8
5
B P = Assume independence i)
24
5
8
5
.
3
1
= ii)
4
1
8
3
.
3
2
= .
13. a) Favourable outcomes are: 36, 45, 54, 63, 46, 55, 64, 56, 65,
66.
Answer: .
18
5

b) ( ) ( ) ( ) .
18
1
6
1
11 P 7 P 11 or 7 P + = + = Answer: .
9
7

14. As ( ) ( ), B A P A P s (i) follows. ( ) ( ) .
8
5
B P B A P = s
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 1
8
5
4
3
B A P B P A P B A P + > + =
(since P(A B) < 1 and so P (A B) > 1). So (ii) follows.
15. (i)
( )
( ) 28
5
3 , 8 C
2 , 5 C
=
(ii)
( ) ( )
( ) 28
15
3 , 8 C
2 , 5 1 , 3 C
=
(iii)
( )
( ) 8
3
3 , 8
2 , 7 C
=
(iv)
28
23
28
5
1 =
(v)
7
2
56
15
56
1
= +
16. a) ( ) ( ) ( )
2425000
159877
S P
2425000
537390
C P
000 , 425 , 2
725790
H P = = =
b) Yes. They are also independence. Answer: P(H) P(C)
c) P(H) + P(C)
d) P(C) + P(S)
e) P(H C S) = P(H) + P(C) + P(S) P(H) P(C) P(C) P(S) P(H)
P(S) + P(H) P(C) P(S). (We assume independence of H, C, S)
17. P(A B) = 0.125, P(B) = 0.5,
So P(A B) = 0.25 + 0.5 0.125 = 0.625.
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 875 . 0 B A P 1 B A P . 375 . 0 B A P 1 B A P = = = =
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) . 375 . 0 B A P B P B P B A P = =
( ) ( ) ( ) 125 . 0 B A P A P B A P = =
18. Let x, y be the events that A and B do not have any defect respectively.
P(x) = 0.92 and P(y) = 0.96. Assuming independence, the answer is
(0.92) (0.96) = 0.8832.
19. Let A and B denote the events that the ball is red in first and second
attempt (i) ( ) ( ) ( )
7
1
6
2
.
7
3
A / B P A P B A P = = = (ii)
7
2
(iii)
7
3
7
2
7
1
= +
20. P(E1) = P(E2) = P(E3) = 1
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
118
33
A / E P
11
2
E / A P
3
1
E / A P
5
1
E / A P
1 3 2 1
= = = =
( )
118
55
/
2
= A E P So ( )
. 118
30
118
55
118
33
1 A / E P
3
= =
21. Answer:
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( ) ( )
1875 . 0
05 . 0 5 . 0 03 . 0 3 . 0 07 . 0 2 . 0
3 . 0 3 . 0
=
+ +


Terminal Questions
1.
( ) ( )
( ) 3876
455
5 , 20 C
2 , 14 C 3 , 6 C
=
2.
7
4

3. One head can appear in 6 ways.
(i)
32
3
(ii)
( ) ( ) ( )
32
11
64
6 , 6 C 5 , 6 C 4 , 6 C
=
+ +

4. We should get a sum of 16, 17, 18. Answer: .
108
5

5. An odd number ends in 3 or 5. Number of favourable outcomes is 2(4!).
Answer:
( )
5
3
;
5
2
! 5
! 4 2
=
6. Let P(E
5
) = x. Then 0.15 + 0.15 + 0.4 + 2x + x = 1. Hence x = 0.1
Answers: 0.2, 0.1, 0.3, 0.7
7. a) ( )
4
1
C B A P =
b) ( ) ( ) ( )
12
5
C B A P C B A P C B A P = + +
c) ( ) .
4
1
C B A P = ( )
4
3
C B A P =
8. Given that ( ) ( ) ( ) ,
7
2
A P and
3
1
F P ,
21
11
A F P = = = use addition
theorem,
i) ( )
21
2
A F P = ii) ( )
21
19
21
2
1 A F P = =
9. Given that P(A) = 0.2, P(B) = 0.3 and P(A B) = 0.15
(i) P(A B) = 0.35
(ii) ( ) 65 . 0 B A P =
(iii) ( ) 15 . 0 = B A P
10. a)
11
5

b)
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) 66
53
6 , 11 C
2 , 7 C 4 , 4 c 3 , 7 C 3 , 4 c 4 , 7 C 2 , 4 C
=
+ +

11. Given that ( ) ( ) ( ) .
40
24
B A P , So and
40
14
B P ,
40
16
A P = = =
a)
20
3
b) ( )
5
1
B A P = c) ( )
20
17
B A P =
12. P (Fifteen) = 0.8, P (thirty/ Fifteen) = 0.85 and P (thirty one/ thirty) =
0.975.
Answer: (0.8) (0.85) (0.975) = 0.663
13. ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) A P
2
3
A P
2
1
A P C P B P A P 1 + + = + + =
So, ( ) ,
3
1
A P = ( ) ,
6
1
B P = ( ) .
2
1
C P =
14. a)
625
42
50
14
.
50
12
=
b)
625
207
50
30
.
50
18
50
6
.
50
20
50
14
.
50
12
= + +
15. Assume independence of B and G. Answer:
( ) ( ) 5 . 0 G B P G B P = +
16. Total number of professors = 100
a) ( ) 08 . 0
100
4
4 = + b) 0.16
17. Given that ( ) ( ) ( )
2
1
W P ,
6
1
60
10
W B P ,
3
1
B P = = = =
Answer: ( )
3
2
W B P =
18. Let A denote getting H is the first toss and B denote getting H in second
and third tosses.
Answer: ( ) ( ) ( )
4
1
2
1
8
1
A P / B A P A / B P = = =
19. ( )
12
1
B A P = ( )
4
1
A / B P = and ( )
3
1
B / A P =
20. ( )
12
1
B A P =
( ) ( ) ( )
4
1
3
1
12
1
A P / B A P A / B P = = =
( ) ( ) ( )
12
5
12
1
2
1
= = = A B P B P A B P
( ) ( )
8
5
3
2
12
5
A P
12
5
A / B P = = =
21. (i)
8
3
(ii) ( )
2
1
60 Score / S P = > (iii) ( )
4
3
A / 50 Score P = <
22. ( ) ( ) ( )
3
1
E P E P E P
3 2 1
= = =
( )
15
2
E / A P
1
= ( )
15
6
E / A P
2
=
( )
15
3
E / A P
3
=
( ) ,
11
2
A / E P
1
= ( )
11
6
A / E P
2
= Hence ( )
11
3
A / E P
3
=
23. P(E
1
) = 0.5 P(E
2
) = 0.3 P(E
3
) = 0.2 P(A/E
1
) = 0.02 etc
P(E
1
/A) = 0.454, P(E
2
/A) = 0.273, P(E
3
/A) = 0.273

Unit 13 Basic Statistics
Structure
13.1 Introduction
Objectives
13.2 Measures of Central Tendency
13.3 Standard Deviation
13.4 Discrete Series
13.5 Methods: Deviation taken from Assumed Mean
13.6 Continuous Series
13.7 Combined Standard Deviation
13.8 Coefficient of Variation
13.9 Variance
13.10 Summary
13.12 Answers

13.1 Introduction
In this unit we discuss some of the concepts of Basic Statistics. The single
value, which is representative of a set of values, may be used to give an
indication of the general size of the members in a set, the word average
often being used to indicate the single value. The Statistical term used for
average is the arithmetic mean or just the mean. Other measures of central
tendency may be used and these include the median and the modal values.
The standard deviation of a set of data gives an indication of the amount of
dispersion, or the scatter, of members of the set from the measure of central
tendency.

