UNESCO-NIGERIA TECHNICAL & VOCATIONAL EDUCATION REVITALISATION PROJECT-PHASE II

NATIONAL DIPLOMA IN CIVIL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

INTRODUCTION TO FLUID MECHANICS

COURSE CODE: CEC107

YEAR I- SE MESTER I THEORY

Version 1: December 2008

CIVIL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY INTRODUCTORY FLUID MECHANICS (CEC 107) COURSE CONTENTS WEEK 1 1.0 INTRODUCTION 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Elements of fluid mechanics Fluids classification Deformation by shearing forces Differences between fluids and solids PRACTICAL Application of specific energy momentum function WEEK 2 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 Behaviour of liquid and gas in a container Molecular structure of material Properties of fluids Behaviour of fluids at rest PRACTICAL Continuation of practical in week one WEEK 3 2.0 FLUID STATICS 2.1 Variation of pressure vertically in a fluid with gravity 2.2 Pressure and head 2.3 Measurement of pressure using manometer PRACTICAL Flow over weirs

WEEK 4 2.4 Measurement of pressure difference 2.5 Inverted U-tube manometer 2.6 Advantages and disadvantages of U-tube Manometer PRACTICAL Continuation of the practical in week three WEEK 5 2.7 Calculations of pressure PRACTICAL Diffusion of gas WEEK 6 3.0 ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLES 3.1 Hydraulic press 3.2 Pressure diagram 3.3 Buoyancy of floating bodies 3.4 Equilibrium of floating bodies PRACTICAL Applying the momentum flow on a jet of water striking flat plate WEEK 7 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 FLOW IN PIPES Fluid in motion Uniform and steady flow Rate of flow Continuity equation

PRACTICAL Minor losses in pipes WEEK 8 4.5 Calculations on rate of flow PRACTICAL
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Site visit to Gurara Dam to see pipe laying WEEK 9 5.0 FLOW MEASURING EQUIPMENTS 5.1 Bernoullis equation 5.2 Pitot tube PRACTICAL Site visit to Kangimi Dam to see different types of weirs WEEK 10 5.3 Venturimeter 5.4 Flow through notches and weirs PRACTICAL Site visit to a site where construction of open drain is In progress

WEEK 11 6.0 LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOWS 6.1 Reynolds dye experiment 6.2 Reynolds number PRACTICAL Experiment on Reynolds' dye WEEK 12 6.3 Calculations on Reynolds number 6.4 Chezys formula PRACTICAL Visit to irrigation sites to see water pumps WEEK 13 7.0 HEAD LOSS IN PIPES 7.1 Head loss due to friction in pipes 7.2 Calculations on head loss

PRACTICAL Visit to Malali treatment plant to see more pumps

WEEK 14

8.0 OPEN CHANNELS 8.1 Flow in open channels 8.2 Uniform and non-uniform flow PRACTICAL Visit to Barnawa water treatment plant to see more pumps

WEEK 15

9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4

PUMPS AND TURBINES Pumps Matching pumps with systems Pumps classification Turbines

PRACTICAL Second visit to Gurara Dam to see turbine

WEEK 1
1.0 INTRODUCTIOIN The students were introduced to the subject with a general revision on what they learnt in ordinary level physics, especially what has to do with applied mechanics. These include definitions such as: Atom, molecules, matter, force,

upthrust/buoyancy, etc. Others include laws, such as Newtons law on motion, Pascal laws, and Archimedes principles. In the same week, the main course introductory fluid mechanics was introduced after the lectures the following notes were given to students: 1.1 Elements of fluid mechanics Fluid mechanics is the branch of applied mechanics which is mainly concerned with the statics and dynamics of liquids and gases. The analysis of the behaviour of fluids is based upon the fundamental laws of applied mechanics which relates to the conservation of mass-energy and the force momentum equation. However there is need to understand that there are two major aspects of fluid mechanics which differ from solid-body mechanics. The first aspect is the one that has to do with the nature and properties of the fluid itself, which are very different from those of a solid. As for the second aspect, it is clear that instead of dealing with individual bodies or elements of known mass, in this case we are frequently concerned with the behavior of a continuous stream of fluid. Again, we are confronted with a problem in that it can be extremely difficult to specify either the precise movement of a stream of a fluid or that of individual particles within it. Therefore for the purpose of theoretical analysis, it is necessary to assume ideal, simplified conditions and patterns of flow. Appropriate coefficients and factors determined experimentally should be

introduced in order to make the results obtained in the calculations reliable and acceptable. The results obtained will provide basis for the design of fluid systems. This kind of approach has proved to be reasonably satisfactory provided the theoretical analysis usually establishes the form of the relationship between the variables. 1.2 Fluids classification Scientifically speaking, three states of matters are recognized. They are: solids, liquids and gas. Although the three are different in many aspects, however liquids and gas have common characteristics in which they differ from solids. They are fluids, lacking the ability of solids to offer permanent resistance to a deforming force. Fluids flow under the action of such forces deforming continuously as long as the force is applied. A fluid is unable to retain any unsupported shape; it flows under its own weight and takes the shape of any solid body with which it comes into contact. 1.3 Deformation by shearing forces
B B1 C C1 F X E Y F

Fig 1 Effect of deformation

The type of deformation shown above is caused by shearing forces i.e. force such as F which act tangentially to the surfaces to which they are applied and cause the material originally occupying the space ABCD to deform to AB'C'D as shown in the figure. In view of the above, it is easy to define a fluid as a substance which deforms continuously under the action of shearing forces, however small they may be. And if fluid is at rest, there can be no shearing forces acting and, therefore, all forces in the fluid must be perpendicular to the planes upon which they act.

