CS22 DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKS

UNIT I: Introduction: A brief History Applications Computer networks Categories of networks Standards and Standards Organizations Network architecture Open Systems and OSI modelsTCP/IP Architecture. Communication Media and Data Transmission: Fourier Analysis-Analog and digital Data Transmission-Modulation and DemodulationTransmission Media-Wireless Communication-Data Transmission Basics-Transmission modeInterfacing-Multiplexing. Data Link Control and Protocol Concepts: Flow Control-error control-Asynchronous Protocols-High Level Data Link Control (HDLC) UNIT II: Local Area Networks: Types of Networks and Topology-LAN Transmission Equipment-LAN Installation and Performance-Ethernet: IEEE Standard802.3-Token Bus: IEEE Standard 802.2-Token Ring: IEEE Standard 802.5-Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI)Distributed Queue Dual Bus (DQDB)-: IEEE Standard 802.6-LAN Operating Systems and Protocols-Ethernet Technologies. Wide Area Network: WAN Transmission Methods-WAN Carrier Types-WAN Transmission Equipments-WAN Design and Multicast Considerations-WAN Protocols. UNIT III: Integrated Services and Routing Protocols: Integrating Services-ISDN Services-ISDN Topology-ISDN Protocols-Broadband ISDN-Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)-Principal characteristics of ATM-Frame Relay-Comparison of ISDN, ATM and Frame Relay. Wireless LANs: WLAN Applications-Wireless LAN Requirements-Planning for Wireless LANs-Wireless LAN Architecture-IEEE 802.11 Protocol Layer-IEEE 802.11 Physical layerDesigning the Wireless LAN Layout-WAP Services. UNIT IV: Internetworking: Principles of Internetworking-Routing Principles-Internet work Protocols (IP)-Shortcut of IPv4-IP Next Generation. TCP Reliable Transport Services: Transport protocols-The Services TCP provides to ApplicationsEnd-to-End Services and Datagram-Transmission Control Protocol-User Datagram Protocol

UNIT V: Network Applications: Client Server Model-Domain Name System (DNS)-TelnetFile Transfer and remove file access-Electronic Mail-World Wide Web (WWW). Network Management: Goal of Network management-Network Management Standards-Network Management Model-Infrastructure for Network Management-Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP).

Text Book: Data Communication and Computer Networks Second Edition Brijendra Singh PHI, 2006. Reference: 1. Computer Networks, Andrew S.Tanenbaum, 4th Edition. 2. Data Communication and computer Networks-Prakash C.Gupta, Prentice Hall of India. 3. Data and computer communications, William Stallings, PHI, 2007 4. Data Communication and Networking Behrouz A, Forouzan, TMH, 2005 5. Data Communications and Computer Networks, Brijendra Singh, PHI, 2006 6. Data Communications and Networks-Achyut .S.Godbole, Tata McGraw Hill, 2005

INTRODUCTION
Data communication is the exchange of data between two devices some form of transmission medium (such as wire cable). Communicating devices must be part of a communication system made up of a combination of hardware and software. The effectiveness of data communication system depends on the three characteristics: delivery, accuracy, and timeliness. There are five components in data communication systems as shown in figure 1.1. 1. Message : Message is the information (data message). 2. Sender : Device which sends the data message. 3. Receiver : Device which receives the data message. 4. Medium : Physical path by which a message travels from the sender to the receiver. 5. Protocol : Set of rules that govern data communication. A BRIEF HISTORY The fields of communications are certainly not new: people have been communication. Since the early days when humans grunted and scratched pictures on cave walls, which are form of communication based on the auditory and visual senses, where you either hear some one speaking or see letters and symbols that and symbols that define a message. Communications changed drastically in 1837, after the invention of the telegraph by Samuel mores. Telegraph invention made possible to send information using electrical impulses over a copper wire. In 1937, Howard A. Alien of Harvard University began work in the design of a fully automatic calculating machine using the concepts of Babbage and those used in punch cards in collaboration with the IBM. Seven years later in January 1994. The design became a reality and was named MARKI. Another event important to communications occurred in 1945 with the invention of the first electronic computer. ENIAC (electronic numerical integrator and calculator). It contains vacuum tubes, registers, capacitors and switches and was faster than MARK I. The relation between computers and communications began to emerge after the invention of transistor of 1947 allowing smaller and cheaper computers to be

built. The new generation of computer that emerged during the 1960s made new applications such as processing and routing telephone calls economically feasible. Another mile stone in computer-networking occurred with the development of ARPANET. It was developed by the US department of defense. The 1970s and 1980s saw the merger of the fields of computer sciences and data communications that profoundly changed the technology, products and companies of the now companied-communication industries. The 1990s saw the emergence of the world wide web, an application that makes information from around the world easily accessible from ones desk. Computers and communication have progressed to the point where most businesses or schools can no longer function without them. APPLICATIONS Transferring data between computers is just one area of communications. Data communication networks have become an indispensable part of business, industry and entertainment. Some of the network application in different fields are the following Electronic Messaging Probably the most widely used network application is electronic mail (e-mail). With e-mail). With e-mail, it is possible to send a message to remote locations from the privacy of your own home. Facsimile Machine (Fax) A fax machine creates an electronic equivalent of an image on a sheet of paper and then sends the image over Telephone lines. A fax machine at the other and creates the original papers image. Teleconferencing Teleconferencing allows conference to occur without the participants being in the same place. Teleconferencing includes. *Text conferencing, where participants communicate through their keyboards and computer monitors. *Voice conferencing, where participants at a number of locations communicate simultaneously over the phone.

*Video conferencing, where participants can see as well as talk to one another. Cellular Telephone Hitherto, two parties wishing to use the services of a telephone company had to be linked by a fixed physical connection. Information services Information services include bulletin boards and banks. Bulletin boards allow the free exchange of some software, files or other information. Financial Services Financial services include credit history searches, foreign exchanges and investment services, and electronic fund transfer. Marketing and sales Computer networks are used extensively in both marketing and sales organization. COMPUTER NETWORKS A network is a set of devices connected by media links. A node can be a computer printer, or any other capable of sending and receiving data generated by other nodes on the network. The links connecting the devices are called communication channels. A computer network may be defined as an interconnected collection of autonomous computer. Topology is the layout of the collection formed between computer. To some extent, the reliability and efficiency of a network is determined by its structure. Bus Topology All computers attached to the cable can sense an electrical signal any computer can send data to any other computer. Advantages: Connecting a computer or peripheral to a linear bus is easy.

This topology requires least amount of cabling to connect the computers and therefore, less expensive than other cabling arrangements. It is easy to extend a bus since two cables can be joined into one longer cable with a connector. Disadvantage: Entire network shuts down if there is a failure in the backbone. Heavy traffic can slow down a bus because computers on such networks do not coordinate with each other to reserve time to transmit. Star Topology The star topology is the oldest communications design method, with roots in telephone switching systems. However, the advance in network technology have made the star technology a good option for modern networks. A hub is a central device that joins single cable segments or individual LANs into one network. A typical hub consists of an electronic device that accepts data from sending computer and delivers it to the appropriate destination. Advantage: Star topology is easy to install and wire. The network is not disrupted even if a node fails or is removed from the network. Fault detection and removal of faulty parts easier in star topology. Disadvantage: It requires a longer length of cable. If the hub fails, node attached to it or disabled. The cost of the hubs makes the network expensive as compared to bus and ring topology.

Ring Topology The ring topology is a continuous path for data with no logical beginning or ending points and thus no terminators. Workstations and file servers are attached to the cable at points round the rings. The ring topology is easier to manage than the bus because the equipment used to build the ring makes it easier to locate a defective node or cable problem. Advantages: Ring topology is easy to install and reconfigure. Every computer is given equal access to the ring, hence no single computer can monopolise the networks. Disadvantages: Failure in any cable or node breaks the loop and take down the entire network. Maximum ring length and number of nodes are limited. Tree Topology A tree topology is a variation of star. As in star, nodes in a tree are linked to a central hub that controls the traffic to the network. However, not every device plugs directly into the central hub. Advantages: The distance to which a signal can travel increases as the signal passes through a chain of hubs. Tree topology allows isolating and prioritizing communications from different nodes. Disadvantages: If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down. It is more difficult to configure wire than other topologies.

Mesh Topology The mesh topology has a direct connection between every pair of devices in the network. This is extreme design. Communications becomes very simple because there is no common line. Advantages: The use of large number of links eliminates network congestion. If one link becomes unusable, it does not disable the entire system. Disadvantages: The amount of required cabling is very large. The amount of hardware required in this type of topology can make it expensive to implement. Combined Topologies Many computer networks use combinations of the various topologies. It has a common bus , sometimes called the backbones, which allows user to access main frames and high volume or frequency accessed storage. Categories of Networks There are two types of networks based on transmission technology 1. Broadcast networks 2. Point to point networks Broadcast network have a single communication channel that is shared by all the machines on the networks. Short messages- called packets. When a packet with this code is transmitted, it is received and processed by every machine on the network. This mode of operation is called broadcasting. Point to point network consist of many connections between individual pairs of machines.

Local Area Network (LAN) LANs are used to interconnect distributed communities of computer based data terminal equipment located within a single building or localized group of building. LAN interconnect work station distributed around offices within a single building such as university campus, factory or hospital campus. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) MAN is basically a bigger version of a LAN and normally uses similar technology. MAN is designed to extend over an entire city. Wide Area Network (WAN) A WAN is at the far end of the spectrum because it is for reaching system of networks that form a complex whole. One WAN is composed of two or more LANs that are connected across a distance of more than 30 miles. Multimedia Network The term multimedia is used to indicate that the information/data being transferred over the network may be composed of one or more of the following media types: Text Images Audio Video There are 5 basic types of communication network that are used to provide multimedia communication services: 1. Telephone networks 2. Data networks 3. Broadcast television networks 4. Integrated services digital networks

5. Broadband multi service networks

STANDARDS AND STANDARD ORGANISATIONS The Need for Standards The standards used in the computer industry by the various international bodies were concerned primarily with either the internal operation of a computer or the connection of a local peripheral devices. Several national and international agencies play a strong roll in establishing network standards that ensure a common ground for communications and network equipments. Key among these agencies are: American National Standard Institute (ANSI) International Electro Technical Commission (IEC) International Telecommunication Unions (ITU) Institute Of Electrical And Electronics Engineers (IEEE) International organization For Standardization (ISO) Internet society and the associated Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA) and the associated Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) American National Standard Institute (ANSI) ANSI is a private non-government agency where members are manufactures users and other interested companies. International Electro-Technical Commission (IEC) IEC is a non governmental agency devising standards for data processing and inter connections and safety in office equipment. International Telecommunications Union (ITU) ITU is an agency of the United Nations and has three sectors: 1. ITU-R deals with radio communication. 2. ITU-D is a development sector.

3. ITU-T deals with telecommunication.

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineering (IEEE) The IEEE is the largest professional organization in the world and consists of computing and engineering professionals. International Organizations for Standardizing (ISO) The International Organization is a non-governmental organization based in Geneva, Switzerland, in which over 100 countries participate. Internet society and the associated Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) IETF focuses on technical internet issues. Important contributions include the development of simple network Management Protocol (SNMP). Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA) and the associated Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) TIA was created as a separate body within a EIA to develop telecommunications and cabling standards. NETWORK ARCHITECTURE Network designers have developed general blue-print-usually called a network architecture that guides the design and implementation of network. Designing a network to meet these requirements is no small tasks. The essential elements of network architecture are: Digital transmission lines for the transfer of streams of binary information between equipment. Exchange of frames of information between adjacent equipment ; those frames contain delineation information as well as check bits for error control. Address to identify points of attachment to a network or a inter network. Exchange of packets of information between packet switches in a network. Congestion control mechanism may be used to prevent congestion inside the network.

Inter networking provides connectivity across multiple, possibly dissimilar, networks by using gateways or routers. A multiplicity of applications that built on the transfer of messages between computers. OPEN SYSTEMS AND OSI MODEL A set of protocols that would allow any two different systems to communicate regardless of their underlying architecture is called an open system. Layers of OSI Model The OSI Model consists of the following layers: 1. Application layer 2. Presentation layer 3. Session layer 4. Transport layer 5. Network layer 6. Data link layer 7. Physical layer Application layer protocols have been developed for file transfer e-mail, network management and other applications. The presentation layer is responsible for presenting data in the format the user can understand. The session layer allows application on two different computers to establish a session or logical connections. The transport layer is responsible to ensure that data is sent reliable from the sending node to the destination node. The network layer deals with routing strategies, which are responsible for delivery of a packet from source to destination. The data link layer provides for the transfer of frames across a transmission link that directly connects two nodes.

The physical layer deals with the transfer of bits over a communication channel, for example, copper wire pairs, coaxial cable, radio or optical fiber. TCP/IP ARCHITECTURE When the OSI model was developed in 1978, many felt that it would replace proprietary, vendor-specific architecture such as IBMs system network architecture, which was in wide spread use in the late 1970s and 1980s. In 1970s US Department of Defence wanted to interconnect computer and networks it had acquired from the different vendors. The government Advanced Research Project Agency (ARPA) developed a set of protocols called the TCP/IP to enable the interconnection. TCP/IP is also the protocol of choice for most medium and large sized networks. It is one of the oldest protocols and is a proven technology that is used by millions of computer users around the globe. The TCP/IP protocol suite is made of 5 layers: Application layer Transport layer Internet layer Network access layer Physical layer The first four layers provide physical standards, network interface, internet working, and transport functions that corresponds to the first 4 layers of the OSI model. A number of applications have been standardized to operate on top of TCP/IP. There of the most common here. Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) provides a basic electronic mail facility. It provides a mechanism for transferring messages among separate hosts. Features of SMTP include mailing lists, return receipts and forwarding.

File Transfer Protocol (FTP) FTP is used to send files from one system to another under user command. Both text and binary files are accommodated, and the protocol provides features for controlling user access. The file is transferred over the data connection, without the overhead of any headers of control information at the application level. TELNET (Terminal Network) The main task of the internet and its TCP/IP protocol suite is to provide services for users. TELNET is an abbreviation of TErminaL NETwork. Client-server application program is called TELNET.

Communication Media and Data Transmission Fourier Analysis:A Famous Mathematician, JeanBaptiste Fourier developed a theory that any periodic function can be expressed as an Infinite series of sums of sine and cosine function of varying amplitude, frequency and phase shift this series is called Fourier series.

F(t)=1/2C + an sin(2nft)+ an cos(2nft) F=1/T is called fundamental frequency. The number of times a signal oscillates per unit time is called its frequency It measurements are cycle per second or equivalently ,Hrtz(HZ). T sin (2kft) sin (2nft) dt{0 for k=n} 0 { T/2 for kn}

Only one term at summation survives an the bn summation vanishes completely

C=2/T F(t)dt.

Bandwidth limited signals:The transmission of the ASCII character b is encoded in an 8 bit byte. Transmitted is 01100010. The Maximum Data rate of a channel:The maximum data rate =2hLog2 v bits/sec Maximum number of bits/sec=hLog2h s/n)

Analog And digital Data Transmission:An example of analog data is the human voice. Some one speaks; an analog wave is created in the air. An example on digital data is data stored in the computer in the form of 0 and 1.

Analog Signals:Analog signals can be classified simple or composite. A composite analog signal is composed of multiple sine wave. S (t) =A sin (2ft+) S->Instaneous amplitude A->peak amplitude f->frequency ->phase Frequency refers to the number at periods in one second

Frequency is the inverse of periods f=1/T. Unit Second(s) Millisecond(ms) Microsecond(s) Nanosecond(ns) Picosecond(ps) Equivalent 1s 10power-3s 10power-6s 10power-9s 10power-12s

Unit Hertz(HZ) kilo Hertz (KHZ) mega Hertz(MHZ) giga Hertz(GHZ) Tera Hertz(THZ)

Equivalent 1HZ 10power3HZ 10power6HZ 10power9HZ 10power12HZ

The position of the waveform relative to time zero. The phase is measured in degrees or radians. The phase shift of 360 degree corresponds to a shift of completed period. 180 degree corresponds to a shift one half of the period. 90 degree corresponds to a shift quarter of the period.

Digital Signals:Data can be represented by a digital signal. 1can be encoded as a positive voltage 0can be encoded as a negative voltage Analog transmission can use a Band pass channel.

Modulation and Demodulation:Computer are Digital devices,computer communication such as terminal to computer or computer to disk transmission use digital signals. Modulation means Digital signal into analog signal. Example: PC and a telephone,PC and a digital signal via its modem port Modem convert digital signal to analog signal . Telephone lines carry frequencies between 300 and 3300 HZ.its used for voice transmission.

Digital to Analog Conversion:1.frequency modulation 2.amplitude modulation 3. phase modulation

Frequency modulation:Its also called the frequency shift keying it assign the frequency range 0 and 1

Amplitude modulation:Its also called the amplitude shift keying it similar to frequency shift keying. it assign the range 0 and 1.

