LEADERSHIP STYLES OF RETIRED MILITARY WOMEN Dr. Scena B.

Webb March 3, 2014

Table of Contents Section 1: Introduction .................................................................................................................... 6! Interest in the research topic ........................................................................................................... 6! Significance of research topic ......................................................................................................... 7! History of research topic ................................................................................................................. 7! Theoretical application.................................................................................................................... 8! Best practices .................................................................................................................................. 8! Relevance to social psychology ...................................................................................................... 9! Professional conduct ..................................................................................................................... 11! Ethical practices ............................................................................................................................ 11! Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 12! Section 2: Literature Review ........................................................................................................ 13! General review of psychology of leadership ................................................................................ 13! Military leadership in psychology ................................................................................................ 15! Leadership formation in psychology ............................................................................................ 17! Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 19! Section 3: Methodology ................................................................................................................ 21! The purpose of a research study.................................................................................................... 22! The target population of the proposed research study .................................................................. 22! Strategy for study .......................................................................................................................... 23! Section 4: Expected Results .......................................................................................................... 24! Limitations .................................................................................................................................... 26! Relatedness of findings to previous research studies .................................................................... 26!

Population ..................................................................................................................................... 26! Responses ...................................................................................................................................... 26! The application of theoretical and research knowledge to the evaluation of the proposed research study outcomes.............................................................................................................................. 27! The implementation of the proposed research study .................................................................... 27! Data analysis ................................................................................................................................. 28! Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 28! Section 5: Discussion .................................................................................................................... 30! Findings......................................................................................................................................... 30! A review of expected findings ...................................................................................................... 30! Research supported findings ......................................................................................................... 30! Limitations .................................................................................................................................... 31! Relatedness of findings to previous research studies .................................................................... 31! Population ..................................................................................................................................... 32! Responses ...................................................................................................................................... 32! Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 32! References ..................................................................................................................................... 34! Appendix A ................................................................................................................................... 43! Interview Protocol ......................................................................................................................... 43! Interview Questions ...................................................................................................................... 43!

Section 1: Introduction The proposed research seeks to understand the process of developing and transferring leadership skills for military women to the civilian sector. For women who have retired from military service, headlines are scarce with respect to psychological needs for this population. With the rise in social awareness concerning women in combat (Blanton, 2013; Dvorak, 2013; Fishel, 2013; Wasikowska, 2012), research gained from understanding military women and leadership would advance the scientific knowledge base in social psychology. Psychology research is available with respect to women suffering from sexual trauma (Rowe, et al., 2009), gender bias (Do, Samuels, Adkins, Clinard, & Koveleskie, 2013), sexuality (Cameron, et al., 2011), intimate partner violence (Foran, Slep, & Heyman, 2011), and posttraumatic stress disorder (Gates, et al., 2012; Lehavot, Der-Martirosian, Simpson, Sadler, & Washington, 2013). However, only one dissertation on leadership styles of active-duty military women (Godsey, 2012) is available in scholarly research. Although Godsey (2012) researched leadership styles of active-duty women, the proposed topic has a focus on what happens with the leadership skills of these women once retired from military service and reintegrate into life as a civilian. Interest in the research topic Approximately 200,000 women are serving on active duty (Smith & Smith, 2013). Experience of 21 years of active duty service in the United States Navy spurred the interest in how women transfer leadership skills from the military environment. As the number of women who retire from military service continues to grow, influences on their leadership styles carry into their new roles. For example, when searching for scholarly literature on leadership, literature offers insight into fostering cross-gender mentorship (Harden, Clark, Johnson, &

Larson, 2009), and diversity leadership (Chin & Sanchez, -Hucles, 2007), but a gap exists with respect to the experiences of retired military women in leadership. Some men who retire from military service receive notable attention for their contributions as news worthy articles (Barstow, 2008) although an exhaustive search did not produce research on military women who have retired. The potential to understanding how military applications of leadership are directly transferable is not limited to social psychology but also has the potential to benefit institutions of higher education. Significance of research topic The research has the potential to address the mental-health field in gaining a better understanding of the essence of being a retired military woman serving in leadership, which may assist in developing theories with respect to transference of leadership skills gained from military life. Social psychologists may glean insights from the rich descriptions of retired military women, with respect to incorporating social pressures of leadership through strategic exposure to military living. This is especially relevant in todays culture of women authorized to participate in combat (Wasikowska, 2012). The potential to understanding how military applications of leadership are directly transferrable is not limited to psychology with respect to mental health, but also has the potential to benefit institutions of higher education. Yen (2011) reported that 10.6 million in the U.S. earned a master's degree or higher were women, compared to 10.5 million men. History of research topic With respect to literature on leadership, prior studies examine the components of leadership (Marshall, 2007), effects of tokenism as a woman (McDonald, Toussaint, & Sweiger, 2004), leadership development (Atwater, Dionne, Avolio, Camobreco, & Lau, 1999; Budworth