1.4 Differences between fluids and solids These are some of the differences between the behaviours of fluids and solids under an applied force: For a solid, the strain is a function of the applied stress, provided that the elastic limit is not exceeded. But for a fluid, the rate of strain is proportional to the applied stress. The strain in a solid is independent of time over which the force is applied and, if the elastic limit is not exceeded the deformation disappears when the force is removed. A fluid continues to flow for as long as the force is applied and will not recover its original form when the force is removed.

WEEK 2
1.5 Behaviour of liquid and gas in a container At the beginning of this week, before we continue students were asked questions on what we did last week so as to make sure they understand the previous lectures. Then a lecture on the behaviou of liquid and gas, properties of fluids and variation of pressure vertically in a fluid was presented and the following are the notes given to the students: Even though liquid and gas both share common characteristics of fluids, they have distinctive things of their own. For example, a liquid is difficult to compress and for many purposes, may be regarded as incompressible. A given mass of liquid occupies a fixed volume, irrespective of the size or shape of its container and a free surface is formed if the volume of the container is greater than that of the liquid, as shown below:

free surface

LIQUID

Fig.2 Liquid in a container As for gas, it is comparatively easy to compress. Changes of volume with pressure are large, cannot normally be neglected and are related to changes of temperature. A given mass of gas has no fixed volume and will expand continuously unless restrained by a container. Therefore it will completely full

any container in which it is placed hence it does not form a free surface as shown below:

GAS

Fig. 2.1 Gas in a container 1.6 Molecular structure of material Solids, liquids and gas are all composed of molecules in continuous motion. However, the management of these molecules and the space between them differs, giving rise to the characteristic properties of the three different states of matter. In solids, the molecules are densely and regularly packed and movement is slight, each molecule being restrained by its neighbours. In liquids, the structure is looser, individual molecules have greater freedom of movement and, although restrained to some degree by the surrounding molecules, can break away from this restraint, causing a change in structure. In gases, there is no formal structure, the spaces between molecules are large and the molecules can move freely. The molecules of a substance exert forces on each other which vary with their inter-molecular distance. Consider, for simplicity, a monatomic substance in which each molecule consists of a single atom. An idea of the nature of the forces acting may be formed from observing the behaviour of such a substance and making the following conclusions:

if the two pieces of the same materials are far apart, there is no detachable force exerted between them. Thus, the forces between molecules are negligible when widely separated and tend to zero as the separation tends towards infinity. Two pieces of the same material can be made to weld together if they are forced into very close contact. Under these conditions, the forces between the molecules are attractive when the separation is very small. Very large forces are required to compress solids or liquids, indicating that a repulsive force between the molecules must be overcome to reduce the spacing between them. 1.7 Properties of fluids 1) Density: The density () of a liquid is its mass per unit volume i.e. D = M V 2) For water is 1000 kg / m3.

Specific weight W of a fluid is defined as the weight per unit volume.

Since weight is dependent on gravitational attraction, the specific weight will vary from point to point according to the local value of gravitational acceleration g. 3) Viscosity: The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to shear stress. It arises from the interaction of fluid molecules. It follows therefore that there can be no shear stress in a fluid which is at rest. A fluid at rest cannot resist shearing forces, and, if such forces act on a fluid which is in contact with a solid boundary, the fluid will flow over the boundary in such a way that the particles immediately in contact with the boundary have the same velocity as the boundary, while

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successive layers of fluid parallel to the boundary move with increasing velocities. 4) Surface tension Even though all molecules are in constant motion, on average, a molecule within the body of the liquid is attracted equally in all directions by the other molecules surrounding it. But at the surface between liquid and air, or the interface between one substance and another, the upward and downward attractions are unbalanced with the surface molecules being pulled inward towards the bulk of the liquid. This effect causes the liquid surface to behave as if it were an elastic membrane under tension. The surface tension is measured as the force acting across unit length of a line drawn on the surface. It acts in the plane surface, normal to any line in the surface, and is the same at all points. Surface tension is constant at any given temperature but it decreases with increasing temperature. The effect of surface tension is to reduce the surface of a free body of liquid to a minimum, since to expand the surface area, molecules have to be brought to the surface from the bulk of the liquid against the unbalanced attraction pulling the surface molecules inwards. For this reason, drop of liquid tend to take a spherical shape in order to minimize surface area. For such a small droplet surface tension will cause an increase in internal pressure in order to balance the surface force. In a more practical term, surface tension can be described as a physical property which enable a drop of water to be held in suspension at a tap, a vessel to be filled with a liquid slightly above the brim and yet not spill. 5) Capillarity

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If a fine tube open at both ends, is lowered into a liquid which wets the tube (e.g. water), the water surface in that tube or meniscus as it is called is concave upwards as shown below:

Water

Fig 2.2a

Capillarity using water

If the liquid does not wet tube (like mercury), the level of the liquid in the tube will be depressed below the level of the free surface outside (convex) as shown below:

Mercury 12

Fig. 2.2b Capillarity using mercury 1.8 Behaviour of fluid at rest A fluid is said to be at rest, when it is lying in one place and it is not moving. In other words, it is static. If any force is exerted on any particle, within the fluid, is the same in all directions. However, if the applied forces were unequal (some are greater than others), the particles within the fluid would move in the direction of the resultant force. This means that the force per unit area, exerted by the fluid against the wall of an arbitrarily shaped containing vessel, is perpendicular to the interior walls at every point. If the pressure were not perpendicular, an unbalanced tangential force component would exist and the fluid would move along the wall. This is what Pascal tried to verify in what is known as Pascals law.

