In the Classroom

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JCE DigiDemos: Tested Demonstrations

Ed Vitz
Kutztown University Kutztown, PA 19530

Guitar Strings As Standing Waves: A Demonstration

submitted by:

Michael Davis Physical Science Department, Harold Washington College, Chicago, IL 60601; mdavis@ccc.edu Todd P. Silverstein Department of Chemistry, Williamette University, Salem, OR 97301-3922 Dean J. Campbell Department of Chemistry, Bradley University, Peoria, IL 61625-0208

checked by:

The discussion of the electronic structure of atoms is one of the more fascinating topics in a general chemistry class. Moving from the hydrogen emission spectrum to Bohrs model of the atom, to the modern quantum model usually involves a brief mention of standing waves and their relation to the wave properties of electrons. Most general chemistry textbooks make use of guitar and violin strings as familiar examples of one-dimensional standing waves (13). In this Journal, Vitz and Binning have shown one- and two-dimensional standing waves using commonly available or easily constructed devices (4). The following demonstration shows how one-dimensional standing waves can be induced on a guitar to provide a unique tone. These natural harmonics, as they are called, are pervasive in popular music. This demonstration will illustrate how the concept of standing waves in quantum mechanics is audibly expressed in a context already familiar to students. The action of producing a harmonic vibration on a guitar string demonstrates how a normally complex vibration is composed of a number of simple, discrete vibrations and is therefore analogous to the current atomic model. While a guitarist needs some proficiency to incorporate harmonics into a song, a chemistry teacher need only able to hold a guitar to audibly demonstrate the principle of standing waves. As shown in this Journal, the connection between music and science can be exciting and enlightening (5). Standing Waves The standard real world analogy for standing waves involves guitar or violin strings. The unique feature of these particular strings is their clamped immobile ends, which imposes a set of boundary conditions on those waves (6). As a result, standing waves have discrete wavelengths (!), which are dependent on the string length (L): 2L ! = (1) n Here n may be any integer and refers to number of half-wavelengths that will fit on string with length L. Along this wave, there will be nodes, which are places of zero displacement (Figure 1). These occur at specific points along the length of the string and at the clamped ends. Since the length of the

string on a guitar is constant, an increasing number of nodes in a standing wave corresponds to a smaller wavelength. Since wavelength and frequency are inversely proportional, more nodes yield a higher frequency wave, that is, one with a higher pitch. r (2) ! Generally, guitar players pluck or strum strings that are fully depressed with a finger or left open. The resulting vibration is non-harmonic and is a complex superposition of standing waves (Figure 1). If, however, the string is very lightly touched in a place that corresponds to a node, pressure from the finger will dampen all waves with nonzero amplitudes at that position. Waves with nodes at that position are unaffected and will continue to ring out. These waves vibrate with an audibly discernible frequency, which is referred to as a harmonic (7). Guitar players incorporate these into songs by gently laying a single finger across all six strings and strumming. The result is a dramatic musical tone, yet the effect is the removal of vibrations without a node at that particular fret (8). The quantized vibration of a guitar string can therefore be shown and related to quantization as seen in atoms. " =

Figure 1. Standing waves on a guitar string. All of the standing waves (n = 15) as well higher n values contribute to a complex waveform.

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Journal of Chemical Education

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In the Classroom

Figure 2. Proper finger placement removes certain standing waves, and allows waves with a node in a specific place, producing a harmonic tone: (A) The 12th fret to induce a node halfway along the string (n = 2); (B) the 7th fret for two nodes each one third of the way along the string (n = 3); and (C) the 5th fret for three nodes each one fourth of the way along the string (n = 4). These are the shapes of standing waves allowed on a guitar string and the corresponding harmonics on a guitar.

Performing the Demonstration Any acoustic or electric guitar can be used in this demonstration. Acoustic guitars work well because they can be heard in most classrooms and do not require an amplifier. Demonstrating a harmonic vibration can easily be done on three places on the neck of the guitar, at the 12th, 7th, and 5th frets. To strike a harmonic vibration, lightly place a finger across all six strings directly above the metal strip of the fret as shown (Figure 2). Leaving the finger there, strum with the other hand or with a pick. If this is done properly a lovely distinct tone can be heard, and the finger on the strings can be removed without disrupting the tone. The 12th fret is the halfway point along the full length of the guitar string. Recall from eq 1 that the corresponding wave has two half-wavelengths covering the length of the string. Therefore n = 2, and L = 2(!2) = !. This particular wave has a single node in the middle of the strings length, and represents the first harmonic. The 7th fret is one third of the way along the length of a guitar string. The standing wave that vibrates when this fret is dampened, the second harmonic, has two nodes spaced evenly along the length of the string at the 13 and
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23 point. This wave has three half-wavelengths, therefore n = 3, and L = 3!2. The 5th fret is one fourth of the way along the length of a guitar string and placing a finger there selects the wave with three evenly spaced nodes and four half-wavelengths (n = 4; L = 2!). This is the third harmonic. Note that going from the first to the second to the third harmonic (frets 12, 7, and 5, respectively), the wavelength of the standing wave progressively decreases from L to (23)L to (1/2)L. In this progression of harmonics, the frequency of the standing wave increases and the pitch gets higher. This appears counterintuitive because for fully depressed strings, the opposite occurs: lower fret numbers, longer vibrating string, lower pitch. The standing wave harmonics represent a system that is substantially different from the sound waves that emanate from a fully depressed guitar string. It is similarly interesting to note that the harmonic vibrations persist once the finger is removed from the dampened strings. If the same technique is used to attempt to strike a harmonic vibration at another fret, such as the 10th, it will sound like a baseball card going through bicycle spokes. This location on a string does not correspond to a node on any standing wave with the guitar strings boundary conditions, and
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In the Classroom