& Mann, 2010) and historical advances for women in leadership (Evans, 2010), however there is a gap in literature on understanding the experiences of retired military women currently in positions of leadership. Literature indicated that there is a significant difference between male and female leadership styles (Aldoory & Toth, 2004; Eagly, 2007; Eagly & Carli, 2007; Eagly & Chin, 2010), but literature of void when the topic shifts to leadership styles of retired military women. Theoretical application Shared social identity can be seen as the basis for all forms of productive social interaction between people, including leadership, motivation, communication, cooperation, helping, and trust (S. A. Haslam, Jetten, Postmes, & C. Haslam, 2009). The lens of social identity theory works well when studying issues of social, organizational, and corporate identity Cornelissen, S. A. Haslam, and Balmer (2007). Women who have completed a career spanning at least 20 years in the military may have insights on leadership from a group perspective and social identity perspective. Social identity theory suggests that a persons self-concept is a combination of a personal identity, and a social identity. Groups provide insight into a sense of social identity (Haslam et al., 2009) and that perceptions about various groups have a significant impact on socialization of group members (p. 7). Best practices Scholarly work on women leadership styles has been dominated by quantitative research methods. Taken from this perspective, the role of authentic leadership among retired (career) military women currently in positions of leadership is the foundation for the proposed qualitative inquiry. Authentic leadership (AL) is as a pattern of leader behavior that draws upon and promotes both positive psychological capacities and a positive ethical climate, to foster greater

self-awareness, an internalized moral perspective, balanced processing of information, and relational transparency on the part of leaders working with followers, fostering positive selfdevelopment (Walumbwa, Avolio, Gardner, Wernsing, & Peterson, 2008). Best practices have used the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) as an appropriate measure for leadership; the MLQs psychometric applications (Antonakis, Avolio, & Sivasubramaniam, 2003; Avolio, & Gardner, 2005; Gardner, et al., 2011; Edwards, Schyns, Gill, & Higgs, 2012). Relevance to social psychology On December 14, 2013, the news of President Obamas nomination for the Navys first female four-star Admiral quietly hit the news (Klausner, 2013). For women who have retired from military service, headlines about leadership are scant with respect to psychological needs for this population. However, there is literature on military women who suffer from posttraumatic stress disorder (Gates, et al., 2012), partner violence surrounding military women (Foran, Slep, & Heyman, 2011), and military sexual trauma (Rowe, et al., 2009). A need to learn more about retired military women who have not suffered trauma will add to the available body of psychology literature and drives the passion of the proposed research. Social psychology focuses on social and cultural influences and the connection those influences have on people as social groups or communities (Hogg, 2001). History has proven that during the 1960s a shift in collective thought brought about major societal changes. By accounts of recent news articles, there is a societal shifts taking place with respect to leadership roles of military women (Blanton, 2013; Smith, E., & Smith, M., 2013; Wasikowska, 2012). Women are serving in combat roles and undoubtedly will one-day transition from the military into civilian life. Social psychologists may study what makes military women, as social groups, determine how they behave as civilian leaders compared to military leaders.

Taken from the lens of social psychologists, studies on styles of leadership among psychology professionals are traceable back to Kurt Lewin, one of the founding fathers of modern social psychology. Kurt Lewin was among a group of psychologists who identified different styles of leadership as early as 1939 (Tolman, 1948). Continuing in the tradition of social psychology research, the rationale for the proposed research is to develop theory and generate a new model that has a focus on the process of developing and transferring leadership skills for military women to the civilian sector. The societal need to address questions such as, Do these women transfer perceived levels of capabilities to the civilian sector? Does the transference of leadership skills directly correlate to women in the boardroom? Are retired military women suffering from violations of expectancy theory once they retire from military service? may increase along with the increase in combat positions for military women. Conversely, social psychologists may want to know more about how retired military womens attitudes have changed because of leaving the military. The proposed research to understand the process of transferring leadership styles of retired military women into civilian life may assist in developing theories incorporating the phenomenon of what female military veterans experience when returning home from combatrelated situations (Shaw & Hector, 2010). The narratives of the women in the proposed study will pioneer discussions on military leadership that goes past the scope of gender representation (Chin, 2010; Chin & Sanchez-Hucles, 2007), and move past the context of leadership with no regard to gender (Fallesen, Keller-Glaze, & Curnow, 2011; Lindsay, Kurprius, & Lucart, 2004; Wong, Bliese, & McGurk, 2003). The new knowledge gained from the insights of retired military women has the potential to position social psychologists to front of social change surrounding women in combat. Subsequent inquiries may be helpful to contextualize the