Fig 2.3a

Fig. 2.23b Fig.2.3c

Fig.2.3 Behaviour of fluid at same depth

The above figure has shown three different situations at the same depth, even though they differ in how they are located. For example, fig2.3c shows the bottom

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of a pond, while fig.2.3b and fig.2.3a shows pipes though of equal length and diameter, but one is standing upright while the other is tilted. But despite these differences in either shape or location, the fact is that the pressure exerted by water at the bottom of a pond in fig.2.3c, will be the same as the pressure exerted by water at the bottom of the straight pipe in fig.2.3b (even though it is narrower than the pond), since their depth is the same. The same thing occur in fig.2.3a even though the pipe is tilted but it lie at the same depth with the one in fig.2.3b, its water will exert the same pressure as in fig. 2.3b. From this explanation, it is now clear that the pressure at the bottom of a pipe which is 20 m in height is the same within all the three figures

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WEEK 3
FLUID STATICS This week the students were told to ask any question on the previous topic, before starting this new topic. After answering questions from students, lecture was delivered and the following are the notes given to them for this week: 2.1Variation of pressure vertically in a fluid under gravity

Area A

P2

Mass density of fluid

Z2

Z1

P1

Fig. 3 Pressure variation

The above figure shows an element of fluid consisting of a vertical column of constant cross-sectional area A and is also totally surrounded by the same fluid of mass density . Assuming the pressure to be p1 on the under side at level z1 and p2 on the top at level z2. Since the fluid is at rest the element must be in equilibrium and the sum of all the vertical forces must be zero. Now, since the fluid is at rest, there can be no shear forces and therefore no vertical force acting on the side of the

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element due to surrounding fluid. This in a fluid under gravitational attraction, pressure decrease s with increase in height z. The forces acting are: Forces due to p1 on area A acting up = p1A Forces due to p2 on area A acting down = p2A Force due to weight of the element = m x g 2.2 Pressure and head
P atm Liquid density e X P

Fig. 3.1 Relationships between pressure and head In a liquid, the pressure P at any depth, say z, measured downward from the free surface so that z = - h, will be : P = g h + constant. But since the pressure at the free surface will normally be atmospheric pressure atm therefore P will be : g h + Pa tm. It is often convenient to take atmospheric pressure as a datum. Therefore taking P atm as zero we get: P = g h 2.3 Measurement of pressure using manometer

h1

h2

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Fig. 3.2 Piezometer

The relationship between pressure and head is utilized for pressure measurement in the manometer or liquid gauge. The simplest form is the pressure tube or piezometer as shown above. To get the pressure at A: Pressure due to the column of liquid of height h1 =. PA = g h1 Similarly pressure at B, will be : PB = g h2 The U tube gauge manometer shown below can be used to measure the pressure of either liquid or gas.
Fluid P, mass density e

h1

Liquid Q, mass density man

h2

B C

Fig.3.3 U-tube manometer

The bottom of the U tube is filled with a manometric liquid Q which is of greater density man and is immiscible with the fluid P, of density , whose pressure is to be measured. If B is the level of the interface in the left-hand limb and C is a point at the same level in the right hand limb, then: Pressure at B, PB = Pressure at C, PC For the left hand limb, PB will be: Pressure at A, PA + Pressure due to h1 of the fluid P = PA + g h1

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For the right hand limb, PC will be: Pressure at D, PD + Pressure due to depth h2 of the liquid Q = PD + man g h2 But PD = Atmospheric pressure = 0 PC = 0 + man g h2 Since PB = PB PA + g h1 = man g h2 PA = man g h2 g h1

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WEEK 4 2.4 Measurement of pressure difference Having learn how to use pressure using a U- tube manometer, this week the lecture goes further to show how pressure difference and be calculated and an inverted manometer can be used to calculate pressure. The notes are as follows: A U- tube gauge is arranged to measure the pressure difference between two points in a pipeline. As we have seen earlier, the principle involved in calculating the pressure difference is that the pressure at the same level CD in the two limbs must be the same since the fluid in the bottom of the U- tube is at rest: as shown below:
B A Fluid P of density

b a h
C D Manometric liquid Q of density man

Fig. 4 U-tube manometer

For the left hand limb: PC = PA + g a For the right hand limb: PD = PB + g (b h) + man g h Since PC = PD

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PA + g a = PB + g (b h) + man g h Pressure difference = PA PB = g (b-a) + h g ( man - ) 2.5 Inverted U-tube manometer

Fluid density man X h b a B X Liquid density

Fig. 4.1 Inverted manometer

The above figure is showing an inverted U- tube manometer which is used for measuring pressure differences in liquids. The top of the U- tube is filled with a fluid, frequently air, which is less dense than that connected to the instrument. Since the fluid in the top is at rest, pressures at level XX will be the same in both limbs. For the left hand limb: PXX = PA g a man g h For the right hand limb: PXX = PB g (b+h) Thus, PB PA = g (b-a) + g h ( man) If A and B are at the same level, PB PA = g h ( man)