Phase modulation:Its also called the phase shift keying it similar to frequency shift keying. it assign the range 0 and 1. Analog to Digital conversion:Reverse of modulation method. Incoming signals are frequency amplitude phase shifting.

Transmission Media:It can classified as guided or unguided . Guided media provide physical path for example twisted pair coaxial cable, optical fibers. Unguided media employee an antenna for transmitting air, vacuum or water

Twisted Pair:The Twisted pair is a Telephone System, telephones are connected to the telephone company office by a twisted pair Twisted pair can run several kilometers and repeater are needed. The wires are connected in helical form. Its used for either analog to digital transmission

Electronic Industries association has developed the standards for twisted pair cables. It comes in several types. 1) category 3 twisted pair 1) category 5 twisted pair

Base band Coaxial Cable:It carry signals of higher frequency .it consistence of shift copper wire. It have outer conductor of metal foil, braid. It contains the high bandwidth and excellent noise immunity. Two kinds of cables 50 ohm(digital) 75 ohm (analog)

Base band Coaxial cable:It comes from telephone world. 4 KHZ used in transmission. It used analog transmission. It is also called the brand band. Base band differ from broad band it need analog amplifiers to strengthen. Two types of broadband system.

Optical Fiber:Optical fiber uses light, not electricity, to transmit information. An optical fiber cable has a cylindrical shape and consists of three sections. 1) The core 2) The Cladding 3) The jacket Core is the innermost section and consists of fiber mode of glass or plastic. Core has a diameter in the range 8 to 100 m

The jacket is composed at plastic and other material layered to protect against moisture Single mode fiber Multi mode fiber Single mode fiber is manufacture in much smaller diameter than that of multi mode fiber and with substantially lower density. Optical transmission system has three components 1)Light source 2)Transmission media 3) Detector

Wireless Communication:Wireless communication transport electromagnetic waves without using physical conductor. They are several wireless media available for transmitting network package. 1)Radio waves. 2) Infrared signals. 3) Micro waves

Radio Waves:Radio network transmission, signal is transmitted one or multiple direction, depending on the type of antenna Electromagnetic waves having frequency between 3KH Z 1GHZ are called radio waves.

Advantages:Inexpensive, option for portable communication.

Disadvantages:Not feasible, when higher speed communication are need.

Microwaves:Electromagnetic waves having frequency is between 1 and 300 GHZ are called microwaves. It is used to link two are more ground based microwave transmitted or receiver know as earth station or ground station. It handles two links uplink and downlink. uplink is used to receives transmission on one frequency band . Down link is used to transmit it on another frequency band. Single orbiting satellite operate on a number frequency called transponders channels.

Infrared :Can also be used as a media for network communication. This communication used in remote control device using in television and stereo. Does not penetrate walls. Infrared transmission may not be feasible when high speed communication is needed.

Data Transmission Basics:Data into a computer via a keyboard. Each selected key elements an alphabetic or numeric The two most widely used codes that have been adopted for this function are the Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code(EBCDIC). The ASCII American Standards Committee for Information Interchange. EBCDIC is an 8 bit code .manufactured by IBM. ASCII is an 7 bit code manufactured by ITUT.

Transmission Mode:They are three types of transmission mode. 1) Simplex 2) Half duplex 3) Full duplex Simplex mode the communication is unidirectional as one way street. Only one transmit and receiver. Half duplex mode communication both transmit and receivers. Full duplex mode communication both transmit and receivers simultaneously. There are two categories of transmission:1) parallel transmission. 2) serial transmission

parallel transmission:binary data consisting on 1 and 0 may be organized into group of n bits each. Parallel transmission means that a group of bits is transmitted simultaneously by using separate line. Parallel transmission are commonly used when the distance between the two devices are short. Example communication between computer and peripheral devices.

Serial transmission:It means that a group of bits is transmitted one by one using one line for all bits. There are two types of serial communication: 1.asynchronous transmission. 2. synchronous transmission. Asynchronous transmission means that bits are divided into small groups.

Interfacing :Data terminal equipments do not connect to a network directly. The DTE, DCE interface has 4 important categories : 1.mechanical 2.electronical 3.functional 4.procedural

The mechanical characteristics pertain to the actual physical connection of the DTE and DCE. DTE and DCE are connected by pin conductors . Functions can be classified into the broad categories of data control timing and electrical ground. Procedural specify the sequence of events for transmitting data based on the functional . The difference between x.21 and the RS standers is that x.21 was defined as the digital signaling interface. x.21 is useful both as an interface to connect digital computer to analog devices Such as ISDN.

MULTIPLIXING:Multiplexing is the techniques by which simultaneously transmission of multiple signals through data link is possible. Multiplexing techniques are:1) Frequency division multiplexing. 2) Time division multiplexing.

Frequency division multiplexing:It used with analog signals. Perhaps its most common use is in television and radio transmission. It accept signals from multiple sources. It has a specified bandwidth, the signals are combined into another, more complex signal with large bandwidth. MUX extracts and separates the individual components its carries frequencies .

Time division multiplexing:It has many input signals are combined and transmitted to another its used with digital signals. Multiple transmission can occupy a single linked for specific time . Each source are transmission is authorized . Two basic forms are TDM are synchronous TDM and asynchronous TDM.

synchronous TDM :The multiplexer allocates the exactly the same timeslot to each transmission devices at all times. Time slots are grouped time slots. into frames. A frame consists of one complete cycle of

Asynchronous TDM :Asynchronous TDM are also called statistical time division multiplexing it avoid this type of waste . The number of times slot is an Asynchronous TDM frame To transmit any given point. Each slot is available to any of the attached input lines that has data to send.

DATALINK CONTROL AND PROTOCOL CONCEPTS

Protocol is a set of rules that governs the operation of functional units to achieve communication. The type of protocol used to establish a link between two

stations in accordance with the second layer of OSI model is known as data link protocol. Data link protocol can be divided into two small subgroups: asynchronous and synchronous protocols. Asynchronous protocols treat each character in a bit stream independently. Synchronous protocols take the whole bit stream and chop it into characters of equal size. FLOW CONTROL: Flow control is the technique which implies on the data link layer that tells the sender how much data it can transmit before it must wait for an acknowledgement from the receiver. Any receiving device has a limited amount of memory in which to store incoming data. So, the sending station must not send frames at a rate faster then the receiving station can absorb them. Two techniques are developed to control the flow of data across communication links: stop-and-wait flow control and sliding window flow control. STOP-AND-WAIT FLOW CONTROL: The sender waits for an acknowledgement from the receiver after every frame, which it transmitted by the source. It indicates the willingness of the receiver to accept another frame by sending back an acknowledgement to the sender. The source must wait until it receives the acknowledgement before sending the next frame. The destination can thus stop the flow of data simply by withholding acknowledgement. ADVANTAGES: Simplicity. DISADVANTAGE: Inefficiency.

SLIDING WINDOW FLOW CONTROL: In the previous case, only one frame at a time can be in transmitting and the sender waits for an acknowledgement from the receiver after every frame. In sliding window, multiple frames can be transmitted at a time. Suppose two stations A and B are connected via a full-duplex link. Station B allocates buffer space for F frames. Thus station B can accept F frames, and station A is allowed to send F frames without waiting for any acknowledgement. To keep track of which frames can be acknowledged, each is labeled with a sequence number of the next frame expected. This acknowledgement also implicitly announces that station B is prepared to receive the next frame, beginning with the number specified. The frames are numbered modulo-n, which means they are numbered from 0 to n-1.For example, if n=8,the frames are numbered 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7. They have sender sliding window and receiver sliding window. The sliding window of the sender expands to the right when acknowledgements are received. .The sliding window of the receiver expands to the left when acknowledgements are received. ERROR CONTROL: Error control in the data link layers is based on automatic repeat request(ARQ)which means retransmission of data in three cases: 1. Damaged frame 2. Lost frame 3. Lost acknowledgement

DAMAGED FRAME: A recognizable frame does arrive, but some of the bits are in error. LOST FRAME: A frame fails to arrive at the other side. for example, a noise burst may damage a frame to the extent that the receiver is not aware that frame has been transmitted. LOST ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: An acknowledgement fails to arrive at the source. The sender is not aware that acknowledgement has been transmitted from the receiver. The purpose of ARQ is to turn an unreliable data link into a reliable one. Three versions of ARQ have been standardized. 1. stop-and-wait ARQ 2. Go-back-N ARQ 3. selective-reject ARQ STOP-AND-WAIT ARQ: Stop-and-wait ARQis based on the stop-and-wait flow control technique. The sender transmits a single frame and then must await an acknowledgement. No other data frames can be sent until the receivers reply arrives at the source station. The sender sends a single frame to the receiver. There is a chance that a frame that arrives at the destination is damaged. The receiver detects this by using the error detection technique. To avoid such type of error, the source station is equipped with a timer. The sender waits for an acknowledgement for a specified timing after

transmitting the frame. If no acknowledgement is received by the time that the timer expires, then the same frame is transmitted again. GO-BACK-N ARQ: The station A is sending frames to station B. After each transmission, station A sets an acknowledgement timer for the frame just transmitted. Suppose that station B has previously successfully received frame (i-1) and A just frame i.e. We will illustrate go-back-n technique based on damaged frame, lost frame and lost acknowledgement. SELECTIVE-REJECT ARQ: In selective-reject ARQ, only the specific damaged or lost frame is retransmitted. If a frame is corrupted in transit, a NACK is returned and the frame is retransmitted out of sequence. The receiving device must be able to send the frames it has and insert the retransmitted frame into its proper place in its sequence. We will illustrate selective-reject ARQ based on acknowledgement. ASYNCHRONOUS PROTOCOLS: Asynchronous protocols-used primarily in modems-feature start and stop bits and variable-length gaps between characters. A variety of protocols have been developed. That is 1. X-modem 2. Y-modem 3. Z-modem 4. Blocked Asynchronous transmission (BLAST) Asynchronous damaged frame, lost frame and lost

X-MODEM: File transfer communication for telephone line communication between PCs, designed by Ward Christiansen in 1979, is known as X-modem. It is a half duplex stop-and-wait ARQ protocol. In this protocol, transmission begins with the sending of a NACK frame from the receiver to the sender. each time the sender sends a frame, it must wait for an acknowledgement before the next frame can be sent. A frame can be resend either if response is not received by the sender after a specified period of time or if NACK is received by the sender. Y-MODEM: Y-modem is a protocol similar to X-modem, with the following major differences: 1. The data unit is 1024 bytes. 2. ITU-T CRC-16 is used for error checking 3. Multiple files can be sent simultaneously. Z-MODEM: Z-modem is a protocol which combines features of both X-modem and Ymodem. BLAST: BLAST is more powerful than X-modem. It is full duplex with sliding window flow control. It allows the transfer of data and binary files. SYNCHRONOUS PROTOCOLS: Synchronous protocols can be divided into two classes. That is

1. Character oriented protocols 2. Bit-oriented protocols. CHARACTER ORIENTED PROTOCOLS: Character oriented protocols also called byte-oriented protocols interpret a transmission frame or packets as a succession of characters, each usually composed of one byte. These are in use in both point-to-point and multipoint applications. They are characterized by the selected transmission control characters used to perform the various transmission control functions associated with link management, flow control, error control and data transparency. In all data link protocols, control information is inserted into the data stream either as separate control frames or as additions to existing data frames. In character oriented protocols, this information is in the form code words taken from existing character sets such as ASCII or EBCDIC. The binary Synchronous communication protocol often referred to as BSC or character-oriented data link protocol was developed by IBM. It is used with Synchronous, half-duplex communications and uses a stop-and-wait flow control. Binary Synchronous communication protocol (BSC) does not support full-duplex communication or sliding window protocol. BIT-ORIENTED PROTOCOLS: In 1975, IBM pioneered the development of bit-oriented protocols with Synchronous data link control and lobbied the ISO to make SDLC the standard. ANSI modified SDLC and it became ADCCP and subsequently ISO modified ADCCP to HDLC. All of these protocols are based on the same stuffing for data transparency. Since 1981,ITU-T has developed a series of protocols called link access protocols such as: 1. Link access procedures, balanced (LAPB)

2. Link access procedures, D-channel (LAPD) 3. link access procedures, modem(LAPM) All link access protocols are based on HDLC. All bit oriented protocols are related to the HDLC bit-oriented protocol published by ISO. HIGH LEVEL DATALINK CONTROL: PRIMARY STATION (CONTROL STATION): Primary station is responsible for controlling the operation of the link. It means, the station manages dataflow by issuing commands to other stations and acting on their responses. SECONDARY STATION (GUEST STATION): This station operates under the control of primary station. It means the secondary station responds to commands issued by a primary station. COMBINED STATION: This station combines the features of primary and secondary station. UNBALANCED CONFIGURATION: Consists of one primary and one or more secondary stations ans supports both full duplex and half duplex transmissions. BALANCED CONFIGURATION: Consists of two combined stations and supports both full duplex and half duplex transmissions. HDLC defines three data transfer modes: 1. Normal response mode 2. Asynchronous response mode 3. Asynchronous balanced mode

It is used with a balanced configuration. ABM is used in configuration connecting combined stations.

CHAPTER -6 LOCAL AREA NETWORKS (LAN)

Introduction: Local area networks which we normally refer to simply as LANs. Local area networks or LANs are used to interconnect distributed communities of computer-based DTE is located within a single building. For example: University campus, All the equipment is located within a single establishment; LANs are normally installed and maintained by the organization. LAN standards have been developed by the IEEE 802 committee of the Institute Electronic Engineers (IEEE) and accredited in the area of LAN by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI). The following are the examples of requirements that call for higher-speed LANs:

Centralized server farms:

Many applications are a need for user, systems to be able to draw a huge amount of data from multiple centralized servers called server farms. An example is a color publishing operation, in which servers contain tens of gigabytes of image data that must be downloaded to imaging work stations. The servers themselves has increased, the bottleneck has shifted to the network. Switched Ethernet alone would not solve this problem because of the limit of 10 Mbps on a single link to the client.

Power workgroups:
These groups typically consist of a small number of cooperating users who need to draw massive data files across the network. Examples are

a software development group that runs tests on a new software version or a computer-aided design (CAD). In such cases, large amounts of data are distributed to several workstations, processed, and updated at very high speed for multiple iterations.

High-speed local backbone:

As the processing demand grows, LANs proliferate at a site, and high-speed interconnections are necessary.

6.1:TYPES OF NETWORKS AND TOPOLOGY :Each types of network require cabling, network equipment, file servers, workstations, software and training. Some types of networks have low start-up costs, but are expensive to maintain or upgrade. The topology is the physical layout of a network combined with its logical characteristics. The logical side of the network is the way the signal is transferred from point-to-point along the cable. The layout may be centralized, with each station physically connected to a central device that dispatches packets from workstation to workstation. Centralized layouts are like a star with workstations as its points. There are three main topologies: Bus topology, Ring topology, Star topology. Client/server applications generate a medium to high level of network traffic, depending on the client/server software design. Networks on which there is frequent exchange of database information, scientific programs and publications software generate high levels of traffic. The impact of hosts and servers on a network is closely linked to the type of software applications that are used. The network topology for a small business. Heavily trafficked networks need high-speed data transmission capabilities. Security, i.e. the protection of data so that only authorized persons have access, is another issue that influences network design. It may also use data

encryption, which encodes packets and allows only authorized computers to decode them. High-security networks use fiber-optic cable. When a new LAN is installed, there are several factors that affect its design, including the following: *Anticipated network traffic *Redundancy requirements *User movement *Future growth *Security consideration *WAN connectivity

6.2: LAN Transmission Equipment:

LAN Transmission Equipment is used to connect devise on a single network, to create and connect multiple networks or sub-networks, and to set up a campus enterprise. These are included the followings: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Network Interface Card Repeaters Hubs Bridges Routers Brouters Switches Gateway

6.2.1:Network Interface Card

It is used to enable a network device, such as a computer equipment, to connect to the network. The network connection requires four components: *An appropriate connector for the network medium.

*A transceiver *A controller to support the Media Access Control data link protocol *Protocol control firmware The connector and its associated circuits are designed for a specific type of medium, for example, coax, and twisted pair or optical fiber. The cable connector is attached to the transceiver, which may be external to the NIC or built into it. The MAC controller unit and the firmware work together to correctly encapsulate source and destination address, the data to be transported and the CRC information into the service data unit. The MAC controller and firmware are customized for particular type of network transport, which can be any one of the following: Ethernet Fast Ethernet Gigabit Ethernet Token ring Fast token ring Fast Distributed Data Interface Asynchronous Transfer Mode Ethernet, Fast Ethernet, high speed communication. It is able to handle both half and full duplex transmission.

