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Objective
The goal of this experiment is to give students insight into the behavior of two common earthquake-resisting systems for buildings, the moment frame and the brace frame, through introductory concepts of mass, stiffness and frequency.
Table of Contents
Objective ...............................................................................................................................................1 Background ...........................................................................................................................................2 Moment Frame...........................................................................................................................2 Brace Frame ...............................................................................................................................2 Frequency ...................................................................................................................................3 Mass ............................................................................................................................................3 Stiffness.......................................................................................................................................4 Moment Frame ...................................................................................................................4 Brace Frame........................................................................................................................5 Single Degree of Freedom Model .............................................................................................6 Multiple Degree of Freedom .....................................................................................................7 Model Construction .......................................................................................................................... 10 Braced-Frame Construction .................................................................................................. 10 Moment Frame........................................................................................................................ 13 Brace Frame/Moment Frame Combination Model ............................................................. 15 Model Testing .................................................................................................................................... 18 Load-Displacement Test(Grades 6~Undergrad) ................................................................. 18 Materials .......................................................................................................................... 18 Procedure ........................................................................................................................ 18 Natural Frequency with a Shake Table (Grades 9~Undergrad) ........................................ 19 Materials .......................................................................................................................... 19 Natural Frequency by Calculation ................................................................................ 19 Natural Frequency by Observation Procedure ............................................................. 20 Natural Frequency by Accelerometer Procedure ......................................................... 20 Natural Frequency by Pull-Back Test (Grades 6~Undergrad) ........................................... 21 Materials .......................................................................................................................... 21 Procedure ........................................................................................................................ 21 1|Page
Background
Moment Frame
A moment frame is an earthquake force resisting system comprised of two columns and a connecting beam, as illustrated in Figure 1. The beam-column connection is a moment connection, which means that it does not allow the beam or column to rotate relative to one another. Unlike a pinned connection, which allows its members to rotate, a moment connection restrains the members to a right angle and transfers the load from the beam to the columns and ultimately down to the ground. Notice the right angle is maintained when the frame is pushed.
Brace Frame
A brace frame is an earthquake force resisting system comprised of two columns, a connecting beam, and an angled member (known as a brace). Unlike the moment frame, the connections between these members are all pin connected. A pin connection allows the members to rotate relative to each other. The brace transfers the load from the beam to the ground. Figure 2 depicts a typical brace-frame configuration. 2|Page
Notice that the members are free to rotate when frame is pushed
Frequency
The natural frequency of a building is an important earthquake engineering concept because it is one of the factors that defines the behavior of a specific building during a seismic event. Natural frequency is the number of oscillations per time period. The unit of measure used for frequency is Hertz (Hz), which is cycles per second. Much like a pendulums frequency is dependent on length and mass, each building has its own frequency that is dependent on stiffness and mass. Natural frequency, mass, and stiffness are related according to the following equation. Natural Frequency: = =
Mass
According to Newtons Second Law:
units: Hz
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Where: g=gravitational acceleration=32.2 ft/s2 W=weight (lbs) Clearly, every building has weight, which means that it has an inherent mass as well. With all other factors held constant, the greater the mass of a building, the lower the natural frequency.
Stiffness
Every building has an inherent stiffness. When a force is applied to a building, it will move in the direction of the force. Stiffness is defined as the ratio of the force applied to the displacement experienced. Therefore, the higher the stiffness, the less a building will deform under a given load. Stiffness: =
Moment Frame There are several ways to model the moment frame, each of which results in a unique stiffness. If the base connection is modeled as fixed (like the column-beam moment connection), the stiffness of the frame is defined by following equation: = 2
12 3
units: lbs/in
Where: I=Moment of inertia of the column (in4) [See Mechanics of Materials by Beer, Johnston, DeWolf & Maurek] If the base connection is modeled as a pinned connection, as shown in Figure 3a, the stiffness of the frame is as follows: = 2 3 3
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For the KNEX model, the base connections are somewhere between fixed and pinned. Therefore, its stiffness cannot simply be determined by the theoretical equations above. It is recommended that the actual stiffness be determined experimentally by a load displacement test. Instructions for such a test are included later in this document. Brace Frame The stiffness of a brace frame can be determined in the same manner. However, there is also a specific equation that defines its stiffness based on the cross section properties of the brace. The equation is shown below: =
units: lbs/in
where: E=modulus of elasticity of the brace (lbs/in2) A=Area of the brace (in2) L=the length of the brace (in) The modulus of elasticity is a material property, and varies for each material [steel, concrete, wood, etc.]. Additionally, the lateral (horizontal) stiffness that it provides to a frame is defined below. =
units: lbs/in
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Where: k1, k2, and k3 are the stiffnesses of the first, second, and third floor, respectively. These are calculated using the equations mentioned above.