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2.6 Advantages and disadvantages of a manometer In its various forms, manometer is an extremely useful type of pressure gauge, even though it suffers from a number of limitations. While it can be used to measure very small pressure differences, it can however not be used conveniently for large pressure differences- although it is possible to connect a number of manometers in series and to use mercury as the manometric fluid in order to improve the range. A manometer does not have to be calibrated from first principles. However, for accurate work, the temperature should be known since this will affect the density of the fluids. Some liquids are unsuitable for the use because they do not form well defined menisci. Surface tension can also cause error due to capillary rise, this can be avoided if the diameters of the tubes are sufficiently large- preferably not less than 15 mm diameter. It is difficult to correct for surface tension, since its effect will depend upon whether the tubes are clean. A major disadvantage of manometer is its slow response, which makes its unsuitable for measuring fluctuating pressures. Even under comparatively static conditions, slight fluctuations of pressure can make the liquid in the manometer to oscillate, so that it is difficult to get a precise reading of the levels of the liquid in the gauge. These oscillations can however be reduced by putting restrictions in the manometer connections.

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WEEK 5 2.7 Calculations of pressure In this week, the students were introduced to calculations on pressure. The following are among the problems we solved together with the students in the class: Exercise 1: A cylindrical storage tank contains oil of density 800 kg/ m3 to a height of 1.5 m. Calculate the pressure exerted on the bottom of the tank. Give answer in k N/ m3 . Take g = 9.81 Solution: P = g h = 800 x 9.81 x 1.5 = 1177.2 N / m2 P = 11.8 k N / m2 Exercise 2: A storage tank of 10 m diameter and a height of 25 m contain a liquid at a height of 20 m. Calculate the pressure in k N /m2 exerted on the base of the tank. Take the density of the fluid to be 780 kg /m3, and g to be 9.81. Solution: P = g h = 780 x 9.81 x 20 1000 = 15.3 k N / m2 Exercise 3: What will be a) the gauge pressure (b) the absolute pressure of water at a depth of 12 m below the free surface. Assume the density of water to be 1000 kg / m3 and the atmospheric pressure 101 k N / m2. Solution: a) Pressure P = g h = 1000 x 9.81 x 12 = 117.72 x 103

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= 117.72 x 103 1000 = 117.72 k N / m2 b) Absolute pressure = Gauge pressure + atmospheric pressure = 117.72 + 101 = 218.72 k N / m2 Exercise 3: Determine the pressure in N / m2 at (a) a depth 6 m below the free surface of a body of water and (b) at a depth 9 m below the free surface of a body of oil of specific gravity 0.75.

Solution: a) Pressure P = g h =103 x 9.81 x 6 = 58.9 x 103 N / m2 b) P = g h = 103 x 0.75 x 9 = 6.8 x 103 N / m2

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WEEK 6 ARCHIMEDES' PRINCIPLES

In this week, we continued the calculations and pressure diagram as follows: Exercise 4: A pressure was applied to one limb of a mercury filled U- tube manometer and the level difference was found to be 254 mm. Calculate the value of the applied pressure. Density of mercury is 13600 kg / m3. Solution: P= g h = 13600 x 0.254 x 9.81 = 33887.6 N / m2 = 33.9 k N / m2 Exercise 5: A mercury manometer is used to measure the pressure of water in a pipe. If the mercury liquid Q is 30 cm below A in the left hand limb and 20 cm above A in the right hand limb, what will be the pressure at A. The specific gravity of mercury is 13.6 Solution: PA = man x g x h2 - g h1 = 13.6 x 9.81 x 0.5 1 x 9.81 x 0.3 PA = 63.8 k N / m2 3.1 Hydraulic press HYDRAULIC PRESS

W Area A

Area a P1

P2

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Fig. 6.1 Hydraulic press

P (force) = Piston A =area of small piston A = area of large piston W = load in the large piston p1 = P A p2 = W A Exercise 6: What force will be applied at piston A to lift the load of 500 N as shown in the arrangement below:

Area a P1

Area A P2

Fig. 6.1 Hydraulic press Solution: P = Wa = A 500 x /4 x (20)2 /4 x (150)2

3.2 Pressure diagram The resultant force and centre of pressure can be found graphically for walls of structure and other surfaces of constant vertical height for which it is convenient

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to calculate the horizontal force exerted per unit width. Let us take the figure below as examples

A P = egy y H Liquid
2

B /3 H R C eg H

In the above figure, ABC is the pressure diagram for the vertical wall of the tank containing a liquid. The pressure is plotted horizontally against depth vertically. At the free surface A, which is exposed to the atmosphere, the gauge pressure is zero. At depth y, P = g y. The relationship between P and y is linear and can be represented by the triangle ABC. The area of the triangle will be the product of depth (in metres) and pressure, this will represent, to scale, the resultant force R on unit width of the immersed surface perpendicular to the plane of the diagram. Therefore, area of pressure diagram will be: xABxBC.This can also be written as: x H x x g x H. Finally this resultant force can be simplified to: x g x H2/2 for unit width. The resultant force R will act through the centroid P of the pressure diagram which is at a depth of H from A. 3.3 Buoyancy of floating bodies