6.2.2:Repeaters:
It is an electronic device that operates on only the physical layer of the OSI model. It connects one or more cable segments and retransmits any incoming signal to all other segments. For example the maximum distance that a single can travel on an Ethernet cable segment is 500 meters but one repeater cans double the effective length of an Ethernet to 1,000 meters. Repeaters are not capable of connecting two dissimilar network technologies.

6.2.3:Hub:
It is a central network device that connects network nodes. It contains the star topology. Hub may be referred to as a connector, and is a device that can have multiple inputs and outputs, all active at one time. Provide a central unit from which to connect multiple nodes into one network. Permit large numbers of computers to be connected on single or multiple LANs. Reduce network congestion by centralizing network design. Provide multi-protocol services. Consolidate the network backbone. Enable high speed communication. Provide connections for several different media types. Enable centralizes network management. It also called multistation access unit. Operating as a central hub an MAU functions at the OSI physical and data link layers. There are different kinds of hubs: 1. Passive hub(acts as path way) Data to follow from one device to another. 2. Intelligent hub: It can detect errors and provide assistance to a technician when attempting to locate a failing component. 3. Active hub: Regenerate and process signals.

6.2.4:Bridge:
It is a network device that connects one LAN segment to another. It is high efficiency and security. It performs error detection, frame formatting, frame routing. Bridges are used:

 Extend a LAN when the maximum connection limit such as the 30node limit on an Ethernet segment, has been reached. Extend a LAN beyond the length limit, for example beyond 185metres with thin-net Ethernet. Segment LANs to reduce data traffic bottlenecks. Prevent unauthorized access to a LAN. If the bridge knows that the destination of a frame is on the segment as the source of the frame, it drops the frame because there is no need to forward it. If the bridge does not know the destination segment, the bridge transmits the frame to all segments except the source segments, a process that is called flooding. Bridges can greatly enhance the performance of a network because they offer the ability to segment network traffic, limiting traffic to those networks where it belongs. A firewall is software or hardware that sources data from being accessed outside a network and that can also prevent data from leaving the network through an inside source.

6.2.5:ROUTER:
A router performs some of the same function as a bridge. Routers connect LANs at the network layer of the OSI model, which enables them to interpret more information from packet traffic than bridges can. In general, routers are used to: Efficiently direct packets from one network to another, reducing excessive traffic. Join neighboring or distant network. Connect dissimilar networks. Prevent network bottlenecks by isolating portions of a network. Secure portions of a network from intruders. The logic that routers use to determine how to forward data is called a routing algorithm.

6.2.6:BROUTER:
A bridge router (brouter) performs both the functions of a bridge (OSI layer 2) and a router (OSI layer 3) in a single device. A brouter is a network device that acts as a bridge in one circumstance and as a router in another. Brouters are used to: Handle packets efficiently on a multiprotocol network that includes some protocols that can be routed and some that cannot be. Isolate and direct network traffic to reduce congestion. Join networks. Secure a certain portion of a network by controlling who can access it.

6.2.7:SWITCHES:
A switch is a device that connects two or more network segments and allows different nodes to communicate smoothly with each other as if they are the only two connecting at the time. Switches provide bridging capacity Along with the ability to increase the bandwidth on existing networks. Switches used on LANs are similar to bridges. A switch may act as a multiport bridge to connect devices or segments in a LAN. A store-and-forward switch stores the frame in the input buffer until the whole packet has arrived. A cut-through switch on the other hand. Forwards the packet to the output buffer as soon as the destination address is received.

6.2.8:GATEWAYS:
Gateways usually operate at OSI layer 4 or higher, and basically translate the protocols to allow terminals on two dissimilar networks to communicate. Gateways can be either/or combinations of hardware and software. An internet service provider (ISP), which connects users in a home to the Internet, is a gateway. Gateways can suffer from slow performance. A dedicated computer acting as a gateway, if it is of reasonable speed, usually eliminates any performance problems. For examples, you might use a gateway to: Convert commonly used protocols (e.g. TCP/IP) to a specialized protocol (for example, an SNA: System Network Architecture). Convert message formats from one format to another. Translate different addressing schemes. Link a host computer to a LAN. Provide terminal emulation for connections to a host computer. Direct electronic mail to the right network destination. Connect networks with different architectures.

6.3:LAN Installation and Performance:

Once the LAN has been selected based on the requirements of the organization, it must be installed by the people within the organization. Several suppliers of LAN hardware or software may be contacted in the course of evaluating and selecting the LAN and these companies may offer installation and maintenance services. Important tasks of installation a LAN are given below: Install: New workstations NICs on existing workstations

 Wiring or cabling Server hardware Bridges, routers, brouters, or gateways LAN software Determine the access and capability required by each user Document the LANs hardware and software configuration Train the users Using the LAN and its new capabilities Troubleshoot any startup problems The performance of LAN is based on several factors, including the protocol that is used, the speed of the transmission, the amount of traffic, the error rate, the efficiency of the LAN software, and the speed of server computers and disks.

6.4:ETHERNET: IEEE STANDARD 802.3

IEEE 802.3 supports a LAN standard originally developed by Xerox and later extended by a joint venture between Digital Equipment Corporation, Intel Corporation and Xerox. This was called Ethernet. Ethernet has a bus topology. Stations contended for the segment using a form of the CSMA/CD contention protocol. It is commonly used to connect PCs, workstations, and printers and file servers and even mainframes. Specifically, the data link layer is responsible for accurate communication between two nodes in a network. This involves frame formats, error checking a d flow control. Data link layer is further divided into two sub layers: 1. Logical Link Control(LIC) 2. Medium Access Control(MAC)

Medium access sub layer

Network can be divided into two categories: point-to-point network and broadcast network. Broadcast channels are sometimes referred to as multi-access channels or random access channels. The protocols used to determine who goes next on multi-access channel belong to a sub layer of the data link layer called the multiple access protocols. Many algorithms for allocating multiple access channels are known. Some of these are: Pure Aloha Slotted Aloha Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) CSMA with Collision Detection.

6.4.1:Pure Aloha
In pure Aloha, frames are transmitted at completely arbitrary times. We have made the frames all of the same length because the throughput of Aloha systems is maximized by having a uniform frame size rather than allowing variable length frames. Whenever two frames try to occupy the channel at the same time, there will be a collision and both will be confused. If the first bit of a new frame overlaps with just the last bit of a frame almost finished, both frames will be totally destroyed and both will have to be transmitted later.

6.4.2:Slotted Aloha
Slotted Aloha has double the capacity of an Aloha system. In slotted Aloha, time is divided into discrete intervals, each interval corresponding to one frame. This approach requires the users to agree on slot boundaries. In slotted Aloha, as against in pure Aloha, a computer is not permitted to send whenever a carriage return is typed. Instead, it is required to wait for the beginning of the next slot. Thus the continuous pure Aloha is turned into a discrete one.

6.4.3:Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) Protocols

Protocols in which stations listen for a carrier (transmission) and act accordingly are called carrier sense protocols. The first carrier sense protocol is 1-persistent CSMA. When a station has data to send, it first listens to the channel to see if anyone else is transmitting at the moment. If the channel is busy, the station waits until it detects an ideal channel. The second carrier sense protocol is non-persistent CSMA. In this protocol, a conscious attempt is made to be less greedy than in the previous one. Before sending, a station senses the channel. If no one else is sending, the station begins doing so itself.

6.4.4:CSMA with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)

Persistent and non-persistent CSMA protocols are clearly an improvement over Aloha because they ensure that no station begins to transmit when it senses the channel busy.

The interference between two signals is called a collision. Technically, monitoring a cable during transmission is known as collision detection (CD), and the Ethernet mechanism is known as Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD). The access mechanism used in an Ethernet is called Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD standardized in IEEE 802.3).

6.5:Token Bus: IEEE Standard 802.4:

LAN have a direct application in factory automation and process control, where the nodes are computers controlling the manufacturing process. It is a real time processing with minimum delay is needed. Ethernet is not suitable for this purpose because the number of collisions is not predictable. It support for factory automation and process control application that required real time process. It combines features of Ethernet and collisions free. It is physical bus that operates as a logical ring using tokens. For example A-B-C-D. A send to D then it passes the information through B and C. The bus token specify the destination address in the source. A station receives a token from its predecessor and sends a token to its successor. Token bus is limited to factory automation and process control and has no commercial application in data communication.

6.6:Token Ring: IEEE Standard 802.5:

It is defined by the IEEE standard 802.5. The token ring is a MAC protocol sitting between the Logical Link Control and the physical layer in the OSI model. Station on a token ring LAN is connected in a ring using a NIC.

All the stations are connected to the NIC and then connected to another one. The network access mechanism used by Ethernet is not infallible and may result in collision.

6.7:FIBRE DISTRIBUTED DATA INTERFACE (FDDI)

The fiber distributed data interface (FDDI) standard for a 100Mbps fiber optic LAN was developed during the mid-1980s by a subcommittee of ANSI and was completed in 1990. LANs based on the IEEE 802 standards reached capacity, optical fiber LANs based on the FDDI standard became an alternative growth path. FDDI LANs were used to provide high-speed backbone connections between distributed LANs Two types: Single mode fiber (SMF) and Multimode fiber (MMF) Single mode fiber: it can deliver connectivity over longer distances, with higher performance than MMF. Multimode fiber is usually used to connect devices within a building or a small geographically contained area. FDDI has implemented over twisted pair copper wire. The copper distributed data interface (CDDI) called uses only shielded twisted pair or unshielded twisted pair category 5 cabling but supports distances of 100 meters and data rates of 100 Mbps. FDDI network contains two complete rings one that is used to send data when everything is working correctly, and another that is used only when the first ring fails.

6.8:DISTRIBUTED QUEUE DUAL BUS (DQDB): IEEE STANDARD 802.6

Local area networks are usually restricted to a single site. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) expands network coverage to include several buildings or sites within a limited area. IEEE standard 802.6 defines the Distributed Queue Dual Bus (DQDB) which resembles a LAN standard. It is designed to be used in MAN. DQDB uses a dual bus configuration. Each device in the system connects to two backbone links. Access to these links is granted not by contention (as in 802.3) or token passing (as in 802.4 and 802.5) but by a mechanism called distributed queues. This protocol specifies a dual-bus topology to carry data in forward and reverse directions. The forward direction bus carries data while the reverse direction handles queuing and control information. For example: Two unidirectional buses are labeled Bus A and Bus B. Two unidirectional buses (cables) to which all computers are connected. Each bus has a head-end. Each bus connects to the stations directly through input and output ports; no drops lines are used. To send data on one bus, a station must use the other bus to make a reservation.

6.9:LAN OPERATING SYSTEM AND PROTOCOLS

Several LAN operating systems are associated with specific protocols that are transported within Ethernet or Token ring. LAN operating systems include the following: Novell Netware Windows NT LAN Manage and LAN Server Apple Talk A local area network can transport several network protocols individually or in combinations of two, three or more protocols. For example routers, are often set up to automatically configure themselves by recognizing the different protocols. A single Ethernet LAN might host one protocol for a mainframe computer, a different protocol for Novell servers, and still another protocol for Windows NT servers. Internet Packet Exchange (IPX) protocol is designed for use with Netware. The advantage of IPX over some other early protocols is that it can be routed, meaning that it can transport data over multiple networks in an enterprise. Novell implemented a comparison protocol called Sequence Packet Exchange (SPX) The native protocol for Windows NT is NetBEUI, which was developed for LAN manager and LAN server before the creation of Windows NT. NetBEUI was developed when computer networking primarily meant local area networking for a relatively small number of computers, from just a few to as many as 200. The advantage of having multiple LAN protocols on a network is that such a network can perform many different functions on the same LAN, such as enabling Internet access and access to mainframe computers and servers.

The disadvantage is that some protocols operate in broadcast mode, meaning that they frequently send out packets to identify devices on the network causing a significant amount of redundant network traffic. The properties of a LAN protocols are similar to those of other communication protocols, but some LAN protocol were developed in the early days of networking. In general, LAN protocols must provide the following: Reliable network Links Relatively high speeds Source and destination node address handling Adherence to network standards, particularly the IEEE, 802 standards.

6.10:Ethernet Technologies:
Most common Ethernet Technologies are, 10 Base-2 Ethernet Base-5 Thick Ethernet Technology 10 Base-7 and 100 Base-T Gigabit Ethernet

6.10.1:10 Base-2 Ethernet:

Popular and more flexible coaxial cable only 0.25inches in diameters. It is used in PC LANs. In 10 Base-2, 10 is stands for 10Mbps and 2 is denote for 200 meters. It use bus topology and is the approximate maximum distance between any two nodes. A dozen PCs need 12 Ethernet cards. It is a cheap-net.

6.10.2:Base-5 thick Technology:

It is using standard coaxial cable, which is 0.4inch in diameter. A speed of 10Mbps using base band transmission for a maximum distance of 500 meters. It is frequently called thick Ethernet.

6.10.3:10 Base-T and 100 Base-T:

10Base-T transmits at 10Mbps and 100 Base-T Ethernet transmits at 100Mbps. 100Base-T is also commonly called fast Ethernet. It uses a star topology. It has a central office device called a hub. Each adapter on each node has a direct, point-to-point connection to the hub. It is used in different building in the same campus.

6.10.4:Gigabit Ethernet:
It is highly successful 10Mbps and 100Mbps Ethernet standards. It offering a raw data of 1000Mbps. It referred to as IEEE802.3z standard. It uses CSMA/CD for shared broadcast channels. his allows a full-duplex operation at 1000Mbps in both directions for point-to point channels. It has a star topology with a hub or switch at its centre. It is a backbone of the interconnecting multiple 10Mbps and 100Mbps Ethernet LANs.

Local Area Networks

Introduction: Local Area Networks (LANs), discussed in Chapter 6, typically cover small geographical areas. They are designed around relatively simple bus or ring topologies. Some networks such as Wide Area Networks (WAN) however, cover much larger areas, sometimes panning several continents. In such cases the LAN protocols are inappropriate and new ones must be defined. LAN uses include file transfer, electronic mail and file servers just as for WAN. WAN can be used for remote log-ins also (An application in which a user in one location logs into a computer at another). WAN protocols must distinguish between various applications. There is a difference in routing between LAN and WAN. Routing strategies are more complex in WAN than in LAN. The fact that there are many ways to go from one point to another by itself makes the situation more complex. To add to the complexity, sometimes a link in a chosen route experiences a failure. What does the network protocol do with all the date traveling in that route? In some cases a route may prove to be so popular that too much data travels over it. The result is congestion and sometimes failures. Can network protocols avoid such

situations? If they can not, what can they do to minimize their effects? When data is delayed due to failures and congestion, it must be stored somewhere while WAN protocols decide what to do with it. Network nodes must be equipped with software and buffers to do this. LANs are controlled and managed by a single organization or department. If a problem occurs, users know whom to call. Some WANs such as the Internet have evolved mainly due to voluntary efforts of universities and government agencies. Consequently, there is no central authority responsible for fixing problems or updating

protocols so that problems do not recur. The success of such network operations depends on the cooperation of the organizations that use them. 7.1 WAN TRANSMISSION METHODS WAN transmission methods use different switching techniques. Switching

techniques are use to create one or more data paths called channels for transmitting data. The channels may be created using one communication cable or using several cables that offer a range of paths along which data can be transmitted. Switching can enable multiple nodes to simultaneously transmit and receive data or it can enable data to be transmitted over different routes to achieve maximum efficiency in terms of speed and cost. The following are the common switching techniques used in WANs: Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) Statistical Multiple Access Circuit Switching Message Switching Packet Switching 7.1.1. Time-Division Multiple Access (TDMA) TDMA divides the channels into distinct time slots. Each time slot is

designated for a particular networks node, as if it were a dedicated line. The WAN switching deice rotates from time slot to time slot for each channel. This is similar to a 24-hour television programming, where the time has been specified for a particular program. TDMA does not guarantee the most efficient use of the network medium since transmission occurs only via one channel at a time. The timing of node

transmission is also important, since a node may transmit at an interval that is out of synchronization with its time slot.

7.1.2. Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) FDMA divides the channels into frequencies instead of time slots. channel has its own broadcast frequency and bandwidth. Each

The switching device

switches from frequency to frequency as it sends data. This is similar to four listeners with headsets sharing a radio modified to have four channels. The first listener might be listening to a classical station, the send to a talk show the third to a base ball game and thr fourth to the news. Each listener is at a different frequency. The radio inputs to each channel so quickly that none can tell it is quickly switching from channel to channel as it receives the signal on each frequency. 7.1.3. Statistical Multiple Access (SMA) Statistical multiple access or statistical multiplexing, is sued by many WAN technologies, such as X.25, ISDN and frame relay. This method is more efficient than TDMA and FDMA, because the physical medium bandwidth is dynamically allocated according to the application need. The switching device continuously monitors each channel to determine the communication requirements. For example, at one moment a channel may need to transmit a large graphics file, and then be quiet. Algorithms on the switch determine the bandwidth needed to transmit the file. After the file is transmitted, the switch reallocates bandwidth to another channel. This might be

compared to the way in which a workstation operating system automatically decides how much memory to give to three applications running at the same time. It might give 15 KB for an active word processing file, 7 MB for an image from a scanner and 1.2MB for printing a graphic. 7.1.4. Circuit Switching Circuit switching involves creating a dedicated physical circuit between the sending and receiving nodes. This acts as a straight channel on which to send data back and forth without interruption, similar to a telephone call between two parties. The transmission channel remains in the service until the two nodes disconnect. Communication via circuit switching implies that there is a dedicated communication

path between two stations. network nodes.