constructs surrounding military women and their second careers in their pursuit of advanced degrees. Professional conduct Women who have completed military careers have likely been exposed to various cultures. Cultural influences have impact on various aspects of life. The need for psychology professionals to understand and prepare for multiculturalism in the profession has been a topic of research (Henriksen, 2006). Accordingly, counseling professionals need to understand the contextual frame of the people who receiving counseling. Henriksen (2006) postulates that learning more about multiculturalism is foundational to become a more effective counselor. The premise is that most counseling professionals should approach the profession from an existentialism and humanistic frame encompassing the client unique perspective culturally was presented (Henriksen, 2006). Romney, (2008) postulated that counseling today must include a multicultural perspective. Accordingly, effective counselors must get themselves abreast of what multiculturalism is, diversity is, and counseling from the perspective of a diverse population, in an effort to meet the needs of the population served. Ethical practices! As such, my chosen field uses the American Psychological Association (APA) code of ethics as a foundational guide for matters of ethics and multiculturalism. Being a veteran, attention must be given to guard against dual relationships. Personal information shared with clients about psychologists should be minimal and appropriate for the healing process. The psychologists personal life is irrelevant to the clients treatment and may, in fact, pique the clients interest in the therapist, shifting it from the reasons for seeking treatment and

compromising the therapists stance of neutrality and objectivity (Kaslow, Patterson, & Gottlieb, 2011, p. 105). Conclusion A need for empirical research that adds to the body of psychology literature focusing on how retired military women transfer their leadership skills into the civilian sector frames the discussion. Acknowledgement of scholarly work on womens leadership highlights the silence in literature for this specific population. Social identity theory grounds the proposed research in theoretical literature. Social psychologists may have the most interest in the study because of the changes in societal norms towards the perceptions of women in the military. A discussion on the need for multiculturalism and ethical practices on the part of counseling psychologists who may work with veterans ends the discussions.

Section 2: Literature Review The following literature review covers 15 articles related to the topic of leadership in general, womens leadership, and military leadership. The selection brings a focus on the heart of the proposed research to understand what happens with the leadership skills of women when retired from military service and reintegrate into life as a civilian. The question of how retired military women transfer their leadership styles demands a review of psychology literature from a macro level. A search of available literature did not yield any results for military women leadership styles once leaving the military therefore, the following literature review presentation is a perimeter of work on women leadership. The goal is to demonstrate the need to conduct targeted research on the existing gap in psychology leadership literature and provide new information to the body of knowledge. General review of psychology of leadership From the social psychologist perspective, Wang and Thompson (2006) postulate that psychology literature on leadership and group dynamics focus heavily on the negative side or failures of leadership using a meta-analytic approach. The central argument reflects the perspective that a more balanced representation of psychology leadership literature is necessary to highlight the availability of positive research on leadership. By comparison, the psychology therapist perspective of Schoo (2008) provided an argument for the integration of emotional intelligence (EI) and choice theory (CT) with respect to positive psychology applications in organizations also using a meta-analytical approach. The central argument is that leaders who use EI and CT can focus on internal control psychology through their leadership styles. Revisiting the social psychology view, Eagly (2007) wrote a sound argument, appealing to logic with respect to desirable leadership traits that woman leaders display using a meta-

analytical approach. The article continues from a previous meta-analysis, conducted by Eagly in 2003 that synthesized 45 articles on transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership styles. The central theme makes the argument that professional literature on leadership provides insight into characteristics of good leadership that women do display; yet evidence shows a preference for male leaders over women. In tandem is the general psychology perspective where Chin (2010) advances the argument that based on the United States increased diversity population projections, theories of leadership need to change to include diversity leadership using a persuasive argument. Continuing from the general psychology perspective, Chin & Sanchez-Hucles (2007) advance the position that scholarly literature on leadership does little to incorporate minorities and diversity. The central focus hinges on increased projections among racial and ethnic minorities frames the position that psychologists need to have current and inclusive research available through professional journals in psychology. All three scholarly works have the central theme of advancing the need for critical analysis of psychology literatures absence of women leadership styles and diversity in the academic landscape. These presentations could have been stronger if recent research studies were the basis, but instead the materials relied heavily on crafting discussions that failed to present alternative views. The panoramic review of literature on psychology of leadership for women lacks a focus on military women who have completed their tour of duty and retired. Selective arguments on the need to balance both positive and negative leadership practices (Wang & Thompson, 2006), and integration of emotional intelligence and choice theory (Schoo, 2008) provide a conceptual approach to leadership. Arguments on the contradictions between desirable leadership traits are, and the perspective that women have these traits, yet are not viewed as potential leaders (Eagly,