Objectives
At the end of the unit you would be able to understand
- the concept of central tendency and its applications
- how to calculate standard deviation and variation of a given set of data.

13.2 Measures of central tendency
Measures of central tendency
This chapter is devoted to different measures used to summarize the data.
Different measures discussed are Mean, Median and Mode. Along with
these three fundamental and trivial measures, two other measures,
Geometric Mean, Harmonic Mean are clearly introduced. Definition, method
of computation, Interpretation and uses form the structure of the explanation
for each measure.
Generally, in a frequency distribution, the values cluster around a central
value. This property of concentration of the values around a central value is
called Central Tendency. The central value around which there is
concentration is called measure of central tendency (measure of location,
average).
Generally, a simple comparison of frequency distribution is made by
comparing their measures of central tendency.
For a frequency distribution, five important measures of central tendency are
defined.
They are:
1. Arithmetic Mean (A.M.)
2. Median
3. Mode
4. Geometric Mean (G.M.)
5. Harmonic Mean (H.M.)
Depending upon the need and nature of study, proper measure is chosen.
However, a measure of central tendency is considered to be good if it has
some of the following qualities:
Desired qualities of an ideal measure of central tendency.
1. It should be easy to understand. Its computation procedure should be
simple
2. It should be rigidly defined
3. It should be based on all the values
4 It should not be affected too much by abnormal extreme values
5. It should be capable of further algebraic treatment so that it could be
used in further analysis of the data
6. It should be stable. That is, the measure should be such that sampling
variation in the value of the measure should be least.
Arithmetic Mean (Mean)
Arithmetic mean of a set of values is obtained by dividing the sum of the
values by the number of values in the set. Arithmetic mean of the values
is x , .......... , x , x
n 2 1

n
x
n
x ....... x x
x
n 2 1

=
+ + +
=
If the observations
n 2 1
x , .......... , x , x have frequencies , f . .......... , f , f
n 2 1

the arithmetic mean is
N
fx
f ......... f f
x f ....... x f x f
x
n 2 1
n n 2 2 1 1

=
+ + +
+ +
=
(for discrete frequency distribution)
Where N = Ef is the total frequency.
Thus, for a raw data, the arithmetic mean is

n
x
x

=
For a tabulated data (discrete or continuous), it is
N
fx
x

=
Example 1: Heights of six students are 163, 173, 168, 156, 162 and 165
cms. Find the arithmetic mean.
Solution: The arithmetic mean of the heights is

6
165 162 156 168 173 163
n
x
x
+ + + + +
= =

. cms 5 . 164
6
987
= =
Example 2: In a one-day cricket match, a bowler bowls 8 overs. He gives
away 3, 5, 12, 0, 4, 1, 3 and 7 runs in these overs. Find the mean run rate
per over.
Solution: The mean run rate is

n
x
x

= =
values of Number
values of Sum

8
7 3 1 4 0 12 5 3 + + + + + + +
=
375 . 4
8
35
= = runs per over.
Example 3: In an office there are 84 employees. Their salaries are as given
below:
Salary
(Rs.)
2430 2590 2870 3390 4720 5160
Employees 4 28 31 16 3 2

i) Find the mean salary of the employees
ii) What is the total salary of the employees ?

Solution:
Salary (Rs.)
(x)
Employees
(f)
fx
2430
2590
2870
3390
4720
5160
Total
4
28
31
16
3
2
84
9720
72520
88970
54240
14160
10320
249930

(i) The mean salary of the employees is
36 . 2975 . Rs
84
249930
N
fx
x = = =

(ii) Total salary of the employees is
E fx = Rs. 249930.
Example 4: A survey of 128 smokers revealed the following frequency
distribution of daily expenditure on smoking of these smokers. Find the
mean daily expenditure
Expenditure (Rs.) 10 20 20 30 30 40 40 50 50 60 60 70 70 80
No. of smokers 23 44 35 12 9 3 2

Solution:
Expenditure
(Rs.)
Frequency (f) Mid-value (x) fx
10 20
20 30
30 40
40 50
50 60
60 70
70 80
23
44
35
12
9
3
2
15
25
35
45
55
65
75
345
1100
1255
540
495
195
150
Total 128 - 4050

The mean is
64 . 31 . Rs
128
4050
N
fx
x = = =

The mean daily expenditure is Rs. 31.64.
Change of Origin and Scale
Let x
1
, x
2
, ., x
n
be n values. Let a be a constant. Then x
1
a, x
2
a,
.., x
n
a are the values of x
1
, x
2
,.. x
n
with origin shifted to a. If c
is a positive constant,

c
a x
c
a x
c
a x
n

., ,......... ,
2 1

are the values x
1
, x
2
, ., x
n
with origin shifted to a and scale changed
by c. Thus,
c
a x
u

= is the variable x with origin shifted to a and scale
changed by c.
Here
c
a x
u

= therefore, x = a + cu
And so,
N
fu c
a u c a x

+ = + =
However, if c = 1,
n
u
a u a x

+ = + =
Deviations: Let x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, .., x
n
be n values. Let a be a constant. Then
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) a x ,....., a x , a x , a x
n 3 2 1
are the deviations of the values from
the constant a. The squares of these deviations, namely,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
3
2
2
2
1
, ,......... , , a x a x a x a x
n
are the squared deviations of
the values.
Thus, ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) x x , .......... , x x , x x , x x
n 3 2 1
are the deviations from the
arithmetic mean.
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
n
2
3
2
2
2
1
x x , .......... , x x , x x , x x are the squared deviations
from the arithmetic mean. The deviations may be positive, negative or zero.
But, the squared deviations will never be negative.
Properties of Arithmetic Mean:
Arithmetic mean has the following important properties:
1. Algebraic sum of the deviations of a set of values from their arithmetic
mean is zero
That is, ( )
= 0 x x
2. Sum of the squared deviations of a set of values is minimum when
deviations are taken around the arithmetic mean.
3. Let
1
x be the arithmetic mean of a set of n
1
values. And let
2
x , be the
arithmetic mean of another set of n
2
values. Then, the arithmetic
mean of the two sets of values put together is