therefore all waves will be dampened. As a result, no tone will be heard. Notice that the harmonic vibration that corresponds to a single half-wavelength (n = 1; L = !2) has nodes only at the anchor points for the guitar string, and cannot be isolated with the previously mentioned techniques. Inducing a harmonic vibration anywhere else on the string always removes this fundamental harmonic, which generally makes a large contribution to the pitch of any randomly plucked string. This explains why the first, second, and third harmonics sound like quiet musical overtones (7). Application to the Atom Randomly plucking a guitar string produces a non-harmonic vibration. That waveform, however, is composed of a number of harmonic vibrations that are present in some ratio. Depending on the length, tension, and thickness of the strings, these harmonics produce a note with pitch (from the fundamental harmonic n = 1), and timbre (from higher harmonics or overtones n > 1). Hitting a harmonic on the guitar removes the fundamental harmonic, and exposes specific overtones. All of these harmonics, however, are present in a randomly vibrating guitar string. Using a finger to dampen certain vibrations demonstrates that the complex vibration of a guitar string can be deconstructed into a discrete number of harmonic vibrations, each with a unique frequency. By analogy, boundary conditions inherent in atoms constitute a similar set of harmonic or stationary vibrational states. Complex, non-stationary states can then be simply described as a superposition of those discrete stationary states. As a result, electrons are capable of having multiple energy values; however, when they are measured only discrete stationary energies are found. This was part of the mystery of the hydrogen spectrum. The purplish glow of electrically excited gaseous hydrogen, when deconstructed with a diffraction grating or prism shows lines with specific wavelengths. Bohr described this phenomenon with discrete stationary states. His model of the atom postulated that there were distinct allowed orbits in which electrons can exist, with an integral numbers of nodes (0, 1, 2, ), similar to the one-dimensional standing waves on a guitar string. While this model was unable to predict the line spectra of multi-electron atoms, the principle of discrete energies became a cornerstone of the current atomic model. Bohrs familiar model of the atom is generally a students first exposure to atomic structure, and a starting point for quantum effects as seen in atoms. This demonstration of guitar harmonics illustrates quantized effects as seen in a one-dimensional standing wave, which is an entry point for more complex wave phenomena. A normally vibrating guitar string is composed of a number of discrete vibrations with well-defined frequencies. Any ran-

dom, non-harmonic vibration can be deconstructed into a set of harmonic vibrations, which are all simultaneously present in some ratio. The same is true of atoms. Complex, non-stationary states are the superposition of a number of discrete stationary states. As a result, any complex motion (be it electronic or vibrational) can be deconstructed into a set of discrete quantized states with specific frequencies. Conclusion I have found that students enjoy hearing a standing wave audibly demonstrated. First and foremost, a chemistry professor in front of class with an acoustic guitar is unusual enough to hook a students attention, even for just a few minutes. Comparing the difference between harmonic pitches and fully depressed strings demonstrates the importance of boundary conditions for quantized phenomena. In addition, this demonstration audibly illustrates a principle that is difficult to visualize while using the same textbook guitar example. By connecting the relatively unfamiliar concept of quanta with its familiar application on the guitar, it is possible to show how quantum-like effects are present in real-world situations. Finally, the action of hitting a harmonic is straightforward and easy to do without actually being proficient on the instrument. If, however, the demonstrator is so inclined, easily recognizable songs with harmonics include Jeremy by Pearl Jam, She Talks To Angels by the Black Crowes, and Nowhere Man by the Beatles. Acknowledgments I would like to thank Edward Vitz and the reviewer and checker for their insightful comments. In addition I would like to thank Timothy Marin and his band, Rhondas Basement, for making me a more proficient guitar player. Literature Cited
1. Zumdahl, Steven S.; Zumdahl, Susan A. Chemistry, 6th ed.; Houghton Mifflin: Boston, 2003; p 305. 2. Silberberg, Martin S. Chemistry The Molecular Nature of Matter and Change, 4th ed.; McGraw Hill: New York, 2006; p 271. 3. Chang, Raymond. Chemistry, 8th ed.; McGraw Hill: New York, 2006; p 273. 4. Vitz, E.; Binning, R. J. Chem. Educ. 1996, 73, 171. 5. Pye, Cory C. J. Chem. Educ. 2004, 81, 507. 6. Serway, R. A. Principles of Physics; Harcourt Brace Publishing: Fort Worth, TX, 1994; pp 665673. 7. Benade, A. H. Horns, Strings, and Harmony; Dover Publications, Inc.: New York, 1992; pp 4766. 8. Hughes, J. R. Coll. Math. Journal 2000, 31, 300303.

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