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According to Archimedes principles, the upthrust or buoyancy force of an immersed body is equal to the weight of fluid which it displaces. A submerged body will rise to the surface provided that the weight of the body is less than the weight of the displaced liquid. The centre of gravity of the displaced liquid is known as the centre of buoyancy and a submerged body orientates itself so that its centre of gravity is located vertically above it centre of buoyancy. If the centre of gravity and centre of buoyancy coincides, the body will remain in any position and is said to be in neutral equilibrium. 3.4 Equilibrium of floating bodies When a body floats in vertical equilibrium in a liquid, the forces present are the upthrust R acting through the centre of buoyancy B and the weight of the body W = m g acting through its centre of gravity as shown below:
W = mg

G B V = volume displaced

R For equilibrium, R and W must be equal and act in the same straight line. Now, R will be equal to the weight of fluid displaced g V, where V is the volume of fluid displaced, therefore: V = m g / g = m/g. The equilibrium of a body may be stable, unstable or neutral, depending upon whether, when given a small

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displacement, it tends to return to the equilibrium position, move further from it or remain in the displaced position. For a floating body, such as a ship, stability is of major importance.

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WEEK 7
FLOW IN PIPES There was a revision on what was covered in the syllabus so far. Individual students were asked questions so as ascertain whether they understand these topics. Lectures were delivered on the flow of water inside pipes, difference between uniform and steady flows. Similarly, rate of flow and continuity equations were introduced. Notes were given as follows: 4.1 Fluid in motion When a liquid flow through a pipeline, it is subjected to resistance caused by friction and viscosity. If the average velocity of a fluid flowing in a pipeline is low, then the fluid flows in parallel lines along the sides of the pipeline. In such a case, the flow is said to be laminar. However, if the average velocity is increased beyond a critical value, the fluid particles move in a disorderly manner. In such a case the fluid is said to be turbulent. 4.2 Uniform and Steady flow Conditions in a body of fluid can vary from point to point and, at any given point can vary from one moment of time to the next. Therefore there are four possible types of flow as follows: Steady uniform flow: In this case the conditions did not change with the

position or time. The velocity and cross-sectional area of the stream of fluid are the same at each cross-section. An example is the flow of a liquid through a pipe of uniform bore running completely full at constant velocity.

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Steady non-uniform flow: Conditions change from point to point but not with time. The velocity and cross-sectional area of the stream may vary from crosssection to cross-section, but for each cross-section, they will not vary with time. An example is flow of liquid at a constant rate through a tapering pipe running completely full. Unsteady uniform flow: At a given instant of time the velocity at every point is the same, but this velocity will change with time. An example is accelerating flow of liquid through a pipe of uniform bore running full, such as would occur when a pump is started up. Unsteady non-uniform flow: The cross-sectional area and velocity vary from point to point and also change with time. For example a wave traveling along a channel. 4.3 Rate of flow When a liquid flows through the pipeline, the volume of liquid passing any given cross-section of the pipeline in unit time is referred to as the rate of flow or discharge, Q.

Cross-sectional area Pipeline A Velocity V

If the cross-sectional area of the pipeline is A, and the fluid flows with a uniform velocity V, then the discharge is given by: Q = A x V in m3/sec.

4.4

Continuity equation

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 A1

V
2

V
1

A2

Consider the above illustrations indicating flow of water in a given pipe. Let us suppose that the end sectional areas are A1 and A2, and the corresponding velocities, assumed uniform, are V1 and V2. It is evident that the elemental discharge Q is given by: Q = V1 A1 = V2 A2 . Therefore to get the exact discharge we have: Q = V1A1 = V2 A2 The continuity equation can also be applied to determine the relation between the flows into and out of a junction for steady condition similar to the one shown below:
A2 V2 Q2

A1 V1 Q1

A3 V3 Q3

Total inflow to junction = Total outflow from junction Q1 = Q2 + Q3

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A1 x V1

= A2 V2 + A3 x V3

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WEEK 8
4.5 Calculations on rate of flow This week, the lecture focuses on using the formulae that was taught in the last lecture. Therefore, the following calculations were taught to the students: Exercise 7: Water flows from a pipe of diameter 15 mm at a velocity of 0.6 m/ sec. calculate the discharge Solution : Q = V x A 0.6 x x (0.015)2 4 Q = 1.06 x10-4 m3 / sec. Exercise 8: Oil which has a density of 800 kg / m3 is flowing through a pipeline at a rate of 0,002 m3 / sec. The pipeline is 50 mm diameter. Calculate the velocity of flow. Solution: Q = A x V V = Q = 0.002 x 4 A (0.05)2 = 1.02 m / sec Exercise 9: A fluid is flowing through a converging pipe with a diameter of 0.5 m at entry point and 0.14 m diameter at the outlet. The rate of flow is found to be 0.6 m3 / sec. calculate the velocity at the entry and outlet. Solution: Q = A1 V1 and V1 = Q = 0.6 x 4 A1 (0.5)2 Also from continuity equation we have Q = A2 V2 V2 = Q = 0.6 x 4 A2 (0,14)2 33

Exercise 10: Water is flowing through a pipeline which contract from 500 mm diameter at position A to 350 mm diameter at position B and then it divides. One of the branches at position C has a diameter of 100 mm while the one at d has 200 mm as its diameter. The velocity at A is 1.5 m/ sec while velocity at d is 3.5 m /sec. Calculate the discharge at C and D and velocities at B and C.