The path is a connected sequence of links between

On each physical link, a logical channel is dedicated to the

connection. Communication via circuit switching involves there phases. Phase I: Circuit establishment. Before any signals can be transmitted an end-to-end (station to station) circuit must be established. For example, station A sends a request to node4, requesting a connection to Station E. Typically, the link from A to 4 is a dedicated line, so that part of the connection already exists. Node 4 must find the next leg in a route leading to node 6 based on routing information and measures of availability and perhaps cost. Node 4 selects the link to node 5, allocates a free channel (using FDM or TDM) on that link and sends a message requesting connection to E. So far, a dedicated path has been established from A through 4 to 5. Because a number of stations may attach to 4, it must be able to establish internal paths from multiple stations to multiple nodes. The remainder of the process proceeds similarly. Node 5 dedicates a channel to node 6 and internally ties that channel to the channel from node 4. Node 6 completes the connection to E. In completing the connection, a test is made to determine if E is busy or is prepared to accept the connection. Phase II: Data Transfer. Information can now be transmitted from A through the network to E. The data may be analog or digital, depending on the nature of the network. As the carriers evolve the fully integrated digital networks, the use of digital (binary) transmission for both voice and data is becoming the dominant method. The path is: A-4 link, internal switching through4; 4-5 channel, internal switching through 5; 5-6 channel, internal switching through 6; 6-E link. Generally the connection is fully duplex.

Phase III: Circuit disconnect. After some period of data transfer, the connection is terminated, usually by the action of one of the two stations. Signals must be propagated to nodes 4,5 and 6 to deallocate the dedicated resources. Note that the connection path is established before data transmission begins. Thus, channel capacity must be reserved between each pair of nodes in the path and each node must have available internal switching capacity to handle the request connection. The switches must have the intelligence to make these allocations and to devise a route through the network. Circuit switching can be rather inefficient. Channel capacity is dedicated for the duration of a connection, even if no data are being transferred. For a voice

connection, utilization may be rather high, but it still does not approach 100 per cent. For a terminal-to-computer connection, the capacity may be ideal during most of the time of the connection. In terms of performance, there is delay prior to signal transfer for call establishment. However, once the circuit is established, the network is

effectively transparent to the users. Information is transmitted at a fixed data rate with no delay other than the propagation delay through the transmission links. The delay at each node is negligible. Circuit switching was developed to handle voice traffic but is now also used for data traffic. The best known example of a circuit-switching network is the public telephone network. This is actually a collection of national networks intern-connected to form the international service. Although originally designed and implemented to service analog telephone subscribers, it handles substantial data traffic via modem and is gradually being converted to a digital network. Another well known application of circuit switching is the private branch exchange (PBX) used to interconnect telephones within a building or office

7.1.5 Message Switching Message switching uses a store-and-forward communication method to transmit data from the sending to the receiving node. The data is send from one node to another, which stores is temporarily until a route towards the datas final destination becomes available. Several nodes along the route store and forward the data until it reaches the destination node. Message switching is used for example, when you send an e-mail message on an enterprise network with file servers acting as post offices. The message goes from one post office to the next until it reaches the intended recipient. 7.1.6 Packet Switching Circuit switching was designed for voice communication. In a telephone

conversation, for example once a circuit is established it remains connected for the duration of the session. Circuit switching creates temporary (dialed) or permanent (leased) dedicated links that are well suited to this type of communication. A key characteristic of circuit-switching networks is that resources within the network are dedicated to a particular call. For voice connections, the resulting circuit will enjoy a high percentage of utilization because most of the time, one party or the other is talking. However, as the circuit-switching network began to be used

increasingly for data connections, two shortcomings became apparent. 1) In a typical user/host data connection (for example, a personal computer user

logged on to a database server) much of the time the line is idle. Thus, with data connections, a circuit-switching approach is inefficient. 2) In a circuit-switching network, the connection provides for transmission at a

constant data rate. Thus, each of the two devices that are connected must transmit and receive at the same data rate as the other. This limits the utility of the network in interconnecting a variety of the host computers and workstations. To understand how packet switching addresses these problems, let us briefly summarize the packet-switching operation. Data are transmitted in short packets. A

typical upper bound on packet length is 1000 octets (bytes). If the source has no longer message to send, the message is broken up into a series of packets as shown in Figure 7.2 Each packet contains a portion (or all for a short message) of the users data, plus some control information that the network requires to be able to route the packet through the network and deliver it to the intended destination. At each node en route, the packet is received, stored briefly and passed on to the next node. Now assume that Figure 7.2 depicts a simple packet-switching network. Consider a packet to be send from Station A to Station E. The packet includes control information that indicates that the intended destination is E. the packet is send from A to node 4 stores the packet, determines the next leg of the route (say 5) and queues

the packet to to-out on that link (the 4-5 link). When the link is available, the packet is transmitted to node 5, which forwards the packet to node 6 and finally to E. This approach has a number of advantages over circuit switching: Line efficiency is greater, because a single node-to-node link can be

dynamically shared by many packets over time. The packets are queued up and transmitted as rapidly as possible over the link. By contrast, with circuit switching, time on a node-to-node link is pre-allocated using synchronous time-division multiplexing. Much of the time, such a link may be ideal because a portion of its time is dedicated to a connection that is ideal. A packet-switching network can perform date-rate conversion. Two stations of

different data rates can exchange packets because each connects to its node as its proper data rate. When traffic becomes heavy on a circuit-switching network, some calls are

blocked; that is, the network refuses to accept additional connection requests until the load on the network decreases. On a packet-switching network, packets are still accepted, but delivery delay increases. Priorities can be used. Thus, if a node has a number of packets queued for

transmission; it can transmit the higher-priority packets first. These packets will therefore experience less delay than lower-priority packets.

If the station has a message to send through a packet-switching network that is of length greater than the maximum packet size, it breaks the message up into packets and sends these packets, one at a time, to the network. A question arises as to how the network will handle this stream of packets as it attempts to route them through the network and deliver them to the intended destination. There are two approaches that are used in contemporary networks: datagram and virtual circuit In the datagram approach to packet switching, each packet is treated independently from all others. Even when one packet represents just a piece of a multi packet transmission, the network (and network layer functions) treats it as though it existed alone. Packets in this technology are referred to as datagrams. Figure 7.1 shows how the datagram approach can be used to deliver three packets from Station A to Station E. In this example, all the three packets (or datagram)belong to the same message, but may go by different paths to reach their destination. This approach can cause the datagrams of transmission to arrive at their destination out of order. It is the responsibility of the transport layer in most protocols to reorder the datagrams before passing them on to the destination port. The link joining each pair of nodes can contain multiple channels. Each of these channels is capable, in turn, of carrying datagrams either from several different sources or from one source. Multiplexing can be done using TDM or FDM. In the virtual circuit approach to packet switching. The relationship between all packets belonging to a message or session is preserved. A single route is chosen between the send and receiver at the beginning of the session. When the data are sent, all packets of the transmission travel one after another along that route. The difference from the datagram approach is that, with virtual circuits, the node need not make a routing decision for each packet. It is made only once for all packets using the virtual circuit.

7.2 WAN CARRIER TYPES There are several physical signaling or carrier methods for transporting data on WANS. Some of the most common include the following: Point to point T-carrier SONET ISDN Wireless 7.2.1 Point-to-Point Point-to-point carrier communications through public dial-up lines and leased telephone lines represent the most basic WAN carrier communications. For example, a simple WAN is established every time you employ a modem to make a modem-tomodem to make a modem-to-modem connection over a dial-up line. The modem at the other end may be connected to a network or to a computer that is a few miles away or a few thousand miles away. The physical mode of communication is an analog circuit that goes through telephone switching stations to establish a connection that lasts only as long as the communications sessions. Another form of point-point communication is a leased telephone line that is used exclusively between two points, such as between a state university and the state Government offices. It bypasses the need to dial and find a switched circuit for a connection each time a communication session is started. Leased lines sometimes come with the line conditioning to reduce noise and provide more reliable communication than dial-up lines. 7.2.2 T-Carrier A T-Carrier line is a dedicated telephone line that can be used for data communications to connect two different locations for continuous point-to-point communication. For example, some universities use T-Carrier lines to connect to one

another for Internet communications. Some states use T-carrier lines to connect branch offices and colleges to the government headquarters in the state capital. These lines offer dependable service over very long distances. T-carriers operate in a logical topology as the smallest T-carrier service; T-1 offers 1.544 Mbps data communication that can be switched to create multiple data channels for high speed communication, as shown in Table 7.1 Table 7.1 T-Carrier Services and Data Rate

T-Carrier

Data Transmission T-1 switched channels rate

Data Signal Level

Functional T-1 T-1 T-1C T-2 T-3 T-3C T-4

4 Kbps 1.544 Mbps 3.152 Mbps 6.312 Mbps 44.736 Mbps 89.471 Mbps 274.176 Mbps

T-1 Sub-Channels 1 2 4 28 56 168

DS-0 DS-1 DS-1C DS-2 DS-3 DS-3C DS-4

For example, switching T-1 to the next level of service (called T-2) creates four channels T-3 has 28 channels, and T-4 has 168 channels. Because T-carrier service is expensive, telephone companies offer functional services that use a portion of the T-1

services utilizing sub-channels with 64 Kbps speeds. This is possible because each T1 service consists of 24 sub-channels, each of 64 Kbps called digital signal at level 0 (DS-0) channels. An alternative to T-carrier lines is switched synchronous 56 Kbps communications and switched asynchronous 57.6 Kbps communications. Both

provide digital communication through data compression techniques and by using circuit switching methods that combine to yield an actual throughput of up to four times the base rate. Organizations use switched 56 Kbps communications because the rates are less than for T-carrier service and for the backup line required; to be used when the main T-carrier service is down. T-carriers use one of the two types of switching techniques for transmitting information. One is time division multiple access (that is, TDMA) and the other is a combination of TDMA and statistical multiple access, which is the fast packet technology. The fast packet switching enables T-carrier service to take into account different channel access needs for handling voice, video and data. 7.2.3 SONET Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) is a standard for transmitting data on optical fibers. It was originally created to allow easier connection between carriers that were using different venders products for their optical networks. SONET has become the de facto standard for carrying voice and data traffic over an optical network and ANSI has written a standard for it. SONET is a high speed technology for WANs that uses single mode fiber optical cable and communications based on T-3. The base T-3 level of SONET is called Synchronous Transport Signal Level 1 (STS-1). STS-1 Can be incremented to higher levels that reflect multiples of T-3 SONET converts an electrical based STS-x signal to an optical based signal called an Optical Carrier (OC). STS-1 frames can be converted and sent at the same time in multiples, through a process that interleaves the frames with one another to achieve faster STS-x and OC-x speeds.

Table 7.2 shows the STS-x to OC-x speeds that are possible with SONET Table 7.2 SONET STS-x and OC-x Transmission Rates STS Level Optical carrier (OC) level STS-1 STS-3 STS-9 STS-12 STS-18 STS-24 STS-36 STS-48 7.2.4 ISDN The integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is less of a network and more of a set of standards than the name implies. The ISDN standards were developed by the ITU-T as a vision for the direction that the worlds public telecommunications system should take. They believed that ISDN would eventually replace leased and switched circuits as we knew them. ISDN is a WAN technology for delivering voice, data, and video services over telephone lines. ISDN uses digital technology to achieve faster and more reliable communications than are possible through none ISDN POTS (Plain Old Telephone Service) lines. As ISDN line is physically a POTS or T-1 (twisted pair or fiber-optics) line; but with ISDN equipment at Telco and customer premises. OC-1 OC-3 OC-9 OC-12 OC-18 OC-24 OC-36 OC-48 51.84 Mbps 155.52 Mbps 466.56 Mbps 622.08 Mbps 933.12 Mbps 1.244 Gbps 1.866 Gbps 2.488 Gbps 1 3 9 12 18 24 36 48 Transmission rate T-3 multiple

The benefits of ISDN are as follows: It provides efficient multiplexed access to the public network It has the capabilities to support integrated voice and data It has a robust signaling channel, which is important for network management It provides an open system that is internationally defined. 7.2.5 Wireless In wireless technologies, the carrier is a signal radiated from an antenna or dish. The amount of radiated power and the gain are governed by the communications laws and codes of individual countries. The specific frequencies authorized for wireless communications are also governed by national and international communications agreements and treaties. Wireless networking is one of the hottest topics in communications. Users want the convenience of not being tethered to a telephone jack or other communication port, especially if they are using a laptop computer. Network managers like the flexibility that wireless technology gives them. For example, when offices are moved or

rearranged, it is not necessary to rewire the office and pull new cables to the new office locations. However, security is a significant concern with wireless

communication because it is accomplished using radio transmissions that are susceptible to being intercepted. However, security problems are being solved and wireless usage is growing by leaps and bounds. 7.3 WAN TRANSMISSION EQUIPMENT WAN transmission equipment is designed to work over POTS and leased telephone lines such as T-carrier or ISDN lines. It may have an analog component, as is true for modems, or it may be completely digital, as for ISDN communications. Most WAN transmission equipment either converts a signal for long-digital communications or creates multiple channels within a single communications medium for higher bandwidth. Common examples of basic WAN transmission equipment are:

 Multiplexers Channel banks PBXs, PABXs and PAXs Modems Access servers Routers Multiplexers are network devices that can receive multiple inputs and transmit them to a shared network medium X.25, ISDN and frame relay use multiplexers for packet-switched communications. The multiplexer is connected to a single cable medium, which is divided into channels or virtual circuits. The multiplexers store the received packets until it can open the intended channel. The multiplexer simply switches from channel to channel. Each packet is stored until the multiplexer opens it channels for transmission. Channel banks are devices that convert multiple incoming voice signals into a single line, and multiplexer-converted, multiple data signals into one line for transmission. The need for voice, data, and video communications has led to rapid developments in telecommunications channel banks, so that they now combine the capacity of voice communications with the functionality of a multiplexer for handling voice, data and video signals. Thus, a channel bank is a large scale multiplexer that aggregates telecommunications channels in a centralized location. Some organizations set up their own telephone service called Private Branch Exchanges (PBXs). PBXs were private, manually operated switchboards that required an operator to make connections inside the organizations. Innovations have resulted in the use of automated private telephone systems called Private Automatic Exchanges (PAXs) and Private Automatic Branch Exchanges (PABXs). PABX still includes the switchboard and manual capacity as well as automatic switching, whereas a PAX has no switchboard. communications. The PAX or PABX may also carry voice, video, and data

Modems have long played a role in making WANs possible. The term modem is a shortened version of the full name, modulator/demodulator. A modem converts a computers outgoing digital to an analog signal that can be transmitted over telephone line. It also converts the incoming analog signal to a digital signal that the computer can understand. An access server combines several types of WAN communications into one device. For example, one access server might combine transmission capabilities for modem, S.25,T-1, ISDN and frame relay. Some access servers are designed for small to mid-sized applications. Those servers have an Ethernet or token ring NIC to connect to the network. They also have a combination of synchronous and

asynchronous communication ports for terminal modem, public telephone, and ISDN and S.25 connectivity. Smaller access servers typically have 8 or 16 asynchronous ports and one or two synchronous ports. Larger access servers are modular with slots (perhaps 10 to 20) for communication cards. Figure 7.3 illustrates access server. A remote router enables networks to be connected into WANs over long distances. Remote routers connect ATM, ISDN, frame relay, high-speed serial, and X.25 networks. Like a local router, a remote router can support multiple protocols, enabling communication with many kinds of distant network. Also like a local router, remote routers are modular, so that different kinds of interferences can be installed in expansion slots; say, interface for ISDN and another one for frame relay. 7.4 WAN DESIGN AND MULTICAST CONSIDERATIONS Connecting two LANs through a WAN for long distance voice, video, and data transmission involves matching the WAN to the speed and application requirements of the connected LANS. Do the following when you select a service. Match the WAN bandwidth to that required by the LAN and the software applications. Select a WAN service that is compatible with voice, video, data, conferencing, and multimedia applications.