2 1
2 2 1 1
n n
x n x n
x
+
+
= (combined arithmetic mean)
Example 5: The mean of marks scored by 30 girls of a class is 44%. The
mean for 50 boys is 42%. Find the mean for the whole class.
Solution: Here %. 42 x and % 44 x , 50 n , 30 n
2 1 2 1
= = = = The combined
arithmetic mean is
2 1
2 2 1 1
n n
x n x n
x
+
+
=
% 75 . 42
80
2100 1230
50 30
42 50 44 30
=
+
=
+
+
=
Example 6: Average (mean) weight of a type of screws is 10.4 gms. A
packet of 100 such screws is mixed with another packet of 150 screws of
another type. In the mixture, average weight is found to be 10.9 gms. Find
the average weight of the second packet of screws.
Solution:
Here . gms 9 . 10 x and . gms 4 . 10 x , 150 n , 100 n
1 2 1
= = = =
The mean weight of the second set of screws ( )
2
x can be calculated by
using the relation.

2 1
2 2 1 1
n n
x n x n
x
+
+
=

150 100
x 150 4 . 10 100
9 . 10
2
+
+
=

250
x 150 1040
9 . 10
2
+
=
Therefore, ( ) 1685 1040 250 9 . 10 x 150
2
= =
And so, . gms 23 . 11
150
1685
x
2
= =
Thus, the mean weight of screws in the second packet is . gms 23 . 11 x
2
=
Merits of arithmetic mean:
1. It is rigidly defined
2. The logic behind its computation can be easily understood. It can be
easily computed.
3. It can be easily adopted for further statistical analysis
4. It is based on all the values
5. It is more stable than any other average
6. It can be calculated even when some of values are equal to zero or
negative.
Demerits of arithmetic mean:
1. It is highly affected by abnormal extreme values
2. Since it is based on all the values, even if one of the values is missing, it
cannot be calculated.
3. Sometimes, the arithmetic mean may be a value which is not assumed
by the variable.
Median
Median of a set of values is the middle most value when they are arranged
in the ascending order of magnitude. (Such an arrangement is called an
array). It is a value that is greater than half of the values and lesser than the
remaining half. The median is denoted by M.
In the case of a raw data and also a discrete frequency distribution, the
mean is-

( )
th
2
1 n
M
)
`
+
= value in the arrayed series
In the case of a continuous frequency distribution, the median is

(
(
(
(

|
.
|
\
|

+ =
f
c m
N
I M
2

Where I : lower limit of the median class
c : width of the median class
f : frequency of the mean class.
m : less-than cumulative frequency up to/ (cumulative
frequency corresponding to the class preceding the median
class)
N : Total frequency
Median class is the class which contains the median.
Example 7
The following data relates to the number of children of 25 couples. Find the
median
No. of children per couple: 2, 0, 5, 2, 5 , 1, 0, 0, 3, 4, 2, 1, 1, 2, 3, 0,
1, 2, 7, 2, 2, 1, 3, 4, 1.
Solution:
The arrayed series (ascending series) is:
0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 5,
7
Here, n =25. Therefore, median is

( )
th
2
1 n
M
)
`
+
= value in the arrayed series

( )
th
2
1 25
)
`
+
= value = 13
th
value
= 2 children per couple
Merits of median:
1. The logic behind its computation is easily understood. It can be easily
computed.
2. Even when some of the extreme values are missing, it can be
computed.
3. It is not affected by abnormal extreme values
4. It can be used for the study of qualitative data also.

Demerits of median:
1. It is not based on all the values
2. It cannot be used in deep statistical analysis.
Mode
Mode is the value which has the highest frequency. It is the most
frequently occurring value. It is denoted by Z.
In the case of raw data, and also in the case of a discrete frequency
distribution, mode is the value with highest frequency.
In the case of a continuous frequency distribution, mode is

( )
(

+ =
2 1
1
f f f 2
c f f
I Z
Where l : lower limit of the modal class
f : frequency of the modal class
c : width of the modal class
f
1
: frequency of the class preceding the modal class
f
2
: frequency of the class succeeding the modal class
Modal class is the class width containing the mode.
Generally, modal class will be the class with highest frequency. But
sometimes, it may be a class other than the class with highest
frequency. In such a situation, mode is obtained by using the formula

(
+
+ =
2 1
2
f f
cf
l Z
Most of frequency distributions have only one value with highest frequency.
Such frequency distributions are unimodal they have only one mode. On
the other hand, if in a frequency distribution, there is more than one value
with highest frequency, such a distribution is multimodal it will have more
than one mode. If there are two modes, the distribution is bimodal.
However, for a distribution which has more than one mode, it is said to be ill
defined.
Example 8:
The following are the number of children for 20 couples. Find the mode.
No. of children per couple: 2, 3, 6 , 3, 4, 0, 5, 2 , 2, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0, 4, 2, 2, 1, 1, 3
Solution:
The data should be tabulated first
No. of children
No. of couples
Tally marks Frequency
0 II 2
1 III 3
2 IIII I 6
3 IIII 4
4 III 3
5 I 1
6 I 1
Total 20

Here, the value 2 has the highest frequency.
Therefore, mode is Z = 2 children/ couple.
Example 9:
For the following distribution, find the mode
Percentage marks 10 19 20 29 30 39 40 49 50 59 60 69 70 79
No. of students
8 19 29 36 25 13 4

Solution:
Here, the class intervals are of inclusive type. Firstly, they should be
converted into the exclusive type.
Modified class Frequency
9.5 19.5
19.5 29.5
29.5 39.5
49.5 39.5
49.5 59.5
59.5 69.5
69.5 79.5
8
19
29 (f
1
)
( ) f 36
25 (f
2
)
13
4
Total 134

Modal class
Since 36 is the highest frequency and it is far higher than the other
frequencies, the class interval 39.5 49.5 is the modal class. Thus l = 39.5,
f = 36, f
1
= 29, f
2
= 25 and c = 10.
The model is

( ) ( )
(

+ =
(

+ =
25 29 36 2
10 29 36
5 . 39
f f f 2
c f f
l Z
2 1
1

% 4 . 43
18
70
5 . 39 =
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
Merits and demerits of mode
The merits and demerits of mode are the same as merits and demerits of
median. In addition, one demerit of mode can be listed. It is
For some frequency distribution, mode is ill defined.