Solution: QA = QC + QD Area at A = dA2 = (0.500)2 = 0.196 m2 4 4 Area at B = (0.35)2 = 0.096 m2 4 Area at C = (0.1)2 = 0.0078 m2 4 Area at D = (0.2)2 = 0.031 m2 4 QD = AD VD = 0.031 x 3.5 = 0.109 m3 / sec QA = AA VA = 0.196 x 1,5 = 0.294 m3 / sec From continuity equation Q = AA VA = AD VD VB = AA x VA = 0.294 = 3.06 m /sec 0.096 AB Since QA = QC + QD, then

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QA = AC VC + QD = 0.294 = 0.0078 x VC + 0.109 VC = 0.294 0.109 = 23.72 m /sec 0.0078 And QC = AC VC = 0.0078 x 23.72 = 0.185 m3 / sec

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WEEK 9 5.0 Flow measuring equipments

This week a test was conducted for the students and the questions and solution were as follows: 1. Air is discharged from an outlet at a velocity of 3 m /sec. Calculate the diameter of the outlet if the discharge is 5.9397 x 10-3 m3 / sec. Solution: Q = A x V and A = Q = 5.9397 x 10-3 V 3 A = 1.9799 x 10-3 m2 But A = d2 = 1.9799 x 10-3 4 d2 = 4 x 1.9799 x 10 -3 x 103 d2 = 2.5208 103 d = (25.208-4) = 50.2 mm 2. Cooling water from a power station is discharged through a pipe. At position 1 the speed of flow is 6 m /sec, and at position 2 the speed is 4 m /sec. The diameter of the pipe at position 2 is 2 m. Calculate : a) the rate of flow at position 2 b) the diameter of the pipe at position 1 Solution: Q = A2 x V2 = d22 x V2 4 = 3.14 x 22 4 Q = 12.6 m3 / sec 36

b) From continuity equation A1 x V1 = A2 V2 d12 x V1 4 = d22 x V2 4

d12 V1 = d22 V2 d12 = d22 x V2 V1 = 22 x 4 6 = 2.68

d1 = 1.63 m After the test lectures continues in the week, and the following notes were given.

5.1 Bernoullis equation

It states that: H = Z + P + V2 g 2g where : z = potential energy per unit weight P = pressure energy g V2 = kinematics energy per unit weight 2g

Bernoullis theorem states that the total energy of each particle of a body of fluid within a particular system is the same provided that no energy enters or leaves the system at any point. This principle of conservation of energy can be used to solve

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problems involving fluid flow.

h
C

Datum

Consider the above tank of water in which water is flowing through an orifice in the side of the tank with a velocity V1, under a static head h. Bernoullis theorem can be applied to points A, B and C as follows: ZA + PA+ VA2 = ZB + PB + VB2 = ZC + PC g 2g g 2g g Exercise 10: in a horizontal pipeline, there is a liquid that is flowing and the pipe involved, gradually converges from a diameter of 200 mm at position A to 150 mm at position B. If the velocity at A is 2m / sec and the pressure head is 15 m. calculate the velocity and pressure head at B. Take g = 10 and Z as the datum. Solution: From continuity equation, the discharge at A, QA is the equal to discharge at B, QB. i.e. QA = QB AA VA = AB VB AA = 3.14 (0.2)2/4 = 0.0314 m2 AB = 3.14 (0.15)2/4 = 0.018 m2 To get VB = 0.0314 x 2/ 0.018 = 3,55 m / sec ZA + PA + VA2 = ZA+ PB + VB2 g 2g g 2g

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0 + 15 + 22 = ZB + PB + (3.55)2 2 x10 g 2 x 10 15 + 0.2 = PB + 0.63 g

PB = 15 +0.2 0.63 = 14.6 m g

5.2 Pitot tube

h Z U A U0 B

The pilot tube is used to measure the velocity of a stream and it consists of a simple L-shaped tube facing into the on-coming flow. In its elementary form, it consists of a tube with unsealed ends. One limb is inserted in the area of flow while the other is vertical and open to the atmosphere. From the above figure, if the velocity of the stream at A is u, a particle moving from A to the mouth of the tube B will be brought to rest, so that u0 at B is zero.. Bernoullis equation can be applied here.

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WEEK 10
This week, the lecture focuses on instrument of measuring instruments and the notes are as follows: 5.3 Venturimeter It is an instrument used for the measurement of flow in pipelines. The pressure difference between any two points on a tapering pipe through which a fluid is flowing depends on the difference of level, the velocities and the rate of flow through the pipe. Hence the pressure difference can be used to determine the rate of flow for any particular situation. The venturimeter uses this effect for the measurement of flow in pipes. Venturimeter consists of a short converging conical tube leading to a cylindrical portion, called the throat, of smaller diameter than that of the pipeline, which is followed by a diverging section in which the diameter increases again to that of the main pipeline.

Enter

Converging cone

Throat

Diverging cone

Piezometer rings

5.4 Flow through notches and weirs Control of water level and regulation of discharge are very necessary for the purposes of irrigation, water conservation and navigation. There are wide varieties

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of hydraulic structures normally used to suit a particular need. They range from notches, weirs to spillways of large dams. A notch has an opening in the side of a measuring tank or reservoir extending above the free surface.