Use the total mass and stiffness in the equation below, which includes the adjustment factor. = 1.28 2
Another, more accurate approach to analyze a structure is to use multiple degrees of freedom. There are numerous ways to assign degrees of freedom, but one common method is to place one horizontal degree of freedom at each level, as shown in Figure 5.
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To determine the frequency of the structure, a procedure called Eigen Analysis must be utilized (see Dynamics of Structures by Chopra, Chapters 9-10). This approach makes use of matrices which are mathematical arrays of numbers arranged in rows and columns. For Eigen Analysis, they are used to store values of various modes and degrees of freedom. In this case the mass and stiffness matrices would take on the following forms: 1 : = 0 0 1 + 2 : = 2 0 0 2 0 0 0 3 0 3 3
Where: m1= the mass of floor one m2= the mass of floor two m3=the mass of floor three k1=the stiffness of floor one k2=the stiffness of floor two k3=the stiffness of floor three
2 2 + 3 3
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From here, an Eigen analysis is performed to determine the angular frequency. In a TI-89 calculator, the following process may be used to perform Eigen Analysis. 1. Set A=(M-1)k 2. Select function eigvl and input A. This will give an output of three values, which are the squared angular frequencies (2 ) of the three modes. The smallest value is the squared angular frequency of mode one, which is the fundamental mode. The second largest value is associated with the second mode and the largest value is related to the third mode. The natural frequency of each mode is related to the angular frequency by the following equation. = 2
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Braced-Frame Construction
1. Construct the base as shown in Figure 7.
Notice the alternating orientation of the connection pieces to allow for brace connection points.
Figure 7. Base
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6. Repeat steps 3-5 twice, attaching the frames to the previously created story below instead of the base. 7. Next, create the floor masses. Each mass consists of properly sized pieces of paper stapled together and tied securely to the frame as shown in Figure 12.
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3. Place two of the frames on opposite sides of the base as shown in Figure 16.
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5. Repeat steps 3-5 twice, attaching the frames to the previously created story below instead of the base. 6. Next, create the floor masses. Each mass consist of properly sized pieces of paper stapled together and tied securely to the frame as shown in Figure 12. 7. Lastly, fasten the building to a base as shown in Figure 13.
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6. Repeat steps 3-5 twice, attaching the frames to the previously created story below instead of the base. 7. Next, create the floor masses. Each mass consist of properly sized pieces of paper stapled together and tied securely to the frame as shown in Figure 12. 8. Lastly, fasten the building to a base as shown in Figure 13.
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Weights
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2. Begin the shake table frequency at 1.2 Hz and an amplitude of 0.2 inches. 3. Continue to the step up the frequency by 0.1 Hz until you reach the natural frequency, which will occur when the displacements are largest. As you raise the table frequency beyond the natural frequency, displacements will decrease. Natural Frequency by Accelerometer Procedure
Note: If you do not have an accelerometer but do have a smart phone, look for an acceleration measurement app. You can use this in place of the accelerometer.
1. Begin the shake table at a frequency of 1.2 Hz and amplitude of 0.2 inches. Record the maximum acceleration the building experiences. 2. Step up the frequency by 0.1 Hz (if you are using the board/metronome shaker, you will have to use a larger frequency step than 0.1 Hz) and record the maximum acceleration. 3. Continue to step up the frequency, recording the maximum acceleration for each frequency. The maximum acceleration should continue to increase until a certain frequency, after which, it will start to decrease. Go several frequency steps past this maximum point. 20 | P a g e
2. Secure the accelerometer to the top of the moment frame structure. 3. Pull the top of the structure back, begin recording acceleration, and then release the structure. 4. You should have an acceleration vs. time graph similar to that shown in Figure 25.
One cycle
Figure 25. Example Acceleration vs. Time Graph
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Note: This building model has extreme torsional effects, which is an adverse building characteristic.
4. Take the brace frame model and remove the braces just at the first floor. 5. Shake the model as before and record the behavior.
Note: This is called a soft story and can occur, most often, when large storefronts occur in buildings. It creates an undesirable building behavior.
6. Let the students modify the existing model or create their own. Have them predict how the building will behave and then shake it as before.
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