Journal of Consumer Behaviour, J. Consumer Behav. 10: 313321 (2011) Published online in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.

com) DOI: 10.1002/cb.379

Mining messages: Exploring consumer response to consumer- vs. firm-generated ads

EKIN PEHLIVAN*, FUNDA SARICAN and PIERRE BERTHON Bentley University, 175 Forest St., Waltham, MA, USA ABSTRACT Social media provide consumers with a platform for interactivity, and interactivity leads to consumer empowerment by providing the consumer with a platform to make their voice heard. This paper contributes to the marketing literature exploring the voice of the consumer in consumer-generated advertisements (CGAs). The objective of this research is to nd ways to measure consumer response to CGAs. We measure whether they differ from rm-generated ads in the responses they elicit and also observe whether they generate different responses by ad type, or if some categories have similar responses. We review CGAs for Apples MacBook Air lightweight laptop and run a text mining application to understand the common themes and conduct text analysis on the responses to both CGAs and rm-generated ads to answer the question Is the source of the advertisement important? Text analytics also enable us to measure consumers attitude toward products, companies, and ads. We then work toward understanding why and under what circumstances CGAs are effective and how companies may handle or foster different types of CGAs. Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

INTRODUCTION Social media provide consumers with a platform for interactivity. Although marketers underestimated the possible consequences of interactive marketing on the Internet (Deighton & Kornfeld 2009), they understood that the Internet as well as social media would make the consumer more accessible and bring more power to the marketers and their messages. However, interactivity did more, empowering the consumer by making their voice heard. The latest trends in technology and media have enabled consumers not only to voice their opinions through blogs, podcasts, and various websites but also to engage with their favorite brands by promoting their products and services. One illustration of this empowerment is through consumer-generated advertisements (CGAs) featured on video-sharing websites, such as YouTube. Companies have been confronted with this new consumer behavior recently as technology and media continually present new inventions, products, and services to users. The literature in marketing has recently begun exploring this phenomenon, formulating a denition of the concept and types of CGAs and the responses of companies to them (Berthon et al., 2008). This paper extends this literature by analyzing the extent of consumer power in the marketplace by the use of CGAs. Previous literature looked at the source effects of CGAs using experimental studies (Steyn et al., 2010). We choose a grounded theory approach, taking advantage of the abundance of untapped information on the Web to help in theory building. For our data, we review CGAs for Apples MacBook Air lightweight laptop and run a text mining application to understand the common themes. We then work toward understanding why and under what circumstances CGAs are effective and how companies may handle or foster different types of CGAs.
*Correspondence to: Ekin Pehlivan, Bentley University, 175 Forest St., Waltham, MA 02452, USA. E-mail: Pehliva_ekin@bentley.edu

Therefore, the objective of this research is to nd ways to measure consumer response to CGAs. We measure whether they differ from rm-generated ads (FGAs) in the responses they elicit. We also observe whether they generate different responses by ad type (we use four categories of CGAs) or if some categories have similar responses. We conduct text analysis on the responses to both CGAs and FGAs to answer the question Is the source of the advertisement important? Text analytics also enable us to measure consumers attitude toward products, companies, and ads. We conclude by offering managerial strategies based on our ndings. SOCIAL MEDIA AND THE EMPOWERMENT OF THE CONSUMER Traditional marketing efforts are only one method of communication from the marketer to the consumer. Advertising was viewed as a way to convey information, invoke emotion, and generate attitude and behavior in the consumer. However, targeting specic consumers was a challenge. Internet advertising, such as banners, pop-ups, or pop-unders, merely emulated this traditional mass media approach. Although the medium was different, the techniques employed in reaching consumers were essentially the same. Then came social media outlets such as Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube, which changed the marketing landscape (Berthon et al., 1996; Watson et al., 2002; Zinkhan & Gelb, 1990). Consumers started voicing their opinions about products or brands through reviews, microblogs, and video blogs, and from these emerged CGAs. This new trend in consumer behavior requires a change in the traditional marketing perspectives of companies, since consumers are no longer mere passive receivers of advertisements. Consumers want (and are now able) to get involved in the design and transmission of advertisements. The term vigilante marketing exemplies this trend as unpaid advertising and marketing efforts, including one-to-one, one-to many, and many-to-many commercially

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E. Pehlivan et al.
Table 1. Summary of data Category FGAs CGA-Concordant CGA-Subversive CGA-Incongruous CGA-Contrarian Number of ads 4 14 20 12 3 Number of Comments 887 298 8570 109 3716

oriented communications, undertaken by brand loyalists on behalf of the brand (Muiz and Schau 2007, 187). Of course, this is a double-edged sword: consumers are free to generate ads that portray both positive and negative views of products and rms (Berthon et al., 2007; Pitt et al., 2002). Berthon et al. (2008) dene CGAs as any publicly disseminated, consumer generated advertising message whose subject is a collectively recognized brand/product. They go on to identify four types of CGA based on the relationship of the message to the FGA (congruous/incongruous) and the tone of the CGA (positive/negative). When a CGA is in accordance with the ofcial message and a positive tone toward the brand/product, it is termed a concordant ad. On the other hand, a subversive ad would be in general agreement with the ofcial message but with an underlying negative attitude. Incongruous ads do not convey the ofcial message of the brand but nevertheless have positive attitudes. Finally, CGAs that are off the message and clearly have a negative tone are labelled contrarian ads. A common expectation has been that consumers would view CGAs as being honest and sincere and hence more effective than FGAs. Steyn et al. (2010) found that the popularity of CGAs was the only signicant variable to create positive feelings. This paper looks at eld data to see whether CGAs have a different appeal than FGAs and whether their effectiveness differs within the four categories proposed by Berthon et al. (2008).