13.3 Standard Deviation
Definition: Standard Deviation is the root mean square deviation of the
values from their arithmetic mean.
Standard Deviation is the abbreviation and o (read, sigma) is the symbol.
Mean square deviation of the value from their arithmetic mean is variance
and is denoted by o
2
. Standard Deviation is the positive square root of
variance. Karl Pearson introduced the concept of standard deviation in
1893. Standard Deviation is also called mean square deviation. It is a
mathematical deficiency of mean deviation to ignore negative sign. Standard
deviation possesses most of the desirable properties of a good measure of
dispersion. It is the most widely used absolute measure of dispersion.
The corresponding relative measure is coefficient of variation. It is very
popular and so extensively used.
100
mean Arithmatic
Deviation dard tan S
iation var of t Coefficien =
Formulae
Method
Individual
Observation
Discrete Series
Continuous Series
1.
Actual
Mean
( )
N
x x
2
E

( )
N
x x f
2
E

( )
N
x m f
2
E

2.
Direct
method
2
2
N
x
N
x
(
E E

2
2
N
fx
N
fx
(
E E

2
2
N
fm
N
fm
(
E E

3.
Assumed
mean
2
2
N
d
N
d
(
E E

2
2
N
fd
N
fd
(
E E

2
2
N
fd
N
fd
(
E E

4.
Step
Deviation
2
2
N
' d
N
' d
C
(

E E

2
2
N
' fd
N
' fd
C
(
E E

2
2
N
' fd
N
' fd
C
(

E E

Individual Observations
Method 1: Deviation taken from actual mean
Standard Deviation,
N
X
2
E
o = where . X X x = This method is simple
when X X values are integers
Steps:
1. Form a table with the given values, x in the first column
2. Find out the arithmetic mean,
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

N
x
X
3. Find out the deviation of each values from the actual mean and call it x
i.e, find . X X x = Enter those values in the next column
4. Find out the squares of the deviation of the values from the actual mean,
i.e, find x
2
. Enter those values in the next column.
5. Find out the mean of the squared deviation of the values from their
arithmetic mean i.e., find .
2
N
x
.
6. Find out the square root of
N
x
2
. It is the standard deviation.
Example 1: Consider 77, 73, 75, 70, 72, 76, 75, 72, 74, 76. Give standard
deviation for the numbers given above.


Solution:
X
74 : X
X X x =

x
2

77 3 9
73 1 1
75 1 1
70 4 16
72 2 4
76 2 4
75 1 1
72 2 4
74 0 0
76 2 4
740 x = E ( ) 0 X X = E
44 x
2
= E

Method 2: Direct Method
Without taking any deviations, the standard deviation can directly be
calculated by the formula.
Standard Deviation
2
2
N
X
N
X
(
=
E E
o
This method can be used for all kinds of data. This formula is used later for
correcting the mistakes in the calculations.

Steps:
1. Form a table with the given values, x, in the first column
2. Find the square of each X and write in the next column under the title X
2
.
3. Find the totals X E and
2
X E and N, the number of values
Arithmetic mean:
N
X
X
E
=
10
740
=
= 74

Standard Deviation
N
x
2
E
o =
=
10
44

= 4 . 4
= 2.10

4. Substitute in the above formula and simplify
Example: 2
10 students of B.Com class of a college have obtained the following marks
in statistics out of 100. Calculate the standard deviation
S. No : 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Marks : 5 10 20 25 40 42 45 48 70 80

Solutions:
S. No Marks X X
2

1 5 25
2 10 100
3 20 400
4 25 625
5 40 1600
6 42 1764
7 45 2025
8 48 2304
9 70 4900
10 80 6400
Total 385 = EX
20143
2
= EX

Method 3: Deviations taken from assumed mean
This is same as the one followed in the calculation of arithmetic mean. But
the formula is as follows:
Standard Deviation,
2
2
N
d
N
d
(
=
E E
o
d = X A is preferred when X X are fractions.
Standard Deviation
2
2
N
X
N
X
(
=
E E
o
2
10
385
10
20143
|
.
|
\
|
=
( )
2
5 . 38 20143 =
25 . 1482 30 . 2014 =
05 . 532 =
07 . 23 =

Steps:
1. Form a table with the given values, X, in the first column.
2. Assume any value as A if it is root specified in a problem. It is
preferable to assume a value in between the minimum value and the
maximum value of X as A.
3. Find out the observation of each value from the assumed mean A and
call it d. i.e., find d = X A and write them in the next column
4. Write the squares of the deviations, d
2
, in the next column
5. Find Ed and Ed
2
and identify N, the number of values substitute them in
the above formula and simplify.

Example 3:
For the data below, calculate standard deviation:
40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100
Solution:
X
d =X A
A =70
X
40 30 900
50 20 400
60 10 100
70 0 0
80 10 100
90 20 400
100 30 900
Total 0 d = E
2800 d
2
= E

Method 4 Step Deviation Method:
Standard Deviation
2
2
N
d
N
d
(
=
E E
o
2
7
0
7
2800
|
.
|
\
|
=
2
0 400 =
= 20
This is same as the one followed in the calculation of arithmetic mean. But
the formula is as follows:
Standard Deviation,
2
2
(
' E
' E
=
N
d
N
d
C o
C
A X
d

= '
This method is preferred when X X are fractions and there is common
difference between X.
Steps:
1. Form a table with the given values X, in the first column
2. Choose A and C as mentioned under Arithmetic mean
3. Find out the step deviation corresponding to each X. i.e., find
C
A X
d

= ' and write those values in the next column.
4. Write the squares of ( ) , d , e . i . d
2
' ' in the next column.
5. Find Ed and Ed
2
and identify N, the number of values. Substitute them
in the above formula and simplify.

Example 4: Given below are the marks obtained by 5 B.Sc. students
Roll No : 101 102 103 104 105
Marks : 10 30 20 25 15
Calculate Standard Deviation
Solution:
Roll No.
Marks
X
C
A X
' d

=
A = 20
C = 5

d'
2

101 10 2
4
Standard Deviation
2
2
' '
(
E
=
N
d
N
d
C o
2
5
0
5
10
5
|
.
|
\
|
=
2
0 2 5 =
2 5 =
= 5 1.4142
=7.07
102 30 2
4
103 20 0
0
104 25 1
1
105 15 1
1
Total Ed = 0
Ed
2
= 10

Note: A problem can be solved by any one method.