 Find a service provides that can give you SLA (Service Level Agreement) to guarantee that the WAN matches the needs of your organization. For critical WAN communications, use a WAN service that can offer QoS. The WAN services that are most compatible with the criteria include ATM, broadband, ISDN, and SONET; all high-speed WAN services capable of exceeding 100 Mbps and compatible with multimedia ATM also incorporates QoS, which means it allocates bandwidth specifically for different application needs, such as for multimedia. Physical WAN lines that can provide high-speed fiber-optic

communications are circuit switched technologies that include switched 56 Kpbs, switched T-1, T-3 and B-ISDN. Frame relay connected to T-3 is another WAN option, although it only provides bandwidth up to 45 Mbps. Individuals users or small organizations that connect to a LAN through a WAN for multimedia access currently have options that include ISDN and cable modems, Other options are emerging in telecommunications and satellite technologies for example low-orbit satellites that are intended to provide access at speeds greater than 50 Mbps. The first step is to carefully research the WAN technologies available in your area and to make service and cost comparison. Costs can vary not only in terms of the service but it terms of the types of circuits used for the service, QoS, and SLA. Also, in some cases, you may need to use more than one type of service, particularly for backup services for critical WAN communications, for example, the main service might be over a T-1 line and the backup might be switched 56-Kbps or microwave communications, as illustrated in Figure 7.4 One way to reduce costs and improve the utilization of WAN connections is to schedule WAN usage around application use. High demand applications such as video conferencing are generally used during the high consumption dynamic hours, but other applications, for example vide server applications used for training or classes, can be scheduled for off-hour. Another option is to deploy multiple video servers at different sites through the LAN/WAN as shown in Figure 7.5

Users access through local video server during the day for multimedia applications. At night when there is less traffic on the WAN, the video servers can receive updates of new video contents, so that when a new course or training unit is installed on one server, it is copied to the other servers over the WAN. Microsoft Windows NT server for example, has software that automatically replicates files and folders from one server to another. Providing integrated voice, video, and data on the same network presents some unique design issues. Most important are the issues of designing networks with enough bandwidth for the heavy traffic created by such multimedia applications. Existing LANs can be redesigned by adding switches and routers. Many network administrators now turn to switched Fast Ethernet for relatively expansive bandwidth and immediate solutions. Others, particularly administrators who must design for WAN connectivity, are implementing high-speed options such as ATM. 7.5 WAN PROTOCOLS WAN protocols have two important characteristics. One they are designed to be used on WAN media, such as fiber-optic or telephone cable. Two, they have the ability to encapsulate the commonly use LAN protocols so that the encapsulated data (payload data included) can be transported from one LAN to another over a WAN. Most WAN protocols are designed to transport at least TCP/IP. Others can host Net BEUI, IPX/SPX, and other protocols. There of the earliest WAN protocols are X.25, serial line Internet Protocol (SLIP) and Point-to-point Protocol (PPP). More recently, frame relay, ATM, SMDS and SONET have been implemented for WAN communications. 7.5.1 X.25 The X.25 protocol, which is amongst the oldest WAN protocols, uses packet switching techniques, X.25 basically defines how data is sent from the data terminal equipment (DTE), such as computers to data circuit equipment (DCE), such as modem Figure 7.6 gives a conceptual overview of X.25

X.25 provides point-to-point connection-oriented communications, rather than point to multipoint connectionless communications, which are used by many other WAN protocols. Because it is connection-oriented, X.25 includes techniques to verify the continuity of the WAN connections, and to ensure that each packet reaches its intended destination. When it was introduced, the X.25 commercial carrier service was limited to a maximum transmission speed of 64 Kbps. The ITU-T updated X.25 standards in 1992 to include transmission speeds of up to 2.048 Mbps. Today, these services are more commonly used in Europe than in the United States, and some European networks. Currently these service support speeds of up to only 9.6 Kbps X.25 is not a high-speed WAN protocol, but it does offer: Global acceptance Reliability The ability to connect older LANs to WANs The ability to connect older mainframes and minicomputers to WAN An X.25 network can transmit data packets using one of the three nodes: Switched Virtual Circuits (SVC), permanent Virtual Circuits (PVC) and Datagrams. A switched virtual circuit is a two-way channel established from node to node, through an x.25 switch. The circuit is a logical connection that is established only for the duration of the data transmission. Once the data transmission is completed, the channel can be made available to other nodes to other nodes. A permanent virtual circuit is a logical communications channel that remains connected at all times. The connection remains in place even when data transmission stops. Both switched and permanent virtual circuits are examples of packet switching. Datagrams are packaged data sent without-establishing a communications channel. They reach their destination using a form of message switching. The packets are addressed to a given destination and may arrive at different times depending on which path is selected. Datagrams are not used on international networks, but are

included in the ITU-T specifications for the internet. The X.25 Internet Datagram encapsulated the IP layer within the X.25 packet, so that the X.25 device is not aware of the IP component. destination address. 7.5.2 Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP) Serial Line Internet Protocol was originally designed for UNIX environments for point-to-point communications between computers, servers, and hosts using TCP/IP. SLIP I used, for example, when user wants to communicate between a remote home computer and a UNIX computer that is on a LAN at the office as shown in Figure 7.7 That user can employ a dial-up telephone line to connect the UNIX computer, and then transmit packets using TCP/IP within SLIP. SLIP merely acts as the host WAN protocol, corresponding the connection session over the telephone wire and modems. Once the protocol (with its data payload) reaches the destination, the SLIP header and trailer are removed, leaving TCP/IP. SLIP is an older remote The IP network address is simply mapped to the X.25

communication protocol with more overhead than PPP. Compressed Serial Line Internet Protocol (CSLIP) is the newly developed extension of SLIP that compresses header information in each packet sent across a remote link. CSLIP reduces the overhead of a SLIP connection by decreasing the speed of communication. However, the header still must be decompressed at the receiving end. Both SLIP and CSLIP are limited in that they do not support network connection authentication. To prevent someone from intercepting a communication. They also do not support automatic setup of the network connection at multiple OSI layers at the same time for a faster connection. Another disadvantage is that SLIP and CSLIP are intended for asynchronous communications, for example a modem-to-modem connection. They do not support synchronous connections, like X.25. Many dial-up services do not support SLIP or CSLIP because these protocols do not provide authentication.

7.5.3 Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) Today, millions of Internet users need to connect their home computes to the computers of an Internet provider to access the Internet. There are also a lot of individuals who need to connect to a computer from home, but they do not want to go through the Internet. The majorities of these users have either a dialup or leased telephone line. The telephone line provides a physical link, but to control and manage the transfer of data, there is need for a point-to-point link control. Figure 7.8 shows the physical scheme for point-to-point connection. The first protocol devised for this purpose was Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP). However, SLIP has some deficiencies: it does not support protocols other than Internet Protocol (IP); it does not allow the IP addresses to be assigned dynamically; and it does not support authentication of the user. The point-to-point protocol is a protocol designed to remedy these deficiencies. Table 7.3 compares SLIP and PPP. Table 7.3 SLIP and PPP compared Feature Network protocol support Asynchronous communication support Synchronous communication support Simultaneous network configuration Negotiation and automatic connection With multiple levels of the OSI model Between the communication nodes Support for connection authentication to No Yes SLIP TCP/IP Yes No No PPP TCIP/IP/SPX and NETBEUI Yes Yes Yes

Guard against eavesdroppers Point-to-point Protocol users a stack of other protocols (Link Control Protocol, Authentication Protocols and Network Control Protocol) to establish the link, to authenticate the parties involved, and to carry the network layer data. PPP phase diagram is shown in Figure 7.9 and illustrated how home PC should to be connected to Internet Service Provider. When a PC is connecting to Internet Service Provider, the following steps are involved. Step 1: The PC calls a router via modem. Step 2: The PC and the router exchange Link Control Protocol (LCP) packets to Negotiate PPP parameters. Step 3: Check identities Step 4: Network Control Protocol (NCP) packets exchanged to configure the network layer, for example TCP/IT (requires IP address assignment) Step 5 : Data transport, for example, send/receive IP packets. Step 6: NCP used to turn down the network layer connection (free up IP address); LCP use to shut down data link connection. Step 7: Modem hands up. Link Control Protocol (LCP) is responsible for establishing maintaining, configuring, and terminating links. It also provides negotiation mechanisms to set options between the two endpoints. Both endpoints of the link must reach an

agreement about the options before the link can be established. Note that when PPP is carrying an LCP packet, it is either in the establishing state or in the terminating state. No user data is carried during these states.

A particular strength of PPP is that it includes authentication protocols, which is a major issue when the computer connects to a remote network. Authentication plays a very important role in PPP because PPP is designed for use over dialup link where verification of user identity is necessary. Authentication means validating the identity of the user who needs to access a set of resources. PPP has created two protocols for authentication: Password Authentication Protocol (PAP) and Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol (CHAP). Password Authentication Protocol (PAP) is a simple authentication procedure with a two step process: The user who wants to access a system sends authentication identification (usually the use name) and a password. The system checks the validity of the identification and password and either accepts or denies connection. For those systems that require greater security, PAP is not enough. A third party With access to the link can easily pick up the password and access the system resources. Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol (CHAP) is a three way handshaking authentication protocol that provides greater security than PAP. In this method the password is kept secret; it is never sent on-line. o The system sends to the user a challenge packet containing a challenge value, usually a few bytes. o The user applies a predefined function that takes the challenge value and the users own password and creates a result. The user sends the result in the response packet to the system. o The system does the same. It applies the same function to the password of the user (known to the system) and the challenge value to create a

result. If the result created is the same as the result sent in the response packet, access is granted; otherwise, it is denied. Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol (CHAP) is more secure than Password Authentication Protocol (PAP), especially if the system continuously changes the challenge value. Even if the intruder learns the challenge value and the result, the password is still secret.

PAP, which is used to verify the password entered to access a server over a WAN alone, can authenticate passwords, but it does not encrypt them. CHAP can be used in conjunction with PAP to encrypt passwords so that they will be difficult for a network intruder to intercept and decipher. After authentication has been completed, a network control protocol is use to configure each network layer protocol that is to operate over the link. PPP can subsequently transfer packets from these different network layer protocols (such as IP) over the same data link. PPP requires two parties to negotiate not only at the data link layer, but also at the network layer. Before user data can be send connection must be established at this level. The set of packets that establish and terminate a network layer connection for IP packets is called Inter network Protocol Control Protocol (IPCP). When a PC is connecting to an IP network, as in Figure 7.9, the NCP for IP negotiates a dynamically assigned IP address for the PC. In low speed lines it may also negotiate TCP and IP header compression schemes that reduce the number of bits that need to be transmitted. The PPP connection is now ready for data transfer.

INTERNETWORKING Data Terminal Equipment normally referred to as end system or hosts were all attached to the one network type, that is, all the systems were attached either to a single LAN or to a single WAN. When two or more networks are involved in an application we normally refer to the mode working between systems as internetworking. We used the term internet work to refer to the composite network being used. Each constitute network of the internet work is a sub-network. In addition networks are connected by devices referred in the ISO documents as Intermediate systems. Two types of IS's of particular interest are bridges and routers. The differences between them depend on the types of protocols used for internetworking logic. Both the bridge and the router assume that the same upper-layer protocols in use. Principles of Internetworking Provide a link between networks. At minimum, a physical and link control connector is needed. Provide the routing for the routing delivery of the data between processes on different networks. Provide the various uses of the services networks and routers and maintains status information. A key characteristic of the Internet architecture is whether the mode of operation is connection oriented or connectionless Connection oriented approach: Intermediate systems are used to connect two or more networks.

When DTE A wishes to exchange data with another DTE B a logical connection is set up between them. The individual network logical connections are spliced together by ISs. A connection oriented is performs the following key functions: Relaying: Data units arriving from one network via the network layer protocol are relayed on another network. Routing: When an end-to-end logical connection consisting of a sequence of logical connections is to be set up, each IS in the sequence must make a routing decision that determines the next hop in the sequence. The connection oriented approach is not commonly used. The connectionless approach using Internet protocol is dominant. IP provides a connectionless or datagram service between end systems. Advantages: A connectionless Internet facility is flexible. A connectionless Internet services can be made highly robust. A connectionless Internet service is best for connectionless transport protocols because it does not impose unnecessary overhead. Routing principles In order to transfer packets from a sending host to the destination host, the network layer must determine the path. At the heart of any routing protocol is the algorithm that determines the path for a packet. The purpose of a routing algorithm is simple; given a set of routers with links

connecting the routers a routing algorithm finds a good path from source to destination. Centralized routing Centralized routing means that all interconnections information is generated and maintained at a single central location. One way to maintain routing information is centrally is through a routing matrix. It consists of a row and column for each node in the network. A roe corresponds to a source node and a column to a destination node. Distributed routing Distributed routing means that there is no central control. Each node must determine and maintain its routing information independently. A node usually does this by knowing who its neighbors are calculating the cost to get there and determining the cost for a neighbor to send data to specific destinations. Static Routing Static Routing means that once a node determines its routing table the node does not change it. In other words, the cheapest path is not dependent on time. This is sometimes a valid assumption because costs often depend on distances and the data rates between intermediate nodes. Adaptive Routing Adaptive Routing is difficult to implement efficiently. Nodes can keep up with changing conditions only by getting reports from other nodes about link costs. These reports add to network traffic and in turn contribute more to the changing conditions.

_____________________________________________________________ Routing type Advantages Disadvantages

Centralized routing

Simple method because One location assumes Routing control.

The failure of central location or link Connected to it has a Severe effect on Providing routing Information.

Distributed Routing

Failure of node or link has small effect in Providing accurate Routing information

Exchange of information is very complex.

Static routing

Simple method because Nodes do not have to Execute routing Algorithms repeatedly.

Insensitive to changing conditions.

Adaptive routing

provides the most current

High overhead

Information regarding link Costs.

because nodes must Maintain current Information.

Dijkstra

Algorithm

Dijikstra algorithm sometimes called the shortest path algorithm or forward search algorithm is a centralized static algorithm although it can be made adaptive by executing it periodically. Each node executes Dijikstra algorithm to determine the cheapest route to each network node. The algorithm is an iterative one building a set of nodes one by one with each iteration. Dijkstra Algorithm steps Step 1: The algorithm begins to build the tree by identifying its root. Step 2: The algorithm compares the trees temporary arcs and identifies the are with the lowest cumulative cost. Step 3: The algorithm examines the database and identifies every node that can be reached from its chosen node. Step 4: The last two steps are repeated until every node in the network has become a permanent part of the tree.

Internet work Protocol(IP) IP is the transmission mechanism used by the TCP/IP protocols. It is an unreliable and connectionless datagram protocol a best effort delivery service. The term best effort means that IP provides no error checking or tracking. If the reliability is important IP must be paired with a reliable protocol such as TCP. IP transports data in packets called datagrams , each of which is transported separately. Datagrams may travel along different routes and may arrive out of sequence or duplicated.

TCP Reliable Transport Service

TRANSPORT PROTOCOLS A transport protocol is the lowest-layer protocol that defines what one station can say another on behalf of the user. The lower three layers define how a network operates; the transport layer is the first to define the end-user protocol. The transport layer can provide the perception of a connection by interfacing between the user and network protocols. Some transport layer functions are as follows: Connection management: This function defines the rules that allow two users to begin talking with each other as if they were connected directly. Defining and setting up the connection is also called handshaking. Flow control: The transport layer must operate independently of the lower layers. The transport layer defines flow control between the end users. Data link protocols define flow control between the intermediate, but adjacent entities.

Error detection: This is another case that seems to duplicate lower-layer features. Some errors do escape lower-layer error-detection. A transport-layer error detection mechanism would detect such an error during: Response to the users request: Examples include sending and receiving data,

as well as specific requests. For example, a user may request high throughput, low delays, or reliable service. IP can deal with these. The transport layer passes the request from the user to the IP. Establishment of connectionless or connection-oriented communication. Two transport-layer protocols that the DoD designed specifically to run with its ARPANET IP are the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the User Datagram Protocol (UDP). TCP is a connection-oriented protocol that forms the connection management facility of the internet. It is the most widely used transport-layer protocol. It is used much less frequently but is still part pf the (TCL/IP) suite. THE SERVICE TCP PROVIDES TO APPLICATIONS Connection orientation: TCL provides connection-oriented services in which an application must first request a connection to a destination, and then use the connection to transfer data. Point-to-point communication: Each TCP connection has exactly two end points. Complete reliability: TCP guarantees that the data sent across a connection will be divided exactly as sent, with no data missing or out of order.