2007), and the need for inclusion of ethnicity and diversity into the scholarly landscape on leadership (Chin, 2010; Chin & Sanchez-Hucles, 2007) broadened the implications that women need inclusion into literature on leadership in psychology. With respect to retired women military leaders, there is a gap in the literature on the effects of emotional intelligence (EI) and choice theory (CT) as well as psychology leadership, therefore, using knowledge gained research in these areas increases contextual awareness when embarking on research for the underrepresented population. The review of the literature for the proposed study shifts focus to military women leadership. Military leadership in psychology From the perspective of a psychology doctoral learner, Godsey (2012) conducted research to understand if there is a significant difference between senior level male and female leaders style of leadership on active duty in the United States Air National Guard. The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire Leader Form (5x-Short) was the data collection instrument from a population of 20 active duty personnel. The research findings were in contrast to the literatures premise that women would be more transformational with their leadership compared to men. Support for the findings included the consulting psychology perspective where Looney, Kurprius, and Lucart (2004) found that evaluations of leadership of naval officers are not significantly different between the genders. The gender of the rater and the gender of the person receiving an evaluation by conducting a quantitative correlational study using naval academy students consisting of 69 men and 39 women proved to have no significant difference. Both studies were high on scientific merit supporting the findings by empirical research studies. Insights gained from the research studies may be helpful for a consulting psychologist working in a military environment. For example, based on scholarly research available for

military settings, a consultant could misinterpret evaluations done by persons of different genders because a review of the literature supports the notion of gender biases in senior level leadership. Because of these studies, one plausible explanation could be that gender has no significance, but bias in perceptions of what is feminine and masculine may be one of the root causes for differences. From the military psychology perspective, Lindsay, Day, and Halpin (2011) considered the question on whether shared leadership in the military is reality, a possibility, or a pipedream using a persuasive argument. The Army and Air Force serve as the context for leadership in the research. Continuing from the military psychology lens, Fallesen, Keller-Glaze, and Curnow (2011) explored leadership studies in the United States Army using a building-block approach synthesizing historical, current, and future military leadership literature. The audience seems to be military psychology scholars seeking to gain insight into leadership in a military context. In contrast to the prior review of shared military leadership literature (Lindsay, Day, & Halpin, 2011), the essence of the article falls short for applicability across a military context. The contents of both articles do not incorporate current research studies but instead present a targeted meta-analysis serving as the foundation for their respective positions. While this practice is acceptable, the failure to present alternative views limits the practicality of the research. For the behavioral science psychologist or the consulting psychologist, historical knowledge of the changes in the U.S. Armys perspective on leadership can prove helpful when working in military settings. From the psychology leadership perspective, Wong, Bliese, and McGurk (2003) conducted a meta-analysis on military leadership from a context-specific view. The goal of the research provides an analytical approach to military leadership from an organizational level, a

senior leadership level, and an individual level. The body of knowledge presentation did make small reference to military leadership and gender noting the contradiction resulting from a plethora of literature on military leadership and very few with a focus on women. For example, in the paragraphs that focus on gender, a report of approximately 15% of the military are women also reports a hopefulness that more research will focus on the leadership styles of women and not just gender integration. The audience seems to be general scholars who want to learn more about the triad analysis of military leadership styles from a content-specific perspective. The review of literature on military psychology of leadership lacks a focus on retired military women further supporting the need to conduct research with the underrepresented population. The research seems to focus on investigating gender differences (Godsey, 2012) or focus on context- specific views of military leadership (Fallesen, Keller-Glaze, & Curnow, 2011; Lindsay, Kurprius, & Lucart, 2004; Wong, Bliese, & McGurk, 2003). The question of how retired military women transfer leadership skills to civilian life is absent in psychology literature of leadership. The knowledge gained from revisiting gender differences and context-specific views of military leadership provide an understructure necessary to build new models or theories of transference of leadership. The final review shifts the focus toward leadership formation in psychology. Leadership formation in psychology Taken from the consulting psychology perspective, Kaiser, McGinnis and Overfield (2012) sought to demonstrate quantitatively how psychology and business perspectives on leadership work harmoniously. The goal of the research was to raise awareness that the socialpsychological aspect of leadership is complimentary to the business aspect of leadership using regression analysis. Complimentary research from an applied psychology perspective used a