13.4 Discrete Series:
13.4.1 Method 1: Deviations taken from actual mean
Standard Deviation,
N
fx
2
E
= o
Where x = X X and N = Ef
Steps:
1. Find out the arithmetic mean, . X
2. Find out the deviation of each X from the actual mean and call it x. i.e.,
find x = X X
3. Find out x
2
values
4. Multiply each x
2
by the corresponding f and get fx
2

5. Find Efx
2

6. Divide Efx
2
by N and find the square root of the quotient. i.e, find
N
fx
2
E

Example 5: Calculate the standard deviation of the following series.
x 6 9 12 15 18
f 7 12 13 10 8


Solution:
X f fx
12 X
X X X
=
=

x
2
fx
2

6 7 42 6 36 252
9 12 108 3 9 108
12 13 156 0 0 0
15 10 150 3 9 90
18 8 144 6 36 288
Total N =50 Efx =600 Efx
2
=738
Arithmetic mean =
N
fx
X
E
=

50
600
=
= 12.00
Standard Deviation
N
fx
2
E
o =

50
738
=
36 . 14 =
= 3.84
Method 2: Direct Method
Under this method, the formula becomes the following
Standard Deviation,
2
2
N
fx
N
fx
(
=
E E
o
Steps:
1. From a table with the given values, x and the frequencies, f in the first
two columns
2. Multiply each x by the corresponding f to find fx. Write all such fx
values in the next column.
3. Multiply each fx by the corresponding x to find fx
2
(It is not (fx)
2
. That
is, fx should not be squared) such fx
2
value in the next column.
4. Find N(=Ef), Efx and Efx
2
.
5. Substitute in the above formula and simplify.
Example 6: Calculate the standard deviation
No. of goals scored in a match : (x) 0 1 2 3 4 5
No. of Matches : (f) 1 2 4 3 0 2
Solution:
X f fx
fx
2

0 1 0 0
1 2 2 2
2 4 8 16
3 3 9 27
4 0 0 0
5 2 10 50
Total N =12 Efx =29 Efx
2
=95

13.5 Method 3: Deviation taken from assumed measure
The formula is as follows:
Standard Deviation,
2
2
N
fd
N
fd
(
=
E E
o
d = X A, A Assumed mean, N = Ef
Steps:
Standard Deviation
2
2
N
fx
N
fx
(
=
E E
o
2
12
20
12
95
|
.
|
\
|
=
( )
2
4167 . 2 9167 . 7 =
8404 . 5 9167 . 7 =
0763 . 2 =
= 1.44
1. Form a table with the given values X and the frequencies, f is the first
two columns
2. Choose the value for A, assumed mean, if it is not specified.
3. Subtract A from each X and form the next column with d = X A values
4. Multiply each d by the corresponding f and enter all such products in the
next column under the title fd.
5. Multiply each fd by the corresponding d and enter all such products in
the next column under the title fd
2
(these are not the squares of fd
values)
6. Find N ( = Ef), Efd and Efd
2


Example 7:
Calculate standard deviation from the following data:
x : 6 9 12 15 18
f : 7 12 19 10 2
Solution:
Let X: 6, 9, 12, 15 and 18.
X f
d =X A
A =12
fd fd
2

6 7 6 42 252
9 12 3 36 108
12 19 0 0 0
15 10 3 30 90
18 2 6 12 72
Total N =50 Efd = 36 Efd
2
= 522

Standard Deviation
2
2
N
fd
N
fd
(
=
E E
o

2
50
36
50
522
|
.
|
\
|

=
( )
2
72 . 0 44 . 10 =
5184 . 0 4400 . 10 =
9216 . 9 =
= 3.15
13.5.1 Method 4: Step Deviation Method
This following formula is used.
Standard Deviation,
2
2
N
' fd
N
' fd
C
(
=
E E
o
f N ;
C
A X
' d E =
=
Steps:
1. Form a table with the given values, x and the frequencies, f in the first
two columns
2. Choose the value for A.
3. Find out
C
A X
' d

corresponding to each X and enter them in the next
column
4. Multiply each d' by the corresponding f to get d f ' . Enter them in the
next column.
5. Multiply each d f ' by the corresponding d' and get . d f
2
' Enter them in
the next column.
6. Find ( )

' ' =
2
d f and d f , f N

Example 8:
The weekly salaries of a group of employees are given in the following table.
Find the mean and standard deviation of the salaries.
Salaries (in Rs.) : 75 80 85 90 95 100
No. of persons : 3 7 18 12 6 4
Solution:
Salary (in
Rs.)
x
No. of
persons
f
C
A X
d

=
A =85; C =5
fd fd
2

75 3 2 6 12
80 7 1 7 7
85 18 0 0 0
90 12 1 12 12
95 6 2 12 24
100 4 3 12 36
Total N =50 Efd =23 Ed
2
=91

Arithmetic mean
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
N
fd
C A X
E

|
.
|
\
|
+ =
50
23
5 85
= 85 + 2.3
= 87.30 (Rs.)
Standard Deviation

2
2
N
fd
N
fd
C
(
=
E E
o

2
50
23
50
91
5
|
.
|
\
|
=
( )
2
46 . 0 82 . 1 5 =
2116 . 0 8200 . 1 5 =
6084 . 1 5 =
= 5 1.27
= 6.35 (Rs.)

13.6 Continuous Series
When X in the formulae for the calculation of standard deviation of discrete
series is replaced by m the corresponding formulae for continuous series
are obtained.
The calculations start with the mid values (m) of the class intervals and
class frequencies (f) when less than or more than frequencies are given,
class interval and class frequencies are to be found first.
Method 1: Deviations taken from actual mean.
The formula is as follows:
Standard deviation,
( )
N
X m f
2
=
E
o
Steps:
1. Form a table with class intervals and class frequencies in the first two
column.
2. Find the mid values (m) and write them the next column
3. Find the products of f and m and write them in the next column
4. Find
N
fm
X

= where X , f N E = may be found by other formula also.
5. Subtract X from each m. Enter the resulting X m values in the next
column
6. Write ( )
2
X m in the next column
7. Find ( )
2
X m f and write them in the next column
8. Find ( )
2
X m f E
9. Divide ( )
2
X m f E by N and take the square root to get the standard
deviation.
Example 9: Find the standard deviation
Class Intervals : 0 10 10 20 20 30 30 40 40 50
Frequency : 2 5 9 3 1
Solution:
Class
Interval
Frequency
f
Mid
value m
fm
X m
23 X =
( )
2
X m ( )
2
X m f
0 10 2 5 10 18 324 648
10 20 5 15 75 8 64 320
20 30 9 25 225 2 4 36
30 40 3 35 105 12 144 432
40 50 1 45 45 22 484 484
N = 20 Efm = 460
( ) 1920 X m f
2
= E

Arithmetic Mean 23
20
460
N
fm
X = = =
E

Standard Deviation
( )
N
X m f
2
=
E
o

20
1920
=
96 =
= 9.80
Method 2: Direct method
Under this method, the form of the formula is as follows:
Standard Deviation
2
2
N
fm
N
fm
(
=
E
o
Steps:
1. Form a table with class intervals and frequencies in the first two
columns.
2. Find the mid values (m) and write them in the next column.
3. Find the products of f and m and write those fm values in the next
column
4. Find the products of m and fm and write those fm
2
values in the next
column.
5. Find N(=Ef), Efm and Efm
2