Full-duplex communication: A TCP connection allows the data to flow in either direction, and allows either application program to send data at any time. TCP can buffer outgoing and incoming data in both directions, making it possible for an application to send data and then to continue computation while the data is being transferred. Steam interface: We say that TCP provides a stream interface in which an application sends a continuous sequence of octets across a connection. Reliable connection starts up: TCP requires that when two applications create a connection, both must agree to the new connections; duplicate packets used in previous connections will not appear to be valid responses or otherwise interfere with the new connection. Graceful connection shutdown: An application program can open a connection, send arbitrary amounts of data, and then request that the connection be shut down. TCP guarantees to deliver all the data reliability before closing the connection. END-TO-END SERVICE AND DATAGRAMS TCP is called an end-to-end protocol because it provides a connection directly from an application on a remote computer. The applications can request that TCP form a connection, send and receive data and close the connection. The connections provided by TCP are called virtual connections because they are achieved in software. TCP uses IP to carry messages. Each TCP message is encapsulated in an IP datagram and sent across the Internet. When the datagram arrives on the destination host, IP passes the contents to TCP.

TCP treats IP as a packet communication system that connects hosts at two endpoints of a connection, while IP treats each TCP message as data to be transferred. TRANSMISSION CONTROL PROTOCOL TCP provides a connection-oriented user-to-user byte stream service. This means it provides a logical connection between two sites and is capable of transmitting sequence bytes between them. A good way to begin a description of TCP operation is to examine the TCP header format. The field are as follows: Source port (16 bits): Source TCP user specifies the application sending the segment. Destination port (16 bits): Destination TCP user identifies the application to which the segment is sent. Sequence number (32 bits): Each byte in the stream that TCP sends is numbered. Sequence number of first data octet in this segment except when SYN (synchronize the sequence number) flag is set. If SYN is set, this field is the initial sequence number (ISN) and the first data octet is ISN+1. Acknowledgement number (32 bits): A piggybacked acknowledgment. Contains the sequence number of the next data octet that the TCP entity expects to receive. Header length (4 bits): Specifies the size of the TCP header as a multiple of four bytes. Number of 32-bits words in the header. Reserved (6 bits): Reserved for further use. Flags (6 bits): These are: URG: Urgent pointer, field significant

 ACK: Acknowledgement, field significant PSH: Push function RST: Reset the connection SYN: Synchronize the sequence number FIN: No more data from sender Window (16 bits): Flow control credit allocation (in octets). Contains the number of data octets beginning with the one indicated in the acknowledged field that the sender is willing to accept. Checksum (16 bits): Used for transport layer error detection. Urgent pointer (16 bits): Points to the last octet in a sequence of urgent data. This allows the receiver to know how much urgent data is coming. Options (variable): Specifies optional features. The PUSH and URGENT flags implement two TCP services: 1. Data stream push: Ordinarily, TCP decides when sufficient data have accumulated to form a segment for transmission. The TCP user can require TCP to transmit all outstanding data up to and including that labelled with a PUSH flag. On the receiving end, TCP will deliver these data to the user in the same manner. 2. Urgent data signalling: This provides a means of informing the destination TCP user that significant or Urgent data are in the upcoming data stream. It is up to the destination user to determine approximate action.

TCP Implementation Policy Options

`Two implementations that choose alternative options will be interoperable, there may be performance implications. The design areas for which options are specified are the following: Send policy Deliver policy

 Accept policy Retransmit policy Acknowledge policy Send policy In the absence of pushed data and a closed transmission window, a sending TCP entity is free to transmit data at its own convenience. As data are issued by the user, they are buffered in the transmit buffer. TCP may construct a segment for each batch of data provides by its user or it may wait until a certain amount of data accumulates before constructing and sending a segment. Deliver policy In the absence of a PUSH, a receiving TCP entity is free to deliver data to the user at its own convenience. It may deliver data as such in order segment is received or it may buffer data from a number of segments in receive buffer before delivery. The actual policy will depend on performance consideration. Accept policy When all the data segments arrive in order over a TCP connection, TCP places the data in a receive buffer for delivery to the user. The receiving TCP entity has two options: 1. In-order: Accept only segments that arrive in order; any segment that arrives out of order is discarded. 2. In-window: Accept all segments that are within the receive window Retransmit policy The TCP specification states that TCP will retransmit a segment if it fails to receive an acknowledgement within a given time. A TCP implementation may employ one of the three retransmission strategies: 1. First-only: Maintain one retransmission timer for the entire queue. If an acknowledgment is received, remove the approximate segment or segments

from the queue and reset the timer. If the timer expires, retransmit the segment at the front of the queue and reset the timer. 2. Batch: Maintain one retransmission timer for the entire queue. If an

acknowledgment is received, remove the approximate segment or segments from the queue and reset the timer. If the timer expires, retransmit all segment at the front of the queue and reset the timer. 3. Individual: Maintain one timer for each segment in the queue. If an acknowledgment is received, remove the approximate segment or segments from the queue and destroy the corresponding timer or timers. If any timer expires, retransmit the corresponding segment individually and reset its timer. Acknowledge policy: When a data segment arrives that is in sequence, the receiving TCP entity has two options concerning the timing of acknowledgement: 1. Immediate: When data are accepted, immediately transmit an empty segment containing the timing of acknowledgement number. 2. Cumulative: When data are accepted, record the need for acknowledgement but wait for an outbound segment with data on which to piggyback the acknowledgement. To avoid long delay, set a window timer; if the timer

expires before an acknowledgment is sent, transmit an empty segment containing the appropriate acknowledgement number.

How does TCP Achieve Reliability?

One of the most important techniques is retransmission. When TCP sends data, the sender data, the sender compensates for packet loss by implementing a retransmission scheme. Both sides of a communication participate. When TCP receives data, it sends an acknowledgement back to the sender. Whenever it sends data, TCP starts a timer. If the timer expires before an acknowledgement arrives, the sender retransmits the data.

USER DATAGRAM PROTOCOL

The transport layer in TCP/IP always operates with the IP. Recall that this protocol provides a best try (consideration) service for the transfer of individually addressed messages units known as datagram. TCP/IP provides a connectionless transport protocol known as the User Datagram Protocol (UDP). UDP provides a connectionless service application-level procedure. User Datagram Protocol is basically an unreliable service; delivery and duplicate protection are not guaranteed. Inward data collection Outward data dissemination Request response Real-time applications. UDP sites are on top of IP, because it is connectionless. IDP has very little to do. Essentially, it adds a port addressing capacity to IP. This is best seen by examining the UDP header. The header includes a source port and a destination port. The length field contains the length of the entire UDP segment, including header and data.

NETWORK APPLICATIONS CLIENT-SERVER MODEL:The model of arranging for one application program to wait passively for another application to intimate communication pervades so much of distributed computing that it has been given a name: client-server model of interaction. Network applications use a form of communication known as the client-server model. The application programs using the internet adopt the following client-server model strategies. An application program, called the client, running on the local machine, request a service from another application program, called the server, running on the remote machine. A server can provide a service for any client, not just a particular client. In other words the client server relationship is many to one. Many clients can use the service of one another. Generally a client program which requests a service should run only when it is needed. The server program, which provides a service, should run all of the time. CHARACTERISTICS OF CLIENTS AND SERVERS:In general, client software: Is an arbitrary application program that becomes a client temporarily when remote access is needed, but also performs other computation locally? Is invoked directly by a user, and executes only for one session. Runs locally on a users personal computer. Actively initiates contact with a server. In contrast, server software: Is a special purpose, privileged program dedicated to providing one server, but can handle multiple remote clients at the same time. Is invoked automatically Runs on shared computer

Waits passively for contact from arbitrary remote clients. COMPLEX CLIENT-SERVER INTERACTIONS:Some of them are A client application is not restricted to accessing a single service. A single application can first become a client of one service, and later become a client of another. The client contacts a different server for each service. A client application is not restricted to accessing a single server for a given service. In some services, servers running on different computers provide different information. A server is not restricted from performing further client-server interactions a server for one service can become client of another.

To identity an entity, TCP/IP protocols use the ip address, which uniquely identifies the connection of the host to the internet. The naming scheme used in the internet is called DNS. For e.g., Mordred.it.vit.edu Domain name Com edu Gov Mil Country code assigned to commercial organization educational institution government organization military group a country

COUNTRY DOMAINS:The country domain section follows the same format as the generic domains but uses two-character country abbreviations in place of three character organizational abbreviations at the first level. Some foreign countries have adopted the combination of geographic and organizational domain names. Ac.nk Ac.in First one for uk and second one for India THE DNS CLIENT-SERVER MODEL:One of the main features of the domain naming system is autonomy the system is designed to allow each organization to assign name to computers or to changes those names without informing a central authority. The DNS uses client-server interaction to aid autonomy The client places the name to the translated In a DNS request message and sends the request to a DNS server. The server extracts the name from the request, translated the name to an equivalent IP address, and returns the resulting address to the application in a reply message. TELNET:The main task of the internet and its TCP/IP protocol suite is to provide services for users. For example, users want to be able to run different application programs at the remote site and create results that can be transferred to their local sites. One way to satisfy these demands is to create different client-server applications programs for each desired services. Programs such as file transfer programs, e-mail and so on are already available. But it would be impossible. The better solution is a general purpose client-server program that lets a user access any application program on a remote computer; in other words allows the user to log on to remote computer.

After logging on a user can use the services available on the remote computer and transfer the results back to the local computer. A popular client-server application program called TELNET. TELNET is an abbreviation of terminal network. It enables the establishment of a connection to a remote system in such a way that the local terminal appears to be a terminal at the remote system. When a user logs into a local time sharing system, it is called local login. As a user types at a terminal or at a workstation running a terminal emulator the keystrokes are accepted by the terminal driver. The terminal drive passes the character to the operating system. The OS, in turn, interprets the combination of characters and invokes the desired application program or utility. The mechanism however is not as simple as it seems because the OS may assign special meanings to special characters. For e.g., In UNIX some combinations of characters z which means suspend; the combination of control character with characters c, which mean abort and so on. Whereas these special situations do not create any problem in local login because the terminal emulator and the terminal driver know the exact meaning of each character, they may create problems in remote login. When a user wants to access an application program or utility located on a remote machine, he or she performs remote login. Here the TELNET client and server programs come into use. The user sends the keystrokes to the terminal driver where the local OS accepts the characters are sent to the TELNET client, which transforms the characters to a universal character set are called network virtual terminal characters and deliver them to local TCP/IP stack. The command or text, in Network virtual terminal form, travel through the internet and arrive at the TCP/IP stack at the remote machine. Here the characters are delivered to the OS and passed to the TELNET server, which changes the characters to the corresponding characters understandable by the remote computer.

However the characters cannot be passed directly to the OS because the remote OS is not designed to receive characters from a terminal driver. The solution is to add a piece of software is called a pseudo terminal driver, which pretends that the characters are coming from a terminal. The OS then passes the characters to the appropriate application program. FILE TRANSFER AND REMOTE FILE ACCESS:As network application began to use intermediate files, programmers wrote code to transfer a complete file from one computer to another. Because the steps required transferring a file for one application are similar to the steps required to transfer a file for another, programmers were duplicating code making only minor modification in file names or the way data are represented. It quickly became the apparent that a single, generalized utility could be devised to work with any applications. The problem became known as the file transfer problem and software systems that moved arbitrary data from a file on one computer to a file on one computer to a file on another became known as file transfer software. To be useful, file transfer software must be general and flexible. It must allow transfer of an arbitrary file, and must accommodate multiple file types. Because an internet can connect heterogeneous computer systems, file transfer software must accommodate difference among the ways computer systems store files. For e.g., each computer system has rules about file names, a name that is valid on one computer system may be invalid another. Furthermore, because most computer systems use login accounts to define file ownership, the owner on one computer systems may not have a corresponding login account on another computer. Finally, file transfer software have minor differences in file representations, type information, and file protection mechanisms. A file transfer service can move a copy of a file from one computer to another, either interactively or in batch mode. It is possible to build a service that can be used in the either mode.

FILE TRANSFER PROTOCOL (FTP):The most widely-deployed internet file transfer service uses the file transfer protocol. A general purpose protocol, FTP handles many of the concepts. FTP permits transfer of an arbitrary file, and include a mechanism that allows file to have ownership and access restrictions. More important because it hides the details of individual computer systems. FTP accommodates heterogeneity it can be used to transfer a copy of a file between an arbitrary pair of computers. FTP is an oldest one still it is used in the Internet. Originally defined as part of the ARPANET protocols. FTP predates both TCP and IP. As TCP/IP was created a new version of FTP was developed that worked with the new internet protocols. FTP is a heavily used applications. Early in the history of the internet, datagrams carrying file transfers accounted for approximately one-third of all internets traffic the traffic generated by the services such as e-mail and the domain name system did not come close to exceeding that generated by FTP. The most popular file transfer service in the internet uses FTP the file transfer protocol. FTP is a general purpose protocol that can be used to copy an arbitrary file from one computer to another. FTP is designed to permit interactive or batch use. Most users invoke FTP interactively; they run an FTP client that establishes communication with a specified server to transfer files. However, some software systems invoke FTP automatically without requiring a user to interact with an FTP client. When it invokes FTP, a program handles all details.

The program interacts with FTP and then informs the user whether the operation succeeded or failed; the program completely hides the FTP interface from the user. When a user invokes FTP interactively the user communicates with a command driven interface. FTP issues a prompt to which the user responds by entering a command. FTP execute the command, and then issues another prompt. FTP has commands that allow a user to specify a remote computer to provide authorization, find out which remote files are available and request file transfer of one or more files. Some FTP commands require little or no time to execute, while others can take a significant time. For e.g., it many take many seconds to transfer a copy of a large file. FTP requires a user to establish a control connection to a remote computer before files can be transferred. To obtain authorization, a user must supply a login and password. The control connection remains in a place until the user decides to close it. CLIENT-SERVER INTERACTION IN FTP:LIKE OTHER NETWORK APPLICATIONS, ftp uses the client-server paradigm. A user runs a local FTP application, which interprets commands that the user enters. When a user enters an open command and specifies a remote computer, the local application becomes an FTP client that uses TCP to an establish a control connection to an FTP server on the specified computer. The client and the server use the FTP protocol when they communicate across the control connection. That is, the client does not pass the users keystrokes directly to the server. Instead, when a user enters a command the client interprets the command. If the command requires interaction with the server, the client forms a request using the FTP protocol and sends the request using the FTP protocol and sends the request to the server.

The server uses the FTP protocol when it sends a reply. FTP uses a control connection only to send commands and receive responses. When it transfers a file, FTP does not send the data across the control connection. Instead, the client and the server establish a separate data connection for each file transfer, use it to send one file, and the server establish a new data connection, FTP uses a different protocol port number for each. Although data connections appear and disappear frequently the control connection persists for the entire session. Thus, while a transfer is in progress, the client and the server have two connections open; a control connection and data connection for the transfer. Once the transfer completes, the client and the server close the data connection and continue to use the control connection. Using separate connections for transfer and control has several advantages. First, the scheme keeps the protocols simpler and makes implementation easier data from a file is never confused with FTP commands. Second, because the control connection remains in place it can be used during the transfer. Third, the sender and the receiver can use an end-of-file condition on the data connection to inform the other side when all data has arrived. TRIVIAL FILE TRANSFER PROTOCOL (TFTP):The internet protocols include a second file transfer server known as TFTP, the trivial file transfer protocol. TFTP differs from FTP in several ways. First, the communication between a TFTP client and server uses user datagram protocol (UDP) instead of TCP. Second, TFTP supports only file transfer. That is TFTP does not have a large set of commands. Most important TFTP does not permit a user to list the contents of a discovery or interrogate the server to determine the names of files that are available.

Third, TFTP does not have authorization. A client does not send a login name or password; a file can be transferred only if the file permission allows global access. Although TFTP is less powerful that FTP, it has two marked advantages. First, TFTP can be used in environments where UDP is available, but TCP cannot be. Second, the code for TFTP requires less memory that the code for FTP. Although these advantages are not important in a general-purpose computer, they can be important in a small computer or a special-purpose hardware device. TFTP is especially useful for bootstrapping a hardware device that does not have a disk on which to store system software. All the device needs is a network connection and a small amount of Read-OnlyMemory (ROM) into which TFTP, UDP and IP are hardwired. When it receives power, the device executes the code in ROM, which broadcasts a TFTP request across the network. A TFTP server on the network is configured to answer the request by sending a file that contains the binary program to be run. The device receives the file, loads it into memory, and begins to execute the program. Bootstrapping over a network adds flexibility and reduces cost, because a separate exists for each network, a server can be configured to supply a version of the software that is configured for the network. Cost is reduced because software can be changed without changing the hardware. ELECTRONIC MAIL:One of the most popular services is electronic mail. Originally, electronic mail was designed as a straightforward extension of the traditional office memo. That is the original e-mail systems were built to allow a person to communicate with other people; an individual create a message and specified other individuals as recipients. The e-mail software transmitted a copy of the message to each recipient.

