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Computer Network
A computer network is a collection of autonomous computer and other computing hardware devices that are interconnected by a single technology through communication channels to facilitate communication and resource-sharing among a wide range of users Communication channels : Copper wire, optical fiber, microwaves, communication satellite
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Advantages of Networking
Easy Communication and Speed Share Files, Data and Information Sharing Hardware and Software(so Cheap) Supports the way we live, the way we learn and the way we work .
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Disadvantages of Networking
Security Issues High installation cost Breakdown of the whole network Bandwidth Issues Need of skilled human resources
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Networking Models
Network architecture in which each computer or process on the network is either a client or a server. client host requests, receives service from always-on server e.g. Web browser/server; email client/server
Servers are powerful computers or processes dedicated to managing disk drives (file servers), printers(print servers), or network traffic (network servers ). Clients are PCs or workstations on which users run applications. Clients rely on servers for resources, such as files, devices, and even processing power.
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Distributed network architecture in which individual nodes in the network (called "peers") can act as both suppliers and consumers peer-peer
of resources,
no use of dedicated servers e.g. Skype, BitTorrent client/server
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Active Network It has a set of 'Active Nodes' that perform customized operations on the data flowing through them. Traditional data networks provide a transport mechanism to transfer bits from one end system to another, with a minimal amount of computation (e.g., header processing and signaling).In contrast to that active networks not only allows the network nodes to perform computations on the data but also allow their users to inject customized programs into the nodes of the network, that may modify, store or redirect the user data flowing through the network.
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Whats a protocol?
human protocols: whats the time? I have a question introductions specific msgs sent specific actions taken when msgs received, or other events network protocols: machines rather than humans all communication activity in Internet governed by protocols
protocols define format, order of msgs sent and received among network entities, and actions taken on msg transmission, receipt of a message or other event
Protocols cont
Networking protocol is a set of rules that governs the data communication and describe processes such as The format or structure of the message The method by which networking devices share information about pathways with other networks How and when error and system messages are passed between devices The setup and termination of data transfer sessions
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1. Syntax: Structure or format of data. It refers the order in which data are processed.(eg: first 16 bits give address of sender, following 8 bits message to be sent and so on) 2. Semantics: Meaning of each section of bits. How a particular pattern to be interpreted and what action to be taken on interpretation.(eg: An address specifies route to be taken or final destination) 3. Timing: When and how fast data is to be sent.(eg: When a sender produces a data at 100 Mbps and receiver receives at 1 mbps, overload and data lost occurs)
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STANDARDS
Need of Standards:
Create and maintain open and competitive market for equipment manufacturers. Guarantee Interoperability Give a fixed quality and product to customers To aid to design and implementation ideas To Provide guidelines to manufactures, vendors, government agencies and service providers. Categories: De-facto( from the fact and not been approved by an organized body. Adopted as standards through widespread use) De jure( legislated by a officially recognized body)
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Reference Models
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Layered Architecture
Organization of air travel
ticket (purchase) baggage (check) gates (load) runway takeoff
ticket (complain)
baggage (claim) gates (unload) runway landing airplane routing
airplane routing
airplane routing
series of steps
gates (load)
runway (takeoff) airplane routing
departure airport
takeoff/landing
airplane routing
airplane routing
airplane routing
airplane routing
arrival airport
via its own internal-layer actions relying on services provided by layer below
A layer should be created where a different level of abstraction is needed. Each layer should perform a well defined functions. The function of each layer should be chosen with a eye towards defining internationally standardized protocols. The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information flow across the interfaces. The number of layers should be large enough that distinct functions need not be thrown together in the same layer out of necessity and small enough that the architecture does not become unwieldy.
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Between each pair of adjacent layers is an interface. Interface defines which primitive operations and service the lowest makes available to the upper one Service is a set of functions offered by a layer to the upper layer in the protocol hierarchy.
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Physical Layer
The Physical layer controls how data is placed on the communication media. The role of the OSI Physical layer is to encode the binary digits that represent Data Link layer frames into signals and to transmit and receive these signals across the physical media - copper wires, optical fiber, and wireless - that connect network devices.
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Major Responsibilities: Define physical characteristics of Interfaces between the devices and transmission media and defines the type of transmission medium. Data Rate Bit Signal Representation: Representing the bits by signal( electrical, optical or electromagnetic) Bit synchronization( By providing the clocking mechanism between sender and receiver) Multiplexing Devices: Hubs, Repeater Protocols: RS-232, T1, E1
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Responsible for reliable and error-free transmission of packets across a single link. It controls how data is placed on to the media and is received from the media Framing: Determine the start and end of the packets Error detection :Determine which packets contain transmission errors Error correction: Retransmission schemes (Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ) Flow control and Access Control Physical Addressing Packet Data Unit( PDU): Frame Protocols: HDLC, PPP, Frame Relay Devices: Bridges, Switches
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Media Access Control Media Access Control (MAC) provides Data Link layer addressing and delimiting of data according to the physical signaling requirements of the medium. It defines how data are placed on media
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The Network layer manages devices addressing, tracks the location of device on the network and provides services to exchange the individual piece of data over the network. It provides internetworking i.e logical glueing of heterogeneous physical networks together to look like a single network to upper layers. To accomplish end to end transport, Network layer uses four basic process: 1. Addressing: Identification of each node or end devices on a network with unique logical address i.e IP address. 2. Encapsulation: The Upper layer segment is encapsulated with source and destination addrss to form a packet.