Different Kinds of Notches

b H H h

/2

B RECTANGULR NOTCH

/2 VEE NOTCH

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WEEK 11
6.0 LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOWS

This week the lecture focuses on the experiment carried out by Reynolds to show that turbulent and laminar flow can occur in a pipe. The following are the notes given to students:

6.1 Reynolds Dye Experiment

Dye

Glass tube

Water

Dye Filament

In his experiment, Reynolds showed that under suitable conditions, the two types of flow (turbulent and laminar) could be made to occur in one pipe. His apparatus were simple and consist essentially of a glass tube through which water could be passed at varying velocities. Provision was made for the insertion of thin dye into the stream of water at the upstream end. Commencing with a very low water velocity, it was found that the dye remained intact in the form of a thin slender

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thread extending the whole length of the tube. This indicates that the particles of liquid were moving in straight parallel paths and that the flow was therefore laminar.
Glass tube

dye fulament

The velocity of the water was then gradually increased and at a certain point the thread broke up and the diffused dye intermingled with the water in the tube. The flows have evidently passed into the turbulent state and were found to remain in this condition for all higher velocities.
diffused dye

Pictures showing low and high flows

6.2 Reynolds number

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It is a numerical quantity that is a ratio between the inertial forces and viscous forces that exists in a flow. Reynolds found that the type of flow is determined by the velocity, dynamic viscosity, pipeline diameter and the density of the fluid. Reynolds number can be expressed mathematically by this equation: Re = v d Where = density of fluid = dynamic viscosity v = velocity d = diameter of pipe. The critical value of the velocity occurs when the Reynolds number is approximately 2000. Therefore Reynolds made the following findings: o If the Reynolds value is less than 2000, then the flow can be said to be laminar. o If the Reynolds value is between 2000 and 4000 the flow is said to be critical. That means it is in a transition stage changing from laminar to turbulent. o If the Reynolds value is greater than 4000 then the flow can be said to be turbulent.

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WEEK 12
6.3 Calculations on Reynolds' number In order to make the students understand the equations introduced in the last lectures, the following calculations were done: Exercise 11; the velocity at which oil of density 800 kg / m3 is flowing through a pipe of 300 mm diameter is 3 m /sec. With a coefficient of dynamic viscosity of 110 x 10-3 N s /. m2 , calculate and find the type of flow. Solution: Re = v d = 800 x 3 x 0.3 / 0.11 = 6545. The flow is therefore greater than 4000, hence it is turbulent. Exercise 12: The same oil of density 800 kg / m3 and viscosity 171 x 10-3 Ns / m2 is pumped through a 100 mm diameter pipeline. If the critical Reynolds number is 2000, determine the velocity of flow. Solution: Re = v d v = Re x = 2000 x 0.171 = 4.275 m/ sec d 800 x 0.1 6.4 Chezys formula General equation for head losses in turbulent flow could be derived concurrently for both open and closed section conduits. Chezys formula is among these equations and the formula is as follows: V R x S, therefore V = C R x S Where v = velocity, C = Chezys coefficient, s= bed slope, R = hydraulic radius.

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WEEK 13
7.0 HEAD LOSS IN PIPES

The frictional resistance to which fluids flowing through pipes are subjected is dependent on the velocity, area of wetted surface and the nature of surface. The losses due to friction are divided as follows: 7.1 Head loss due to friction in pipes

V1 d 1

b L1 1 L2 2

V2 d 2

H c V3 d 3 d L3 3 4

1) At a, loss due to entrance to the pipe: 0.5 V12 2g 2) Between (a and b), head loss due to friction: 4fL1V12 2gd1 3) At b, head loss due to contraction: 0.5V22 2g 4)Between (b and c) loss due to friction: 4fL2V22 2gd2 5) At c head loss due to enlargement: (V2 V3)/2g

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6) Between (c and d), loss due to friction: 4fL3V32 2gd3 7) At d, velocity head destroyed: V32 /2g

7.3 Calculations on head loss Exercise 13: Two reservoirs are connected with pipe 500 m long and the diameter is 100 mm. If the difference in water levels between the two reservoirs is 15 m, what is the velocity of flow in the pipe? Take f=0.01 and g=10 Solution H = 0.5 V12 + 4fL1V12 + V12 2g 2gd1 2g 15 = 0.5 V12 + 4 x 0.01 x 500 x V12 + V12 2 x 10 2 x 10 x 0,1 20 15 = V12 ( 0.5 + 10 + 1 ) 20 20 15 = V12 (10.075) V1 = 15 = 1.2 m /sec 10.075

Question: Reservoirs A and B have a difference of level of 9 m and are connected by a pipe which is 200 mm in diameter over the first length AC which is 15 m long and then 250 mm diameter for the remaining 45 m length CB. The friction coefficient f is 0.01 and g = 10. Calculate the flow rate and check whether Q1 = Q2

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Solution: H = 0.5V12 + 4fL1V12 + (V1 V2)2 + 4fL2V22 + V22 2g 2gd1 2g 2gd2 2g 9 = 0.5V12 + 4 x 0.01 x 15 x V12 + (V1 V2)2 + 4 x 0.01 x 2 x 10 2 x 10 x 0.2 2 x 10 2 x 10 x 0.25 45 x V22+ V22 2 x 10

From continuity equation: Q1 = Q2 A1 V1 = A2 V2 V1 = A2V2 = /4 (0.25)2 x V2 = (0.25)2 x V2 = 1.56V2 /4 (0.2)2 (0.2)2 A1 V1 = (1.56V2)2 = 2.43V22 9 = 0.061V22 +0.36V22 +(0.56V2)2 + 0.36V22 + 0.05V22 20 9 = 0.061V22 + 0.36V22 + 0.016V22 + 0.36V22 + 0.05V22 9 = 0.847V22 and V22 = 9/0.847 = 10.62 V2 = 10.62 = 3.3 m / sec Since V1 = 1.56V2 , then it will be: V1 = 1.56 x 3.3 = 5.1 m / sec Q2 = A2V2 = /4 (d2)2 x V2 = 3.14/4 (0.25)2 x 3.3 = 0.16 m3sec Q1 = A1V1 = /4 (d1)2 x V1 = 3.14/4 (0.2)2 5.1 = 0.16 m3 / sec Therefore Q1 = Q2 Questions were asked by the students on this calculation and were answered to the satisfaction of the students.