qualitative case study method to highlight multiple constructs of leadership among local government leaders in the United Kingdom (Ford, 2010). While Kaiser, et al., (2012) employed quantitative research, Ford (2010) employed qualitative research supporting the notion that both methods work well presenting a unified approach to research. Both research articles are strong with respect to scientific merit and provide complimentary findings that social-psychological aspects of leadership shape essential elements needed in leaders. Taken from the perspective of integrating leadership theories from a personnel psychology perspective, Derue, Nahrgang, Wellman, and Humphrey (2011) conducted quantitative research leadership traits and behaviors. This research used a meta-analysis quantitatively synthesizing existing psychology literature on leadership. In comparison, Eberly, Johnson, Hernandez and Avolio (2013) took a general psychology approach studied an integrative model of leadership reporting perspectives using a persuasive argument. Both research articles did not include research studies to support the perspectives; however, the results were complimentary in that models of leadership should provide elements across spectrums of leadership. Taken from the lens of applied psychology, Rosette and Tost (2010) quantitative research supported the position that once women break through the glass ceiling, there is strong evidence that they will experience leadership advantages over male counterparts. The argument advances the discussion on prior research that suggests women have more desirable leadership traits compared to men (Schoo, 2008) but paradoxically seem to experience roadblocks to advancement. Earlier literature on women in leadership (Chin, 2010; Chin & Sanchez-Hucles, 2007) appeared feminist; the current research has stronger scientific merit because of using two research studies supporting the findings.

The review of literature on leadership formation lacks a focus on retired military women but does include women in general. The research presented in this section does show the significant role that society plays with respect to leadership formation. The proposed research study has a theoretical framework grounded in social identity theory of leadership and grounded in psychology literature on leadership. The culmination of articles reviewed represent a broad range of psychology perspectives in social psychology, general psychology, military psychology, consulting psychology, applied psychology, personnel psychology, experimental psychology, and psychology of leadership. An increased awareness of the slight nuances of psychological perspectives on leadership is helpful to cement the proposed perspective to research as a social psychologist. For example, because of the different psychology lenses, a congruency emerged with respect to what is missing in the literature, the discussion of retired military women leaders. Consequently, discerning the kaleidoscope of psychology, each perspective shapes the backdrop for the narratives of the participants. There is an expectation that members involved in the research will represent all branches of the military, racial, ethnic memberships, and include both enlisted and officers. The spectrum of literature reviewed from different psychology views, the offers a baseline of knowledge, which helps to understand more about the research participants. Conclusion In conclusion, the question of how retired military women transfer leadership skills to civilian life is absent in psychology literature of leadership, however; the knowledge gained from immersion into a broad spectrum of psychology literature provides a solid foundation to embark on research as a novice social psychology learner. The absence of literature on retired military women is consistent because there is no frame of reference to the population in society in

general. For example, according to media bias, some people receive subliminal messages about society through imagery (Babad, 2005). Military movies that portray retired military women or women in positive leadership roles in military settings are void in American culture. Research on the process of developing and transferring leadership skills for retired military women to the civilian sector has the potential to reduce the gap in the psychology literature.

Section 3: Methodology Grounded theory research design is the chosen methodology following Corbin and Strauss (1990) model. Generating theory that is grounded in fieldwork with a philosophical foundation in a process of pure induction (of theory from data) is best suited when researching areas that are not well known. The method described by Glaser and Strauss (1967) is built upon two key concepts: constant comparison, in which data are collected and analyzed simultaneously, and theoretical sampling, in which decisions about which data should be collected next are determined by the theory that is being constructed (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Suddaby, 2006). Interviews will serve as the primary method for data collection followed by using the comparative comparison technique. Patton (2002) describes the conversational informal interview approach as the best choice offering maximum flexibility to pursue information (p. 342). Using this approach, the interview is fluid and flows understanding that no two people will respond the same way. The weakness of this approach is an increased amount of time needed to collect information (Patton, 2002, p. 343). An interview guide will be prepared ahead of time to ensure that all participants receive the same basic lines of inquiry. An advantage to this approach is greater time management with regard to how long each question may take. Patton (2002) offers insight into the standardized open-ended interview approach that uses carefully and fully wording in each question before the interview (p. 344). This approach has the intent to ensure each interviewee gets the same questions in the same way and the same order (Patton, 2002, p. 344). The standardized open-ended interview approach is the best way to guard against variations among application during each interview. Closed, fixed-response interview is another