6. Substitute in the formula and simplify.
Example 10:
The following data were obtained while observing the life span of a few neon
lights of a company calculate S.D.
Life span (years) : 4 6 6 8 8 10 10 12 12 15
No. of neon lights : 10 17 32 21 20
Solution:
Life span
(Years)
No. of Neon
lights (f)
Mid value
(m)
fm fm
2

4 6 10 5 50 250
6 8 17 7 119 833
8 10 32 9 288 2592
10 12 21 11 231 2541
12 14 20 13 260 3380
N =100 - Efm =948 Efm
2
=9596

Standard Deviation,
2
2
N
fm
N
fm
|
.
|
\
|
=
E E
o

2
100
948
100
9596
|
.
|
\
|
=
( )
2
48 . 9 96 . 95 =
8704 . 89 9600 . 95 =
0896 . 6 =
= 2.47

13.7 Combined Standard Deviation
When two or three groups merge, the mean and standard deviation of the
combined group are calculated as follows:
13.7.1 Case 1: Merger of two groups
Size Mean SD
Group I N1
1
X
1
o
Group II N
2

2
X
2
o
That is
N
1
Number of items in the first group
N
2
Number of items in the second group
1
X - Mean of items in the first group
2
X - Mean of items in the second group
1
o - Standard deviation of items in the first group
2
o - Standard deviation of items in the second group.
The mean of the combined group
2 1
2 2 1 1
12
N N
X N X N
X
+
+
=
The standard deviation of the combined group
2 1
2
2 2
2
1 1
2
2 2
2
1 1
12
N N
d N d N N N
+
+ + +
=
o o
o
12 2 2 12 1 1
X X d and X X d = =
Example 11:
The mean and standard deviation of 63 children on an average test are
respectively 27.6 and 7.1. To them are added a new group of 26 who have
less training and whose mean is 19.2 and standard deviation is 6.2. How will
the value of combined group differ from those of the original 63 children as
to mean and standard deviation?
Solution:
Given number of children Mean Mark S.D. of marks
N
1
= 63 6 . 27 X
1
= 1 . 7
1
= o
N
2
= 26 2 . 19 X
2
= 2 . 6
2
= o
Combined mean
2 1
2 2 1 1
12
N N
X N X N
X
+
+
=

26 63
2 . 19 26 6 . 27 63
+
+
=

89
2 . 499 8 . 1738 +
=

89
0 . 2238
=
= 25.15
Combined standard deviation:
2 1
2
2 2
2
1 1
2
2 2
2
1 1
12
N N
d N d N N N
+
+ + +
=
o o
o
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
26 . 63
95 . 5 26 45 . 2 63 2 . 6 26 1 . 7 63
2 2 2 2
+ + +
=
89
4650 . 920 1575 . 378 44 . 999 83 . 3175 + + +
=
89
8925 . 5473
=
5044 . 61 =
= 7.84
13.7.2 Case 2: Merger of three groups
Size Mean SD
Group I N
1

1
X
1
o
Group II N
2

2
X
2
o
Group III N
3

3
X
3
o
The mean of the combined groups
3 2 1
3 3 2 2 1 1
123
N N N
X N X N X N
+ +
+ +
= o
The standard deviation of the combined groups
3 2 1
3
3 3
2
2 2
2
1 1
3
3 3
2
2 2
2
1 1
123
N N N
d N d N d N N N N
+ +
+ + + + +
=
o o o
o
Where
123 3 3 123 2 2 123 1 1
X X d X X d X X d = = =
Uses
Standard deviation is the best absolute measure of dispersion. It is a part of
many statistical concepts such as skewness, kurtosis, correlation,
regression, estimation sampling, tests of significance and statistical quality
control. Not only in statistics but also in biology, education, psychology and
other disciplines standard deviation is of immense use.
Merits
1. Standard deviation is rigidly defined
2. It is calculated on the basis of the magnitudes of all the items
3. It could be manipulated further. The combined standard deviation can
be calculated
4. Mistakes in its calculation can be corrected. The entire calculation
need not be redone.
5. Coefficient of variation is based on standard deviation. It is the best
and most widely used relative measure of dispersion
6. It is free from sampling fluctuations. This property of sampling stability
has brought it in dispensable place in tests of significance
7. It reduces the complexity in the approach of normal distribution by
providing standard normal variable
8. It is the most important absolute measure of dispersion. It is used in all
the areas of statistics. It is widely used in other disciplines such as
psychology, education and biology as well.
9. Scientific calculators show the standard deviation of any series.
10. Different forms of the formula are available.
2.7.5 Demerits
1. Compared with other absolute measures of dispersion, it is difficult to
calculate
2. It is not simple to understand
3. It gives more weightage to the items away from the mean than those
near the mean as the deviations are squared.
2.8 Coefficient of variation
Coefficient of variation = 100
Mean Arithmetic
Deviation Standard

C.V. is the abbreviation
100
. M . A
. D . S
. V . C =
100
X
=
o

Karl Pearson gave this definition. Like all other relative measures of
dispersion, it is a pure number. All relative measures of dispersion are free
from units of measurement such as kg., metre, litre, etc. The variations in
two or more series (groups or sets of data) are compared on the basis of a
relative measure of dispersion.
For example, an Indian may have different income at various periods of
time. His income is quoted in dollars. The variations in their incomes can be
compared by using any relative measure of dispersion.
Coefficient of variation is the more widely used relative measure of
dispersion and the best measure of central tendency. It is a percentage.
While comparing two or more groups, the group which has less coefficient of
variation is less variable or more consistent or more stable or more uniform
or more homogeneous.
Example 12:
Calculate the coefficient of variation of the following:
40, 41, 45, 49, 50, 51, 55, 59, 60, 60


Solution:
X
51 X
X X
=

( )
2
X X

Mean
N
X
X

=
00 . 51
10
510
= =
( )
N
X X
. D . S
2

= o
4 . 50
10
504
= =
= 7.10
100
X
. V . C =
o

100
00 . 51
10 . 7
=
= 13.92
40 11 121
41 10 100
45 6 36
49 2 4
50 1 1
51 0 0
55 4 16
59 8 64
60 9 81
60 9 81
= 510 x

( )
= 504 X X

13.9 Variance
Definition
Variance is the mean square deviation of the values from their arithmetic
mean
2
o (read, sigma square) is the symbol. Standard deviation is the
positive square root of variance and is denoted by o. The term of variance
was introduced by R.A. Fisher in the year 1913. It is used much in sampling,
analysis of variance, etc. In analysis of variance, total variation is split into a
few components. Each component is due to one factor of variation. The
significance of the variation is then tested.