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WEEK 14
8.0 OPEN CHANNEL FLOW This week the lectures focus on the differences between flow of water in open channels and that of pipes. Also the use of pumps in improving water supply to a high or far distance was discussed. The following is the notes: 8.1 Flow in open channels It is a flow with a free surface. This flow differs from the flow in pipes in so far as pressure at the free surface is constant (normally atmospheric) and does not vary from point to point in the direction of flow, as the pressure can do in a pipeline. Another difference is that in an open channel the area of cross-section is not controlled by the fixed boundaries, since the depth can vary from section to section, unlike in the case of a pipe. The types of flow in open channel are classified with respect to change in flow depth. The flow depth may vary with time and space.

Steady and unsteady flow Time is the criteria. If the depth of flow does not change or if it can be assumed to be constant during the time interval under consideration, it is known as steady flow. If the depth varies with reference to time, it is known as unsteady flow. Examples are floods and surges. Most of the open channel flows are studied under steady conditions.

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8.2Uniform and non-uniform flow In this case, space is the criteria. A flow is said to be uniform if the depth of flow is the same at every section of the channel. If the depth of flow changes along the length of the channel, it is said to be non-uniform Pumps Pumps are used to raise water from one (lower) point to another (high) point. Therefore pumps may be needed to lift water from a lake, reservoir or river to water treatment plant and after treatment another lift will be needed to force water into the mains and elevated storage tank

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WEEK 15
9.0 PUMPS AND TURBINES 9.1 Pumps Pumps are used to raise water from one (lower) point to another (high) point. Therefore pumps may be needed to lift water from a lake, reservoir or river to water treatment plant and after treatment another lift will be needed to force water into the mains and elevated storage tank 9.2 Matching pumps to system In many cases involving bad water supply situations, people always suggest that there is need to purchase a pump in order to improve the water supply. But the big question that needs to be answered is: what sort of pump is needed to match the system in question? Honestly, solving the problem and obtaining the correct pump need or involve a long procedure. If this procedure is not carried out, and a pump is bought from the market, the chances that it will perform very well are very small. In order to carry out the procedure of selecting a pump that will match a system, necessary data must be obtained in order to make the required calculations. The more accurate the data and calculations, the better pump will be acquired for the lifting of the water. In the process of distributing water, booster pumps may be needed at certain points to keep pressure at desirable heights. Where the source of supply is a well, pumps will be needed to raise the water into a collecting basin, unless the wells are of artesian type. From the collecting basin, the main pump will force the water into the mains. For pumping into the water

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mains, standby or emergency pumps will be needed to operate when breakdown occur or to take care of great demand. 9.3 Pump classification The pumps that are used for water supply systems can be broadly divided into two distinct classes namely: displacement and centrifugal. The displacement type of pumps include the reciprocating type in which a piston or plunger alternately draws water into a cylinder on the intake stroke and then forces it out on the discharging stroke, and the rotary type in which two rotating pistons or gears interlock and draw water into the chamber and force it continuously into the discharge pipe. As for the centrifugal type, it has an impeller with radial vans rotating swiftly to draw water into the centre and discharge it by centrifugal force. 9.4Turbines

Turbine is a rotating engine that converts the energy of a moving stream of water into mechanical energy. The basic element in a turbine is a wheel or rotor with paddles, propellers or buckets arranged on its circumference in such a fashion that the moving fluid exerts a tangential force that turns the wheel and imparts energy into it. This mechanical energy is then transferred through a drive shaft to operate

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a machine, compressor, electric generator or propeller. Turbines are classified as hydraulic, or water turbines, stream turbines or gas turbines. Today turbines powered generators produce most of the worlds electrical energy. Water turbines are mainly used in hydro- power stations to drive electric generators. There are three well-known types that are in common used. These are: 1.The Pelton wheel: It is an impulse turbine in which bucket or vanes of elliptic shape are attached to the periphery of a rotating wheel. One or two nozzles project a jet of water tangentially to the vane pitch circle. 2. Francis turbine is of reaction type. This means that during energy transfer in the impeller there is a drop in static pressure and a drop in velocity head. Only part of the total head presented to the machine is converted to velocity head before entering the impeller. This is achieved in adjustable and stationary guide vanes. This turbine is normally running full of water, which enters the impeller on the whole periphery. Axial flow (Kaplan) turbine. Like Francis turbine, this is also a reaction type of turbine. In fact the arrangement guide vanes for an axial flow turbine are similar to that for a Francis turbine. The guide vane ring is in a plane perpendicular to the shaft so that the flow through it is radial. The impeller, however, is situated further downstream, so that between the guide vanes and the impeller the water turns through a right angle into the axial direction. Pictures showing Kaplan and Pelton turbines

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