method that qualitative researchers may use (Patton, 2002, p. 349). This method has carefully crafted questions and response categories in advance. The responses are fixed and the respondent chooses from one of the categories (p. 349). An advantage of this method is that responses can be compared and easily aggregated. A disadvantage is that participants must fit their experiences into a pre-determined response stemming from the researchers categories (Patton, 2002, p. 349). The purpose of a research study The purpose of the study is to add to the gap in literature on leadership styles of retired military women. The research question, "What is the process of developing and transferring leadership skills for military women to the civilian sector?" serves as the foundation for the research. Qualitative researchers follow the philosophical assumptions that understanding phenomenon is investigated from the actors perspective and the important reality is what people perceive it to be (Patton, 2002, p. 69). Rather, there are multiple realities constructed by human beings who experience a phenomenon of interest (Krauss, 2005, p. 760). Therefore, grounded theory serves as the qualitative research method to allow unknown information about the leadership styles of military women to add to the existing psychology literature on leadership styles. The target population of the proposed research study Retired military women are the target population. Operationally, retired military women are women who have served in any branch of the United States military for more than twenty years. Determining sample size depends on gathering the richness of the experience under investigation (Morse, 2000; Onwuegbuzie & Leech, 2007; OReilly & Parker, 2013). For grounded theory research, 15 -20 participants will be the target. With respect to sample sizing, a

qualitative power analysis will be conducted using Sandelowski and Barrosos model. A qualitative power analysis could be conducted via qualitative meta-syntheses and qualitative meta-summaries (Onwuegbuzie & Leech, 2007, p. 108). According to Sandelowski and Barroso (2003), a qualitative meta-synthesis is a form of systematic review or integration of qualitative research findings in a target domain that are themselves interpretive syntheses of data, including phenomenologies, ethnographies, grounded theories, and other integrated and coherent descriptions or explanations of phenomena, events, or cases (p. 227). Strategy for study Solicitation for participants will be done by announcements explaining the research and needed participants using social media such as Facebook, LinkedIn, and buying advertising space in military journals. Additional announcements would be placed through advertisements in professional leadership journals. If permission granted, flyers would be placed common spaces on a few local military bases such as the Walter Reed Medical Center in Bethesda, Maryland, because of locality. The contact information would have a cell phone number listed, which would be a dedicated line that has voicemail. Potential participants would have access to call and set up a telephone interviewing session designed to screen participants asking them about their leadership experiences and for verification of their military service. To increase continuity of data collection all interviews will take place over the telephone to ensure that each participant has the same experience with data collection. A copy of the proposed interview protocol and questions are in Appendix A.

Section 4: Expected Results Anticipated findings of shared group characteristics across military services are consistent with scholarly literature that suggests strong behavior of individuals as influenced by group affiliation (Matthews, Ender, Laurence, Rohall, 2009). Group identity as a shared identity suggests that people who have similar experiences may develop similar characteristics in leadership (Hogg, et al., 2004). The expected findings of the proposed research are aligned with scholarly research on the topic. One expected result is a sense of hard-charging work ethics. Shared military experiences may yield similarity in work ethics. For example, military culture instills a sense hard-charging work ethics (Wong, Bliese, & McGurk, 2003). Mottos such as Be all you can be for the Navy and Army strong for the Army suggest an exposure to increased levels of responsibility while serving in the military. A second expected result is a sense of practical application leadership styles. Military leaders often start at younger ages with levels of increased responsibility (Hedlund, et al., 2003). Tacit knowledge is gained from a combination of doing a task and learning theory of leadership. Routinely, learning by doing is practiced more frequently before the introduction of theoretical leadership practices. A third expected result is a sense of storytelling through reflection of military experiences. Matthew and Sternberg (2009) posit that tacit knowledge is transferred effectively through reflection. Reflective thought plays a role in clarity with respect to what is not articulated. When the participants recall respective experiences, reflection is anticipated which may yield clearer information on leadership transferability. Because the nature of qualitative inquiry does not rest on hypothesis testing, there is no