Electronic mail systems have evolved from the original design and are automated to permit more complex interactions. In particular, because a computer program can answer an e-mail message and send a reply, e-mail can be used in a variety of ways. For example, a company can establish a computer program that responds automatically to requests for information that arrive in mail messages. A user sends an e-mail request to the program, and receives the desired information in a reply. ELECTRONIC MAILBOXES AND ADDRESSES:An e-mail system uses many of the terms of the terms and concepts from a traditional office environment. Before e-mail can be sent to an individual, the person must be assigned an electronic mailbox. The mailbox consists of a passive storage area. Like a conventional mailbox, an electronic mailbox is private the permissions are set to allow the mail software to add an incoming message to an arbitrary mailbox, but to deny anyone except the owner the right to examine or remove messages. In most cases, an electronic mailbox is associated with a computer account. Thus a person who has multiple computer accounts can have multiple mailboxes. The mailbox is a string that denotes a users mailbox, and computer is a string that denotes the computer on which the mailbox is located. In the most widely used format, an at_sign separates the two components mailbox@computer E-mail software on the senders computer uses the second part to determine which computer to conduct and e-mail software on the recipients computer uses the first part of the address to select a particular mailbox into which the message should be placed.

MAIL TRANSFER:After a user composes an e-mail message and specifies recipients, e-mail software transfers a copy of the messages are required. A user interacts with an e-mail interface program when composing or reading messages. The underlying e-mail system contains a mail transfer program that handles the details of sending a copy of messages to remote computer. When a user finishes composing an outgoing message, the e-mail interfaces places the massage in a queue that the mail transfer program handles. The mail transfer program waits for a message to be placed on its queue, and then transfers a copy of the message to each recipient. Sending a copy of a message to a recipient on the local computer is trivial because the transfer program can append the message to the users mailbox. Sending a copy to a remote user is more complex. The mail transfer program becomes a client that contacts a server on to the remote machine. The client sends the message to the server, which places a copy of the message in the recipients mailbox. How does E-mail Work? Every internet mail user has a unique internet e-mail address. This e-mail address is in format as username@domailname To send an e-mail to someone, you need to know only the persons e-mail address. Following steps are involved in sending an e-mail message Step1: The sender composes the mail message using his mail Then compose edit and send the mail client software.

Step2: After composing the mail message the user sends it to the recipients email address. The message propagates across the internet before it reaches the mail server of the recipient. The domain name in the recipients e-mail address identifies his mail server and the username identifies the recipient on the server.

Step3: the recipients connect to his e-mail account on his mail server to read the messages sent to him. INTERNET MAIL PROTOCOLS:Internet e-mail is based on standards such as simple mail transfer protocol; post office protocol (POP), Internet message access protocol (IMAP) and Multipurpose internet mail extensions (MIME). The SMTP specifies how messages are sent on the Internet. POP and IMAP define how mail clients understand different types of data such as graphics, video, application files and text files. The SIMPLE MAIL TRANSFER PROTOCOL (SMTP):One of the most popular network services is electronic mail. The TCP/IP protocol that supports electronic mail on the internet is called simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP). SMTP provides for mail exchange between users on the same or different computers and supports: Sending a single message to one or more recipients. Sending messages that include text, voice or graphs. Sending messages to users on networks outside the internet. SMTP uses the ASCII character set for composing a message. The SMTP protocol is used to transfer a message from the SMTP sender to the SMTP receiver over a TCP connection. It attempts to provide reliable operation but does not guarantee to recover from lost messages. SMTP suffers from several drawbacks such as: SMTP can only transmit ASCII characters and thus transmit executable files or other binary objects. SMTP does not allow the attachment of files, such as images and audio. SMTP can only transmit 7-bit ASCII characters, thus it does not support an extended ASCII character set.

POST OFFICE PROTOCOL: - (POP) SMTP expects the destination host the mail server receiving the mail to be on line all the time a TCP connection cannot be established. For this reason it is not practical to establish an SMTP session with a desktop computer because desktop computers are usually powered down at the end of the day. This SMTP server provides a mail drop service. The server receives the mail on behalf of every host in the organization. Workstations interact with the SMTP host to retrieve messages by using a clientserver protocol such as post office protocol (POP). POP requires an additional server to run on the computer with the mailbox. The additional server, of course uses the POP protocol. A POP server allows a user on a remote machine to access the mailbox. Although both the e-mail server and POP server communicate across the internet there are several differences. First, the mail server uses the SMTP protocol, while the POP server uses the POP protocol. Second, the mail server accepts a message from an arbitrary sender, while the POP server allows a user to access the mailbox only after the user enters authentication information. Third the mail server can transfer only e-mail messages while a POP server can provide information about the mailbox contents. The pop was developed for single user computers. There are three versions of this protocol: POP, POP2 and POP3. INTERNET MESSAGE ACCESS PROTOCOL (IMAP):Developed at Stanford University in 1986, the Internet Message Access Protocol is for retrieving e-mail messages. The last version, IMAP4 is similar to POP3 but supports some additional features.

IMAP4 provides the following extra functions. A user can check the e-mail header prior to downloading. A user can search the contents of the e-mail for a specific string of characters prior to downloading. A user can partially download the e-mail. This is especially useful if bandwidth is limited and the e-mail contains multimedia with high bandwidth requirements. A user can create, delete or rename mailboxes on the mail server. A user can create a hierarchy of mailboxes in a folder for e-mail storage. MULTIPURPOSE INTERNET MAIL EXTENSION (MIME) :The SMTP can be used to send only messages that are composed using ASCII character set. This restricts the utility of electronic mail. There is another protocol MIME that can be used to exchange e-mail messages containing non textual data such as graphics, sound and other multimedia files. Multipurpose Internet Mail Extension (MIME) offer a way to extend Internet standard mail so that users can interchange text in languages with different characters sets and multimedia electronic. WORLD WIDE WEB (www):The acronym WWW stands for World Wide Web (www). The www is officially described as a wide-arc hypermedia information retrieval initiative aiming to give universal access to a large universe of documents. www provides a consistent means to access a variety of information in a simplified manner to the user on computer networks. Tim benners lee, a research scientist at the European particle physics laboratory in geneva, Switzerland developed the concept of www in 1989.

HYPERTEXT AND HYPERMEDIA:Technically, the web is a distributed hypermedia system that supports interactive access. A hypermedia system provides a straightforward extension of traditional hypertext system. A hypermedia document available on the web is called a page; the main page for an organization or an individual is known as a homepage. Each web page that contains a hypermedia document uses a standard representation known as the hypertext markup language. The HTML provides a number of commands that can be used to place and format text, pictures and sound on the web page. HYPERTEXT TRANSFER PROTOCOL:The Hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP) is a protocol used to access data on the WWW. The protocol transfer data in the form of plain text, hypertext, audio, and video and so on. HTTP functions like a combination of FTP and SMTP. HTTP is like SMTP because the data transferred between the client and the server look like SMTP messages. SMTP messages are stored and forwarded but HTTP messages are delivered immediately. UNIFORM RESOUCE LOCATORS:The WWW uses Universal Resource Locators (URL) to represent hypermedia links and links to network services within HTML documents. The first part of URL specifies the method of access. The second is typically the address of the computer on which the information or service is to be located. A URL is always a single line with no embedded spaces. The URL is a standard for specifying any kind of information on the internet.

The method is the protocol used to retrieve the document. The URL optionally can contain the port number of the server. HOW DOES THE WWW WORK? The WWW system is based on the client/server architectures. A web client sends request for information to any web server. Typically the client program runs on a separate machine from that of the server. The server takes care of all the issues related to document storage, whereas the task of presenting the information to the user is left to the client program. NETWORK MANAGEMENT Network management can be defined as OAM and P (Operation, Administration, Maintenance and Provisioning) of network and services. Operations are daily operations in providing network services. Network administration establishing and administering the overall goals, polices and procedure of network management. Maintenance and equipment provisioning involves network planning and circuit provisioning, traditionally handled by the engineering or provisioning department. GOAL OF NETWORK MANAGEMENT The goal of the network management is to ensure that the users of a network receive the information technology services with the quality of services that they expect. Network and network services for current and future needs at minimum overall cost. Well established communication and interaction among the various groups is necessary to perform these functions. It comprises three major groups: (1) Network Provisioning (2) Network Operations (3) Network installation and maintenance

 The normal daily operations are the functions of the network operations group, which controls and administers a network provisioning center (NOC). The function of NOC are connected primarily planning and network installation and maintenance (I and M). Network management tools are helpful to the engineering group in gathering statistics and studying the trends of traffic patterns for planning purposes. The International Organization for standards (ISO) has defined five OSI network management applications: (1) Performance management (2) Fault management (3) Configuration management (4) Accounting management (5) Security management Performance management The goal of performance maintenance is to quality, measure, report, analyze and control the performance of different network. These components include devices. Fault management The goal of the fault management is to log, detect, and respond to fault conditions in the network. Fault management is concerned with the immediate handling of transient network failures. Performance management, the SNMP protocol pays a central role in the fault management. Configuration management Configuration management allows a network manager to track which devices are on the managed network and the hardware and software configurations of these devices.

Accounting management Accounting management allows the network manager to specify, log, and control uses and device access to network resources. Usage quotas, usage-based changing, and the allocation of resources-access privileges all fall under accounting. Security management The goal of the security management is to control access resources access to network resources according to some well-defined policy. The use of firewalls monitor and control external access point to ones network constitutes another crucial component. The network installation and maintenance (I and M) group takes care of installation and maintenance of equipment and cables. NETWORK MANAGEMENT STANDARDS They are the OSI model, the Internet model, telecommunications Management Network (TMN), IEEE LAN/WAN and Web-based management. Several network management standards are in use today. Web based management is based on an emerging technology. The Open System Interconnection (OSI) management standards is the standard adopted by the ISO: the OSI management protocol standard is Common Management Information Protocol(CMIP), and has built-in services, the common Management Information Services(CMIP), that specify the basic services needed to perform the various functions. Both LAN and WAN can be managed using CMIP/CMIS. The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) is responsible for all Internet specifications including network management. The Telecommunication Management Network (TMN) is designed to manage the telecommunications network and is oriented towards addressing telecommunications service providers. TMN is the standard of the International

Telecommunication Union (ITU) and is based on OSI CMIP/CMIS specifications. The IEEE standards for LAN and MAN specifications are connected only with OSI layers-1 and layer-2 and they are structured similar to OSI specification. The IEEE 802.2 standards specify the logical link control (LLC) layer. Web browsers for network management stations. Because this is an evolving technology, no standards exist at present. Two technologies are in vogue, webbased Enterprises Management (WBEM) and Java Management Extensions (JMX). A recently formed task force Desktop management NETWORK MANAGEMENT MODEL The OSI network model is an ISO standard and is vastly superior to all the models; it is structured and addresses all the aspects of management. An OSI network management architecture model that comprises four models, organizational model, information model, communication model, and functional model. Although this classification of model is based on OSI architecture, and only some of the models are applicable to other architecture, it gives us a comprehensive picture of the different aspects of network management. Organizational model is defined in ISO 10040 OSI System Management Overview. It defines the terms object, agent, and manager. The OSI information model deals with the structure and organization of management information. ISO 10165 specifies the structure of the management information (SMI) and the information database, Management Information Base (MIB).SMI describes how the management information is structured while MIB deals with the relationship and storage of management information. INFRASTRUCTURE FOR NETWORK MANAGEMENT Network management includes the development, integration, and coordination of the hardware, software, and human element to monitor, test, poll, configure,

analyze, evaluate and control the network and element resources to meet the real-time. The architecture of a network management system is conceptually identical to this simple human organizational analogy. The network management field has its own specific terminology for the various components management architecture. The managing entity is an application, typically with a human element in the loop, running a centralized network entity network management station in the network operations center (NOC). Each managed device is network management device is a network management protocol. The protocol runs between the managing entity and the managed devices. Agents can use the network management protocol to inform the managing entity of exceptional events. Network Management Standards began maturing in the late 1980s with OSI CMISE/CMIP and the Internet SNMP emerging as the two most important standards. SIMPLE NETWORK MANAGEMENT PROTOCL (SNMP) Review SNMP management began in the 1970s. Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) was developed to manage ARPANET. ICMP is a mechanism to transfer control message between nodes. The ARPANET, which is started in 1969, developed into the Internet in the 1980s with the advent of UNIX and the popularization of client/server architecture. Data was transmitted in the packet form using routers and gateways. An Internet Advisory Board (IAB) was formed to administer Internet-activities. The Simple Gateway Monitoring protocol (SGMP) was developed for this purpose as an intension solution the Internet Advisory Board recommended the development of SNMP, which is an enhancement of SGMP.

 Even SNMP was intended to be another interim solution, with the long-term solution being migration to the OSI standard CMIP/CMIS. Simple Network Management Protocol The SNMP is a management protocol designed to make sure network protocols and devices not only work but work well. It allows managers to locate problems and make adjustments by exchanging a sequence of commands between a client and a server. SNMP has several goals. The first is to simplify SNMP function to reduce support costs and make SNMP easier to use. Second, it must be extensible to accommodate future updates in network operations and management. Third, the protocol must be independent of design specifications of hosts or routers. The result is an application layer protocol that interface with transport services. Management Information Base (MIB) Each objects server maintains a database of information that describes its characteristics and activities. The Management Information Base (MIB), was defined by the group that proposed SNMP. There are eight categories of information specified by MIB. (a) System: Describes the host or router operation system and contains information such as when the server was booted, a description of the device it runs on, device location, and contact person. (b) Interface: Describes each network interface and contains items such as MTU size, transmission rate, number of packets discarded for various reasons, number of octets transmitted and received, number of interfaces, and an interface description. (c) Address translation: contains a table used to change an IP address into a network-specific one. (d) IP: Describe information specific to the Internet Protocol.

(e) ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol): Describes information specific to the ICMP protocol: primarily, it contains many counters tracking the number of each type of control message sent by ICMP. (f) TCP: Among the item it contains are timeout lengths, number of connections, number of segments sent and received, maximum number of simultaneously connection, IP address of each entity using TCP as well as the IP address of the remote connection, and the number of failed connection attempts. (g) EGP (Exterior Gateway Protocol): This is a protocol to exchange routing information between two autonomous networks in an Internet. As with other categories, the MIB maintains counters tracking the number of EGP messages sent and received. SNMP Commands The management programs that use SNMP run asynchronously. SNMP defines five PDU (Protocol Data Units) formats: 1. Get Request: This command causes a Get Request PDU to be sent containing a command code, object name, and specification of an MIB variable. 2. Get Next Request: This command is similar to Get Request except that the request is for values of variable that follows the ones specified in the PDU. 3. Get Response: This command allows the manager to update values of MIB variables maintained by remote management program and to remotely alter the characteristics of a particular object. 4. Trap: The PDU is sent from a server to the manager when specific conditions or events have occurred. Some of the trap PDUs and their events are listed here: Coldstart Trap Warmstart Trap Linkdown Trap EggNeighbour Loss Trap Authentication Failure Trap

Simple Network Management Protocol Version 2 (SNMPv2) In August 1988, the specification for SNMP was issued and rapidly became the dominant network management standard a SNMPv2, was issued in 1993, with a received version issued in 1996. SNMPv2 was designed to overcome some of the perceived weaknesses of SNMP. SNMPv2 also provides more security than the original SNMP through its implementation of message authentication and DES encryption. A third enhancement is increased flexibility to allow SNMPv2 to run on top of multiple protocols such as AppleTalk, IPX, and OSI. The SNMPv3 provides three important services: authentication, privacy, and access control. The first two are part of the User-Based Security model and last is defined in the View-Based Access Control Model.

NETWORK APPLICATIONS CLIENT-SERVER MODEL:The model of arranging for one application program to wait passively for another application to intimate communication pervades so much of distributed computing that it has been given a name: client-server model of interaction. Network applications use a form of communication known as the client-server model. The application programs using the internet adopt the following client-server model strategies. An application program, called the client, running on the local machine, request a service from another application program, called the server, running on the remote machine. A server can provide a service for any client, not just a particular client. In other words the client server relationship is many to one. Many clients can use the service of one another.

Generally a client program which requests a service should run only when it is needed. The server program, which provides a service, should run all of the time. CHARACTERISTICS OF CLIENTS AND SERVERS:In general, client software: Is an arbitrary application program that becomes a client temporarily when remote access is needed, but also performs other computation locally? Is invoked directly by a user, and executes only for one session. Runs locally on a users personal computer. Actively initiates contact with a server. In contrast, server software: Is a special purpose, privileged program dedicated to providing one server, but can handle multiple remote clients at the same time. Is invoked automatically Runs on shared computer Waits passively for contact from arbitrary remote clients. COMPLEX CLIENT-SERVER INTERACTIONS:Some of them are A client application is not restricted to accessing a single service. A single application can first become a client of one service, and later become a client of another. The client contacts a different server for each service.