Formulae
These formulae can be compared with those under standard deviation
Method Individual Discrete Continuous
Observations Series Series
1. Actual mean
( )
N
X X
2

( )
N
X X f
2

( )
N
X m f
2

2. Direct Method
2
2
N
x
N
X
|
|
.
|
\
|

2
2
N
fX
N
fX
|
|
.
|
\
|

2
2
N
fm
N
fm
(
(

3. Assumed mean
2
2
N
d
N
d
|
|
.
|
\
|

2
2
N
fd
N
fd
(
(

(
(

N
fd
N
fd
2 2

4. Step deviation
(
(
(
(
(
'
'

2
2
2
N
d
N
d
C

(
(
(
(
(
'
'

2
2
2
N
d f
N
d f
C

(
(
(
(
(
'
'

2
2
2
N
d f
N
d f
C

Individual Observations
Example 13: Number of goals scored by a team in different matches.
Calculate variance.
Goals X
7 . 1 : X
X X

( )
2
X X

2 0.3 0.09
Mean
N
X
X

=
7 . 1
10
17
= =
Variance,
( )
N
X X
2
2

= o
10
10 . 16
=
= 1.61
0 1.7 2.89
1 0.7 0.49
3 1.3 1.69
0 1.7 2.89
4 2.3 5.29
3 1.3 1.69
1 0.7 0.49
1 0.7 0.49
2 0.3 0.09
1. Why is that standard deviation considered to be the most popular
measure of dispersion?
2. Calculate the standard deviation from the following data:
14, 22, 9, 15, 20, 17, 12, 11
3. The table below gives the marks obtained by 10 B.Com. students in
statistics examination. Calculate standard deviation.
Numbers: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Narks: 43 48 65 57 31 60 37 48 78 59
4. Calculate standard deviation from the following:
Marks : 10 20 30 40 50 60
No. of students : 8 12 20 10 7 3
5. Compute the standard deviation from the following data:
Class : 0 10 10 20 20 30 30 40 40 50 50 60 60 70
Frequency : 8 12 11 14 9 7 4
13.10 Summary
In this unit we discussed the concept of standard deviation, the different
types of formulas are discussed with good examples. The concept of
variance is discussed next with examples.
1. Explain coefficient of variation (co-variance) and given formulae
2. Prices of a particular commodity in five years in two cities are below:
Price in City A Price in City B
20 10
22 20
19 18
23 12
16 15
From the above data find variance and covariance and the city which
had more stable prices?
3. Define Skewness and how many type of formulae?
4. Calculate (i) Karl Pearsons coefficient of Skewness and (ii) Bowleys
coefficient of Skewness for the data given below:
Mid Value : 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Frequency : 1 12 55 91 55 12 1
5. Calculate Kellys coefficient of Skewness
Class : 30 49 50 69 70 89 90 109 100 1290130 149 150 169
Frequency : 25 40 50 100 80 50 25

13.12 Answers
1. Karl Person introduced the concept of standard deviation in 1893. It is
the most important measure of dispersion and is widely used in many
statistical formulae. Standard deviation is also called Root-mean square
deviation or Mean Error or Mean Square Error
The reason is that it is the square-root of the means of the squared
deviation from the arithmetic mean. It provides accurate result. In this
method the drawback of ignoring algebraic sign (in mean deviation) is
overcome by taking the square of deviations, there by making all the
deviations as positive.
It is defined as positive square-root of the arithmetic mean of the
squares of the deviation of the given observation from their arithmetic
mean. The standard deviation is denoted by the Greek letter o (Sigma).
Deviation taken from actual mean method.


2. Calculate of standard deviation from actual mean
Value (X)
( ) 15 X
X X

( )
2
X X
14 1 1
22 7 49
9 6 36
15 0 0
20 5 25
17 2 4
12 3 9
11 4 16
=10 X

( )
= 140 X X

15
8
120
X = =
( )
( )
N
X X
or
N
X
2
2

= o
18 . 4 5 . 17
8
140
= = =


Alternatively
We can find out standard deviation by using variable directly, i.e. no
deviation is fount out.
Values =x X
2

14 196
22 484
9 81
15 225
20 400
17 289
12 144
11 121
EX =120 EX
2
=1940

2
2
N
X
N
X
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

o

2
8
120
8
1940
|
.
|
\
|
=
225 5 . 242 =
5 . 17 =
= 4.18
Deviation taken from assumed mean method

The formula
2
2
N
d
N
d
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

o


3. Deviation from assumed mean
R. Numbers Marks x d =X A d
2

(1 A =50)
1 43 7 49
2 48 2 4
3 65 15 225
4 57 7 49
5 31 19 361
6 60 10 100
7 37 13 169
8 48 2 4
9 78 28 784
10 59 9 81
N = 10 Ed = 26 Ed
2
= 1826

2
2
N
d
N
d
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

o
( )
2
2
6 . 2 6 . 182
10
26
10
1826
=
|
.
|
\
|
=
76 . 6 6 . 182 =
84 . 175 =
= 13.26


4. Marks (x) f fx
30.8 x
x x d
= =
d
2
fd
2

10 8 80 20.8 432.64 3461.12
20 12 240 10.8 116.64 1399.68
30 20 600 0.8 0.64 12.80
40 10 400 9.2 84.64 846.40
50 7 350 19.2 368.64 2580.48
60 3 180 29.2 852.64 2557.92
X =210 N =60 Efx =1850 Efd
2
=10,858.40
Mean 8 . 30
60
1850
N
fx
X = = =

Standard deviation
N
fd
2
= o

60
64 . 10858
= o
= 13.45
Another method
Marks f d =x 30 fd fd
2

10 8 20 160 3200
20 12 10 120 1200
30 20 0 0 0
40 10 10 100 1000
50 7 20 140 2800
60 3 30 90 2700
X =210 N =60 Efx =1850 Efd =50 Efd
2
=10,900
Standard deviation
2
2
N
fd
N
fd
(
(
=

o
Efd = 50; Efd
2
= 10,900; N = 60

2
60
50
60
10900
|
.
|
\
|
= o
69 . 0 67 . 181 =
45 . 13 98 . 180 = =
45 . 13 = o
Method 3:
Marks f
10
30 x
d

= ' d f '
2
d f '
10 8 2 16 32
20 12 1 12 12
30 20 0 0 0
40 10 1 10 10
50 7 2 14 28
60 3 3 9 27

= ' 5 d f
= ' 109 d f
2

C
N
d f
2
d f
2
|
|
.
|
\
| '
'
=

o

= ' ; 109 d f
2

= ' ; 5 d f N = 60 C = 10
10
60
5
60
109
2
|
.
|
\
|
= o
10 0069 . 0 10817 =
10 81 . 1 =
= 1.345 10
o = 13.45

5.
Class (x) Mid value
10
35 X
C
A X
d
=
f fd fd
2

0 10 5 3 8 24 72
10 20 15 2 12 24 48
20 30 25 1 17 17 17
30 40 35 0 14 0 0
40 50 45 1 9 9 9
50 60 55 2 7 14 28
60 70 65 3 4 12 36
N =71 Efd = 30 Efd
2
=210
C
N
fd
A X + =