expectation of relationships between variables or cause and effects. Based on the expected findings of beliefs on work ethics, practical applications of leadership before theoretical learning, and reflection, a new theory may be generated. As a result of the data collection and comparative analysis, a theory that can be used to gain a better understanding of leadership skills transferability among retired military women. The data represented four areas of personal change that took place throughout the military leadership experience. The four areas were (1) confidence development, (2) mixed feelings of being unsure and anxiety, (3) reflections on learning expectations, and (4) reflections on civilian expectations. Among the four key areas, civilian expectations were the most prevalent. Following the four key areas expressed in the data, an argument can be made that the psychological contract was re-evaluated during the process of change that took place with the participant. The psychological contract (Knapp, 1980) is described as, an implicit psychological contract formed between the new employee and the employer consisting of each one's expectations (p. 76). The theory of reciprocity is at play and because the two parties discuss what each is to receive and contribute to the relationship in only general terms, this lack of specificity ultimately leads to problems when one or both parties realize that the two sets of expectations were not in total agreement (Knapp, 1980, p. 76). The application of a breach in the psychological contract is appropriate with respect to the top two areas presented in this research, reflections on learning expectations, and reflections on civilian expectations. The psychological contract is found in literature primarily pertaining to organizational leadership and expectancy theory. In this research, expectancy theory, which deals with motivation, was not most appropriate because the process of personal change did not rely on

motivation, but more on reflectiveness of expectations dealing with an expected experience. An adaptation of the psychological contract to fit more closely with internal evaluations of an unspoken contracts fulfillness or unfulfillness seems appropriate. Limitations Relatedness of findings to previous research studies Findings of previous research on the topic of military women leadership styles could not be compared to the expected findings of the proposed research. Only an educated guess can be made about why there is a lack of research on leadership styles of military women. The absence of scholarly literature is a limitation of the proposed research. Population The research is limited to the participants who will provide data for the study. Qualitative research is not generalizable and therefore is limited to the reflections of the women who are interviewed. More specifically, the narratives that are expressed are limited to only a small moment in time, as recalled by the participants. Responses The responses are limited to the emotions experienced by the volunteer participants involved in the study. Greenberg (2012) reported on multi-level theories on the role of emotions in the process of change. The meta-analytical work advances the argument of the possibility to change emotion with emotions. As the participants recall their leadership experiences, no controls will take place to restrain the emotions that may surface.

The application of theoretical and research knowledge to the evaluation of the proposed research study outcomes Theoretical applications for shared experiences in leadership stem from social identity theory. Social identity is viewed as an analysis of intergroup relationships (Hogg, et al., 2004). Taken from the social identity paradigm, the proposed research study outcomes of shared perceptions on work ethics and leadership practicality, versus, theoretical applications, are significant to how leadership may be transferred from military groups to civilian life. The implementation of the proposed research study The first phase is by interview questionnaires soliciting biographical data, military experience, and asking for follow-up telephone interviews, as needed. This phase is meant to screen potential participants to ensure that a baseline criterion is met for the proposed sample. For example, if a potential participant served in the military for less than twenty years and did not have the opportunity to work in a leadership position, then the participant would screen out and a thank you letter for interest in the study would be provided. The second phase is the actual interview that will be audio taped for later analysis. Initial interviews will be scheduled for 1-2 hours allowing for consistency in protocol for each participant. Informed consent will be gained from each participant before the beginning of the interviews. A reminder that each participant can opt-out and end the interview at any time will be given during natural breaks in the interview process. Here is a brief step-by-step summary of the proposed data collection method. 1. Mail, e-mail, or call potential participants. 2. Extend an invitation to participate. 3. Engage in selection criterion screening.

4. Set up the actual interviews. 5. Administer the informed consent form. 6. Administer the open-ended guiding questions. 7. Conduct a follow on telephone interview, if necessary. Data analysis Data will be analyzed following the model of Corbin and Strauss (1990) that includes: 1. Open-coding to capture the detail, variation, and complexity of the data. 2. Constantly comparing data instances, cases, and categories for conceptual similarities and differences (the method of constant comparison). 3. Sampling new data and cases on theoretical grounds as analysis progresses. 4. Writing theoretical memoranda to explore emerging concepts and links to existing theory. 5. Engaging in more focused coding (including focused, axial, and theoretical coding) of selected core categories. 6. Continuing to code, make comparisons, and sample theoretically until the point at which no new relevant insights are being reached (theoretical saturation). 7. Additional tactics to move analysis from descriptive to more theoretical levels: for example, grouping or reclassifying sets of basic categories; writing definitions of core categories; building conceptual models and data displays; linking to the existing literature; writing extended memos and more formal theory. Conclusion The proposed qualitative research exploring the gap in psychology literature on military leadership styles of female retirees has the potential to begin dialogue on how leadership styles

can affect civilian leadership practices. The significance to psychology comes from the theoretical underpinnings of social identity theory. The limitations of conducting qualitative research is the small number of participants, normally ranging 15-20 participants (Morse, 2000), the data can only be applicable to that sample, during those particular conditions. A future recommendation is to have quantitative research conducted on retired military women leadership styles and leadership transferability to the civilian sector. An additional recommendation for future research is a longitudinal study of senior leaders of private and public sector to look for similarities across platforms.