A client application is not restricted to accessing a single server for a given service. In some services, servers running on different computers provide different information. A server is not restricted from performing further client-server interactions a server for one service can become client of another. To identity an entity, TCP/IP protocols use the ip address, which uniquely identifies the connection of the host to the internet. The naming scheme used in the internet is called DNS. For e.g., Mordred.it.vit.edu Domain name assigned to Com edu Gov Mil Country code commercial organization educational institution government organization military group a country

COUNTRY DOMAINS:The country domain section follows the same format as the generic domains but uses two-character country abbreviations in place of three character organizational abbreviations at the first level. Some foreign countries have adopted the combination of geographic and organizational domain names. Ac.nk Ac.in

First one for uk and second one for India THE DNS CLIENT-SERVER MODEL:One of the main features of the domain naming system is autonomy the system is designed to allow each organization to assign name to computers or to changes those names without informing a central authority. The DNS uses client-server interaction to aid autonomy The client places the name to the translated In a DNS request message and sends the request to a DNS server. The server extracts the name from the request, translated the name to an equivalent IP address, and returns the resulting address to the application in a reply message. TELNET:The main task of the internet and its TCP/IP protocol suite is to provide services for users. For example, users want to be able to run different application programs at the remote site and create results that can be transferred to their local sites. One way to satisfy these demands is to create different client-server applications programs for each desired services. Programs such as file transfer programs, e-mail and so on are already available.But it would be impossible. The better solution is a general purpose client-server program that lets a user access any application program on a remote computer; in other words allows the user to log on to remote computer. After logging on a user can use the services available on the remote computer and transfer the results back to the local computer.

A popular client-server application program called TELNET. TELNET is an abbreviation of terminal network. It enables the establishment of a connection to a remote system in such a way that the local terminal appears to be a terminal at the remote system. When a user logs into a local time sharing system, it is called local login. As a user types at a terminal or at a workstation running a terminal emulator the keystrokes are accepted by the terminal driver. The terminal drive passes the character to the operating system. The OS, in turn, interprets the combination of characters and invokes the desired application program or utility. The mechanism however is not as simple as it seems because the OS may assign special meanings to special characters. For e.g., In UNIX some combinations of characters z which means suspend; the combination of control character with characters c, which mean abort and so on. Whereas these special situations do not create any problem in local login because the terminal emulator and the terminal driver know the exact meaning of each character, they may create problems in remote login. When a user wants to access an application program or utility located on a remote machine, he or she performs remote login. Here the TELNET client and server programs come into use. The user sends the keystrokes to the terminal driver where the local OS accepts the characters are sent to the TELNET client, which transforms the characters to a universal character set are called network virtual terminal characters and deliver them to local TCP/IP stack.

The command or text, in Network virtual terminal form, travel through the internet and arrive at the TCP/IP stack at the remote machine. Here the characters are delivered to the OS and passed to the TELNET server, which changes the characters to the corresponding characters understandable by the remote computer. However the characters cannot be passed directly to the OS because the remote OS is not designed to receive characters from a terminal driver. The solution is to add a piece of software is called a pseudo terminal driver, which pretends that the characters are coming from a terminal. The OS then passes the characters to the appropriate application program. FILE TRANSFER AND REMOTE FILE ACCESS:As network application began to use intermediate files, programmers wrote code to transfer a complete file from one computer to another. Because the steps required transferring a file for one application are similar to the steps required to transfer a file for another, programmers were duplicating code making only minor modification in file names or the way data are represented. It quickly became the apparent that a single, generalized utility could be devised to work with any applications. The problem became known as the file transfer problem and software systems that moved arbitrary data from a file on one computer to a file on one computer to a file on another became known as file transfer software. To be useful, file transfer software must be general and flexible. It must allow transfer of an arbitrary file, and must accommodate multiple file types.

Because an internet can connect heterogeneous computer systems, file transfer software must accommodate difference among the ways computer systems store files. For e.g., each computer system has rules about file names, a name that is valid on one computer system may be invalid another. Furthermore, because most computer systems use login accounts to define file ownership, the owner on one computer systems may not have a corresponding login account on another computer. Finally, file transfer software have minor differences in representations, type information, and file protection mechanisms. file

A file transfer service can move a copy of a file from one computer to another, either interactively or in batch mode. It is possible to build a service that can be used in the either mode. FILE TRANSFER PROTOCOL (FTP):The most widely-deployed internet file transfer service uses the file transfer protocol. A general purpose protocol, FTP handles many of the concepts. FTP permits transfer of an arbitrary file, and include a mechanism that allows file to have ownership and access restrictions. More important because it hides the details of individual computer systems. FTP accommodates heterogeneity it can be used to transfer a copy of a file between an arbitrary pair of computers. FTP is an oldest one still it is used in the Internet. Originally defined as part of the ARPANET protocols. FTP predates both TCP and IP.

As TCP/IP was created a new version of FTP was developed that worked with the new internet protocols. FTP is a heavily used applications. Early in the history of the internet, datagrams carrying file transfers accounted for approximately one-third of all internets traffic the traffic generated by the services such as e-mail and the domain name system did not come close to exceeding that generated by FTP. The most popular file transfer service in the internet uses FTP the file transfer protocol. FTP is a general purpose protocol that can be used to copy an arbitrary file from one computer to another. FTP is designed to permit interactive or batch use. Most users invoke FTP interactively; they run an FTP client that establishes communication with a specified server to transfer files. However, some software systems invoke FTP automatically without requiring a user to interact with an FTP client. When it invokes FTP, a program handles all details. The program interacts with FTP and then informs the user whether the operation succeeded or failed; the program completely hides the FTP interface from the user. When a user invokes FTP interactively the user communicates with a command driven interface. FTP issues a prompt to which the user responds by entering a command. FTP execute the command, and then issues another prompt.

FTP has commands that allow a user to specify a remote computer to provide authorization, find out which remote files are available and request file transfer of one or more files. Some FTP commands require little or no time to execute, while others can take a significant time. For e.g., it many take many seconds to transfer a copy of a large file. FTP requires a user to establish a control connection to a remote computer before files can be transferred. To obtain authorization, a user must supply a login and password. The control connection remains in a place until the user decides to close it. CLIENT-SERVER INTERACTION IN FTP:LIKE OTHER NETWORK APPLICATIONS, ftp uses the client-server paradigm. A user runs a local FTP application, which interprets commands that the user enters. When a user enters an open command and specifies a remote computer, the local application becomes an FTP client that uses TCP to an establish a control connection to an FTP server on the specified computer. The client and the server use the FTP protocol when they communicate across the control connection. That is, the client does not pass the users keystrokes directly to the server. Instead, when a user enters a command the client interprets the command. If the command requires interaction with the server, the client forms a request using the FTP protocol and sends the request using the FTP protocol and sends the request to the server.

The server uses the FTP protocol when it sends a reply. FTP uses a control connection only to send commands and receive responses. When it transfers a file, FTP does not send the data across the control connection. Instead, the client and the server establish a separate data connection for each file transfer, use it to send one file, and the server establish a new data connection, FTP uses a different protocol port number for each. Although data connections appear and disappear frequently the control connection persists for the entire session. Thus, while a transfer is in progress, the client and the server have two connections open; a control connection and data connection for the transfer. Once the transfer completes, the client and the server close the data connection and continue to use the control connection. Using separate connections for transfer and control has several advantages. First, the scheme keeps the protocols simpler and makes implementation easier data from a file is never confused with FTP commands. Second, because the control connection remains in place it can be used during the transfer. Third, the sender and the receiver can use an end-of-file condition on the data connection to inform the other side when all data has arrived.

TRIVIAL FILE TRANSFER PROTOCOL (TFTP):The internet protocols include a second file transfer server known as TFTP, the trivial file transfer protocol. TFTP differs from FTP in several ways. First, the communication between a TFTP client and server uses user datagram protocol (UDP) instead of TCP. Second, TFTP supports only file transfer. That is TFTP does not have a large set of commands. Most important TFTP does not permit a user to list the contents of a discovery or interrogate the server to determine the names of files that are available. Third, TFTP does not have authorization. A client does not send a login name or password; a file can be transferred only if the file permission allows global access. Although TFTP is less powerful that FTP, it has two marked advantages. First, TFTP can be used in environments where UDP is available, but TCP cannot be. Second, the code for TFTP requires less memory that the code for FTP. Although these advantages are not important in a general-purpose computer, they can be important in a small computer or a special-purpose hardware device. TFTP is especially useful for bootstrapping a hardware device that does not have a disk on which to store system software. All the device needs is a network connection and a small amount of ReadOnly-Memory (ROM) into which TFTP, UDP and IP are hardwired.

When it receives power, the device executes the code in ROM, which broadcasts a TFTP request across the network. A TFTP server on the network is configured to answer the request by sending a file that contains the binary program to be run. The device receives the file, loads it into memory, and begins to execute the program. Bootstrapping over a network adds flexibility and reduces cost, because a separate exists for each network, a server can be configured to supply a version of the software that is configured for the network. Cost is reduced because software can be changed without changing the hardware. ELECTRONIC MAIL:One of the most popular services is electronic mail. Originally, electronic mail was designed as a straightforward extension of the traditional office memo. That is the original e-mail systems were built to allow a person to communicate with other people; an individual create a message and specified other individuals as recipients. The e-mail software transmitted a copy of the message to each recipient. Electronic mail systems have evolved from the original design and are automated to permit more complex interactions. In particular, because a computer program can answer an e-mail message and send a reply, e-mail can be used in a variety of ways. For example, a company can establish a computer program that responds automatically to requests for information that arrive in mail messages.

A user sends an e-mail request to the program, and receives the desired information in a reply. ELECTRONIC MAILBOXES AND ADDRESSES:An e-mail system uses many of the terms of the terms and concepts from a traditional office environment. Before e-mail can be sent to an individual, the person must be assigned an electronic mailbox. The mailbox consists of a passive storage area. Like a conventional mailbox, an electronic mailbox is private the permissions are set to allow the mail software to add an incoming message to an arbitrary mailbox, but to deny anyone except the owner the right to examine or remove messages. In most cases, an electronic mailbox is associated with a computer account. Thus a person who has multiple computer accounts can have multiple mailboxes. The mailbox is a string that denotes a users mailbox, and computer is a string that denotes the computer on which the mailbox is located. In the most widely used format, an at_sign separates the two components mailbox@computer E-mail software on the senders computer uses the second part to determine which computer to conduct and e-mail software on the recipients computer uses the first part of the address to select a particular mailbox into which the message should be placed. MAIL TRANSFER:-

After a user composes an e-mail message and specifies recipients, e-mail software transfers a copy of the messages are required. A user interacts with an e-mail interface program when composing or reading messages. The underlying e-mail system contains a mail transfer program that handles the details of sending a copy of messages to remote computer. When a user finishes composing an outgoing message, the e-mail interfaces places the massage in a queue that the mail transfer program handles. The mail transfer program waits for a message to be placed on its queue, and then transfers a copy of the message to each recipient. Sending a copy of a message to a recipient on the local computer is trivial because the transfer program can append the message to the users mailbox. Sending a copy to a remote user is more complex. The mail transfer program becomes a client that contacts a server on to the remote machine. The client sends the message to the server, which places a copy of the message in the recipients mailbox. How does E-mail Work? Every internet mail user has a unique internet e-mail address. This e-mail address is in format as username@domailname to send an e-mail to someone, you need to know only the persons e-mail address. Following steps are involved in sending an e-mail message

Step1:The sender composes the mail message using his mail software. Then compose edit and send the mail

client

Step2: After composing the mail message the user sends it to the recipients e-mail address. The message propagates across the internet before it reaches the mail server of the recipient. The domain name in the recipients e-mail address identifies his mail server and the username identifies the recipient on the server. Step3: the recipients connect to his e-mail account on his mail server to read the messages sent to him. INTERNET MAIL PROTOCOLS:Internet e-mail is based on standards such as simple mail transfer protocol; post office protocol (POP), Internet message access protocol (IMAP) and Multipurpose internet mail extensions (MIME). The SMTP specifies how messages are sent on the Internet. POP and IMAP define how mail clients understand different types of data such as graphics, video, application files and text files. The SIMPLE MAIL TRANSFER PROTOCOL (SMTP):One of the most popular network services is electronic mail. The TCP/IP protocol that supports electronic mail on the internet is called simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP). SMTP provides for mail exchange between users on the same or different computers and supports: Sending a single message to one or more recipients. Sending messages that include text, voice or graphs. Sending messages to users on networks outside the internet. SMTP uses the ASCII character set for composing a message.

The SMTP protocol is used to transfer a message from the SMTP sender to the SMTP receiver over a TCP connection. It attempts to provide reliable operation but does not guarantee to recover from lost messages. SMTP suffers from several drawbacks such as: SMTP can only transmit ASCII characters and thus transmit executable files or other binary objects. SMTP does not allow the attachment of files, such as images and audio. SMTP can only transmit 7-bit ASCII characters, thus it does not support an extended ASCII character set. POST OFFICE PROTOCOL: - (POP) SMTP expects the destination host the mail server receiving the mail to be on line all the time a TCP connection cannot be established. For this reason it is not practical to establish an SMTP session with a desktop computer because desktop computers are usually powered down at the end of the day. This SMTP server provides a mail drop service. The server receives the mail on behalf of every host in the organization. Workstations interact with the SMTP host to retrieve messages by using a client-server protocol such as post office protocol (POP). POP requires an additional server to run on the computer with the mailbox. The additional server, of course uses the POP protocol. A POP server allows a user on a remote machine to access the mailbox.

Although both the e-mail server and POP server communicate across the internet there are several differences. First, the mail server uses the SMTP protocol, while the POP server uses the POP protocol. Second, the mail server accepts a message from an arbitrary sender, while the POP server allows a user to access the mailbox only after the user enters authentication information. Third the mail server can transfer only e-mail messages while a POP server can provide information about the mailbox contents. The pop was developed for single user computers. There are three versions of this protocol: POP, POP2 and POP3. INTERNET MESSAGE ACCESS PROTOCOL (IMAP):Developed at Stanford University in 1986, the Internet Message Access Protocol is for retrieving e-mail messages. The last version, IMAP4 is similar to POP3 but supports some additional features. IMAP4 provides the following extra functions. A user can check the e-mail header prior to downloading. A user can search the contents of the e-mail for a specific string of characters prior to downloading. A user can partially download the e-mail. This is especially useful if bandwidth is limited and the e-mail contains multimedia with high bandwidth requirements. A user can create, delete or rename mailboxes on the mail server.

A user can create a hierarchy of mailboxes in a folder for e-mail storage. MULTIPURPOSE INTERNET MAIL EXTENSION (MIME) :The SMTP can be used to send only messages that are composed using ASCII character set. This restricts the utility of electronic mail. There is another protocol MIME that can be used to exchange e-mail messages containing non textual data such as graphics, sound and other multimedia files. Multipurpose Internet Mail Extension (MIME) offer a way to extend Internet standard mail so that users can interchange text in languages with different characters sets and multimedia electronic. WORLD WIDE WEB (www):The acronym WWW stands for World Wide Web (www). The www is officially described as a wide-arc hypermedia information retrieval initiative aiming to give universal access to a large universe of documents. www provides a consistent means to access a variety of information in a simplified manner to the user on computer networks. Tim benners lee, a research scientist at the European particle physics laboratory in geneva, Switzerland developed the concept of www in 1989.

HYPERTEXT AND HYPERMEDIA:-

Technically, the web is a distributed hypermedia system that supports interactive access. A hypermedia system provides a straightforward extension of traditional hypertext system. A hypermedia document available on the web is called a page; the main page for an organization or an individual is known as a homepage. Each web page that contains a hypermedia document uses a standard representation known as the hypertext markup language. The HTML provides a number of commands that can be used to place and format text, pictures and sound on the web page. HYPERTEXT TRANSFER PROTOCOL:The Hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP) is a protocol used to access data on the WWW. The protocol transfer data in the form of plain text, hypertext, audio, and video and so on. HTTP functions like a combination of FTP and SMTP. HTTP is like SMTP because the data transferred between the client and the server look like SMTP messages. SMTP messages are stored and forwarded but HTTP messages are delivered immediately. UNIFORM RESOUCE LOCATORS:The WWW uses Universal Resource Locators (URL) to represent hypermedia links and links to network services within HTML documents. The first part of URL specifies the method of access. The second is typically the address of the computer on which the information or service is to be located.

A URL is always a single line with no embedded spaces. The URL is a standard for specifying any kind of information on the internet. The method is the protocol used to retrieve the document. The URL optionally can contain the port number of the server. HOW DOES THE WWW WORK? The WWW system is based on the client/server architectures. A web client sends request for information to any web server. Typically the client program runs on a separate machine from that of the server. The server takes care of all the issues related to document storage, whereas the task of presenting the information to the user is left to the client program.