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Network Layer
Network Layer..
3. Routing: Finding the best path between source and destination using different routing algorithm. 4. Decapsulation: In the receiver side, packets are stripped off the logical address to reveal data segments and passed to upper level. PDU: packet Devices: Router Protocols: IP, ICMP, Apple talk, RIP
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Transport layer
The basic function of transport layer is to accept the data from the session layer, split it up to the smaller units if need arises, pass these pieces to the network layer to ensure that all pieces arrive correctly at the end. Major Responsibilities: Port addressing: Transport layer header includes a port address to allow multiples process on computers run at same time and deliver the message from a specific process on one computer to specific process on other. It tracks individual conversation Segmentation and Reassembly: Segments the data, give sequence number so that it can be reassembled at receiver side without error.
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Transport layer
Connection Control: Connection oriented or Connectionless transfer of data. Error Control: The transport layer makes sure that the entire message arrives at the receiving tx layer without error. PDU: Segments Protocols: TCP, UDP
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Allow users on separate machine to define how data conversations are established, controlled and terminated. Major responsibilities: Dialog Control: Keeping track of whose turn is to transmit. It coordinates between system and servers to organize their communication by offering 3 different modes: simplex, Half duplex or Full duplex Token Management: to prevent two parties from attempting the same critical operation at same time. Synchronization: Checkpointing how long transmissions to allow them to continue from where they were before they crash. Protocols: RPC(Remote Procedure Call), Net Bios PDU: DATA
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Session Layer:
Presentation Layer
Presentation layer deals with the presentation of data and is concerned with syntax and semantics of information transmitted. Major tasks: Translation: Networks can connect very different types of systems together which may have many distinct characteristics and represent data in different ways. The presentation layer handles the job of hiding these differences between systems. Encryption and Decryption Compression PDU: Data Protocols: JPEG, ASCII, MP4
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Application Layer
OSI model explains application layer as being the user interface. The OSI application layer is responsible for displaying data and images to the user in a humanrecognizable format and to interface with the presentation layer below it. Application layer provides interface between the applications we use to communicate and the underlying network over which our message are transmitted. PDU: Data Protocols: HTTP, DNS, FTP
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ARPANET(Advanced Research Project Agency Network) was a research network sponsored by DOD(Department of Defense, US). It connected hundreds of universities and governments networks. When satellite and radio networks were added later, the existing protocols had trouble internetworking with them, so a new architecture was needed. So, to connect multiple networks in a seamless way was one of the major designs goals of TCP/IP from the very beginning. Another goal was to survive the loss of subnet hardware of a network i.e DoD wanted connections remain intact as long as source and destination machines were functioning even if some of the intermediate devices or transmission lines were kept out of operation. And a more real time architecture was felt necessary to transfer files and speech. TCP/IP was developed as an open standard. This speed up the development of TCP/IP as a standard . TCP/IP is named after two of the popular protocols TCP and IP.
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TCP/IP model
TCP/IP model..
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TCP/IP protocol suite. Those protocols which are implemented in both sending and receiving ends to provide end to end delivery. A complete communication process includes these steps: 1. Creation of data at the application layer of the originating source end device 2. Segmentation and encapsulation of data as it passes down the protocol stack in the source end device 3. Generation of the data onto the media at the network access layer of the stack 4. Transportation of the data through the internetwork, which consists of media and any intermediary devices 5. Reception of the data at the network access layer of the destination end device 6. Decapsulation and reassembly of the data as it passes up the stack in the destination device 7. Passing this data to the destination application at the Application layer of the destination end device
TCP/IP Model.. TCP/IP model describes the functionality of the protocols that makes the
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Network Access
The physical and Data link layer of OSI model is grouped to form network access(interface) layer which involves primitive bits that are transmitted on communication channels. It provides mechanical, electrical and functional means and processes required for data transmission. It provides a correct channel for transmitting data by implementing error detection, error correction and synchronization. It is also responsible for flow control. This describes hardware requirements as pin configurations, voltage levels and cable requirements.
Similar to Network layer of OSI model The internet layer encapsulate the data into IP datagram to include source and destination address. The network layer checks network topology to determine the optimal route for message transmission, and transfers data. The key factor is to determine the best route for transmitting data packets from the source end to the destination end. Protocols: IP, ICMP
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Internet Layer
Transport layer
The basic function of the transport layer is to implement end-to-end communication for the application program between two hosts. The transport layer receives data from the application layer, and then divides it into smaller units if necessary. Before sending it to the network layer, the system ensures that the data is sent to correct segments of the peer. Protocols : TCP and UDP (User Datagram Protocol). TCP reliable and connection oriented UDP: does not perform end to end reliability check
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Include application, presentation and session layer of OSI model. The application layer is responsible for processing details of a specified application program. The application layer displays received information, transmits user data to the lower layer and provides network interfaces for application software. It includes a number of protocols that provide specific functionality to a variety of end user applications and defines how host programs interface with transport layer services to use network. Protocols: HTTP, TELNET, FTP, DNS
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Application layer
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