Section 5: Discussion The qualitative research study would use grounded theory as the methodology to understand how retired military women transfer leadership skills into civilian life. Grounded theory focuses on the process of generating theory and not so much on a theoretical content (Corbin & Strauss, 1990; Patton, 2002). Data collection was done through the use of open-ended interviewing questions. Data was analyzed using the method described by Glaser and Strauss (1967) which is built upon two key concepts: constant comparison, in which data are collected and analyzed simultaneously, and theoretical sampling, in which decisions about which data should be collected next are determined by the theory that is being constructed (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Suddaby, 2006). The research question is: "What is the process of developing and transferring leadership skills for military women to the civilian sector?" Findings A review of expected findings One expected result is a sense of hard-charging work ethics. A second expected result is a sense of practical application leadership styles. A third expected result is a sense of storytelling through reflection of military experiences. Each expected result has been supported in scholarly literature (Hedlund, et al., 2003; Matthew & Sternberg, 2009; Wong, Bliese, & McGurk, 2003). Research supported findings The data represented four areas of personal change that took place throughout the military leadership experience. The four areas were (1) confidence development, (2) mixed feelings of being unsure and anxiety, (3) reflections on learning expectations, and (4) reflections on civilian expectations. Among the four key areas, civilian expectations were the most

prevalent. Following the four key areas expressed in the data, an argument can be made that the psychological contract was re-evaluated during the process of change that took place with the participant. The psychological contract (Knapp, 1980) is described as, an implicit psychological contract formed between the new employee and the employer consisting of each one's expectations (p. 76). The theory of reciprocity is at play and because the two parties discuss what each is to receive and contribute to the relationship in only general terms, this lack of specificity ultimately leads to problems when one or both parties realize that the two sets of expectations were not in total agreement (Knapp, 1980, p. 76). The application of a breach in the psychological contract is appropriate with respect to the top two areas presented in this research, reflections on learning expectations, and reflections on civilian expectations. The psychological contract is found in literature primarily pertaining to organizational leadership and expectancy theory. In this research, expectancy theory, which deals with motivation, was not most appropriate because the process of personal change did not rely on motivation, but more on reflectiveness of expectations dealing with an expected experience. An adaptation of the psychological contract to fit more closely with internal evaluations of an unspoken contracts fulfillness or unfulfillness seems appropriate. Limitations Relatedness of findings to previous research studies Findings of previous research on the topic of military women leadership styles could not be compared to the expected findings of the proposed research. Only an educated guess can be made about why there is a lack of research on leadership styles of military women. The absence of scholarly literature is a limitation of the proposed research.

Population The research is limited to the participants who will provide data for the study. Qualitative research is not generalizable and therefore is limited to the reflections of the women who are interviewed. More specifically, the narratives that are expressed are limited to only a small moment in time, as recalled by the participants. Responses The responses are limited to the emotions experienced by the volunteer participants involved in the study. Greenberg (2012) reported on multi-level theories on the role of emotions in the process of change. The meta-analytical work advances the argument of the possibility to change emotion with emotions. As the participants recall their leadership experiences, no controls will take place to restrain the emotions that may surface. Conclusion The expected findings of the research centered on shared leadership experiences among military female veterans and a reliance on practical applications in leadership as suggested by scholarly literature. In contrast, results were more thematic covering areas of leadership expectations while in the military and as civilians. All of the participants are women who have been leaders at one level or another while serving in the military. The participants also have leadership roles as civilians. No scholarly research was available to contextualize the findings in the existing body of literature because there is none. Therefore grounded theory served as the springboard for further research among retired military womens leadership styles. Hopefully, more research into how retired military women transfer leadership styles into civilian life will be applicable to social psychologists as well as clinical psychologists as more women are being promoted into increased levels of leadership. Retired military women are in

the civilian sector and there is a high probability that they bring their learned behaviors of leadership into how they lead in corporate America.

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Appendix A Interview Protocol 1. Introduce the research goals and expectations 2. Administer the informed consent form. 3. Administer the open-ended guiding questions 4. Conduct a follow on telephone interview, if necessary Interview Questions 1. Share with me your experiences learning leadership skills from the military. 2. From the experiences you have just shared, which leadership traits do you feel have been applicable to what you do as a civilian? 3. As a military leader, how would you describe your level of responsibility when you were active duty compared to now? 4. What leadership skills do you think are not needed once a person retires from the military? 5. How do you see your role as a military retired leader? 6. What pearls of wisdom would you give to someone who is within one year of retiring from the military with respect to transferring military leadership skills to the civilian sector?