A = 35
= 30 fd N = 71 C = 10

( )
10
71
30
35
+ =
= 35 4.225 = 30.775
Standard deviation C
N
fd
N
fd
2
2
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

o
10
71
30
71
210
2
|
.
|
\
|

=
( ) 10 4225 . 0 957 . 2
2
=
10 7785 . 2 =
= 1.667 10 = 16.67

Terminal Questions
1. The standard deviation is an absolute measure of dispersion. Coefficient
being considered as the percentage variation in mean, standard
deviation being considered as the total variation in the mean. That is it
shows the relationship between the standard deviation and the
arithmetic mean expressed in terms of percentage.
100
mean
deviation standard
variance of t Coefficien =
(or) Covariance = 100
X

o

2. Calculation of coefficient of variation
Price deviation from dx
2
y deviation from dy
2

x ( ) dx 20 x = ( ) dy 15 y =
20 0 0 10 5 25
22 2 4 20 5 25
19 1 1 18 3 9
23 3 9 12 3 9
16 4 16 15 0 0
Ex =100 Edx =0 Edx
2
=30 Edy =0 Edy
2
=68

City A City B
20
5
100
N
x
x = = =

15
5
75
N
y
y = = =

20 x = 15 y =

N
dx
2
x

= o
N
dy
2
y

= o

5
30
=
5
68
=
6 = 6 . 13 =
45 . 2
x
= o 69 . 3
x
= o
100
x
. V . C
x
=
o
100
y
. V . C
y
=
o

100
20
45 . 2
= 100
15
69 . 3
=
C.V. = 12.25 C.V. = 24.6
Variance o
2
= 2.45 Variance o
2
= 3.69
City A had more stable prices than in city B because the coefficient of
variations is lower in city A
3. Skewness is the degree of asymmetry, or departure from symmetry, of
a distributuion
1. Karl Pearsons coefficient of Skewness
( )
( ) S.D.
Z X
or
deviation standard
mode mean
=
P
K
S
(or)

( ) ( )
Z X 3
deviation standard
mode mean 3
=
=
P
K
S
It can be used when mode is ill defined.
2. Bowleys coefficient of Skewness

1
1 3
B
K
Q
M 2 Q Q
S
+
=
3
Q

3. Kellys coefficient of Skewness

10
10 90
K
K
P
M 2 P P
S
+
=
90
P

1 9
1 9
D D
M 2 D D
+
=

4. Mid P frequency
C
M.A.
d = ' d f '
2
d f ' class cf
value f A =50 C =10 interval
20 1 3 3 9 15 25 1
30 12 2 24 48 25 35 13
40 55 1 55 55 35 45 68
50 91 0 0 0 45 55 159
60 55 1 55 55 55 65 214
70 12 2 24 48 65 75 226
80 1 3 3 9 75 85 227
Total N =227 0
= ' 224 d f
2

i) A.M. 50 0 50 10
227
0
50 C
N
d f
A X = + = + =
'
+ =

93 . 9
227
0
227
224
10
N
fd
N
d f
C . D . S
2
2
=
|
.
|
\
|
=
(
(
'
=

o
Greatest frequency = 91 model class interval: 45 55
L = 45 f
1
= 91 f
0
= 55 f
2
= 55
( ) ( )
( ) 55 55 91 2
55 91 10
f f f 2
f f h
2 0 1
0 1

=

= Mode

( )
50
72
360
110 182
36 10
= =
=
Karl Pearsons coefficient of skewness
0
93 . 9
50 50 Z X
S
P
K
=
=
o

ii) ; 75 . 56
4
227
4
N
= = Q
1
class interval: 35 45
L = 35 h = 10 f = 55 C = 13

|
.
|
\
|
+ = C
4
N
f
h
L Q
1

| | 13 75 . 50
55
10
35 + =
| | 95 . 42 75 . 43
55
10
35 = + =
Q
2
(or) median
5 . 113
2
227
2
N
= = Median class interval: 45 55
L = 45 f = 91 h = 10 c = 68

|
.
|
\
|
+ = C
2
N
f
h
L M
( ) 68 5 . 113
91
10
45 + =
= 57. 05
Q
3
: 25 . 170
4
N 3
= Q
3
class interval: 55 65
L = 55 h = 10 f = 55 Q = 159

|
.
|
\
|
+ = C
4
N 3
f
h
L Q
3

| | 159 25 . 170
55
10
55 + =
= 57.05
Bowleys Skewness
1 3
1 3
B
K
Q Q
M 2 Q Q
S
+
=

95 42 05 . 57
50 2 95 . 42 05 . 57

+
=
0
10 . 14
0
= =

5.
Class frequency True class cumulative
Intervals frequency
30 49 25 29.5 49.5 25
50 69 40 49.5 69.5 65
70 89 50 69.5 89.5 115
90 109 100 89.5 109.5 215
110 129 80 109.5 129.5 295
130 149 50 129.5 149.5 345
150 169 25 149.5 169.5 370
N =370
. 37
100
370
10
100
N 10
= = 37
th
cumulative frequency is included in the class
interval
49.5 69.5. It is P
10
class interval
L
10
= 49.5 h
10
= 20 f
10
= 40 C
10
= 25

|
.
|
\
|
+ =
10
10
10
10 10
C
100
N 10
f
h
L P
( ) 25 . 37
40
20
5 . 49 + =
= 49.5 + 6 = 55.5
185
2
370
2
N
= = 89.5 109.5 is the class interval
L = 89.5 h = 20 f = 100 C = 115

|
.
|
\
|
+ = C
2
N
f
h
L M
( ) 115 185
100
20
5 . 89 + =
= 89.5 + 14 = 103.5
333
100
370
90
100
N 90
= =
129.5 149.5 is P
90
class interval

|
.
|
\
|
+ =
90
90
90
90 90
C
100
N 90
f
h
L L
| | 295 333
50
20
5 . 129 + =
7 . 144 2 . 15 5 . 129 = + =
Kellys coefficient of Skewness

10 90
10 90
K
K
P P
M 2 P P
S
+
=

5 . 55 7 . 144
5 . 103 2 5 . 55 7 . 144
+
=
0762 . 0
2 . 89
8 . 6
=
=

References:
1. Algebra and Trigonometry by Richard Brown
2. Integral calculus by Shanthi Narayan
Publication S. Chand & Co.
3. Differential calculus by Shanthi Narayan
4. Problems in Calculus of one variable by I. A. Maron
Publication CBS Publishers
5. Trigonometry by S.L. Loney
6. Applied & Computational Complex Analysis by Peter Henrici
7. Mathematical Analysis by K.G. Binmore.

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