METHODOLOGY AND DATA Data and coding The data collected for this study consists of comments posted in response to the ofcial ads and the CGAs for the Apple MacBook Air. We selected this product since the brand has a very active community in terms of creating videos and posting comments. Further, the comments often contain information pertaining not only to the product and brand but also to the creative quality of the videos. Therefore, these data enable a multidimensional analysis of what the consumers think about MacBook Air, Apple, its competitors, and the specic ad. We looked at 75 ads, 49 of which matched our criteria of being less than 2 minutes long and relevant to the product. Two independent researchers coded the ads based on the denitions of each type provided by Berthon et al. (2008). The process included re-viewing of the 49 chosen videos to answer three questions pertaining to the creator (FGA vs. CGA), message (congruous vs. incongruous), and attitude (positive/negative) as binary variables. Combinations of each binary variable create the category; if statements in Excel were formulated to label and categorize each observation. Table 1 shows the number of videos by category (FGA and the four types of CGA) along with the total number of comments that each ad elicited. Of the ofcial FGAs, there were 4 videos with 887 comments. Of the CGAs, 12 were incongruous with 109 comments, 14 concordant with 298 comments, 3 contrarian with 3716 comments, and 20 subversive with 8570 comments.
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The 13,580 comments were analyzed using text mining. Because manual analysis of such large amounts of unstructured data is impractical, text mining can help extract themes and patterns; mining can reveal associations and relationships among terms as well as identify trends (Lee et al., 2010; Davi et al., 2005). We employed SAS Text Mining and NVivo in combination to help understand how the responses toward advertisements differed from each other. We used the packages to mine for main themes in the data and to discover relationships and differences between CGAs and FGAs. Using SAS Text Miner and NVivo, we ran our analysis on the comments for each type of ad. We excluded irrelevant terms such as user IDs, dates, numbers, addresses, prepositions, abbreviations, and noninformative parts of speech. In addition, we united synonyms of the words into one word. The results are summarized in the next section, following that we discuss the results to reach a comprehensive understanding of the comments. Then we follow up with theoretical and managerial implications and suggestions for future research.

RESULTS Our analyses consist of word frequency queries and concept link searches. Word frequency queries provide a list of the most frequently appearing words in the selected documents. Word frequency queries are used to identify major themes in the data. The concept link search feature in SAS Text Miner generates a link from a rst word to a second word when the second word occurs with the rst at least 5 per cent of the time. Word frequency query results The gures in Table 2 show the most frequent words along with length (the number of letters in the word), count (the number of times that the word has occurred), and percentage (the frequency of the word relative to the total word counted) (see NVivo, 2011, for software details). The Similar words column shows the words that are treated as synonymous (i.e., the word stem is the same, for example, mac and macs). We rst looked at the frequency of different words in comments on FGAs and CGAs. In both cases, macs, macbooks, having, like, air, apple, getting, just, pc, computer are the most frequently used words (see Table 2). We extended this analysis by splitting the CGAs into their four subtypes (contrarian, incongruous, subversive, and concordant). Laugh out loud (abr. lol), air, have, laptop,
J. Consumer Behav. 10: 313321 (2011) DOI: 10.1002/cb

Response to consumer- vs. rm-generated ads

Mac, macs Lol, lols Macbook, macbooks Have, haves, having Air, airs Like, liked, likes, liking Just What, whats Get, get, gets, getting Laptop, laptopes, laptops Funni, funny Computer, computers, computing Has Use, used, useful, uses, using Pc All, all Apple, apples

315

Weighted percentage (%)

like, nice, and macbook are the most common words in the concordant category. Similarly, lol, mac, funny, great, really, ad, macbook, and air are the most frequent words in the incongruous category. Macs, having, lols, like, macbooks, and air are the most frequent words in the subversive category. In contrast, contrarian ads received comments involving thin, how, know, lol, envelope, and ad most frequently (Table 3). In general, CGAs elicit positive attitudes as viewers use words such as lol, funny, and like in their comments. Furthermore, while most of the comments talk about the

CGA

Similar words

1.42 1.38 1.24 1.16 1.09 0.89 0.80 0.71 0.69 0.64 0.63 0.62 0.62 0.59 0.59 0.57 0.57

Table 3. Top 10 most frequent words in concordant, contrarian, incongruous, and subversive categories Word Concordant Lol Air Have Macbooks Laptop Like Nice Thinkpad Haha Just Contrarian Thin How Know Lol Xd Envelope From Fuck Hahaha Mean Incongruous Lol Mac Macbook Air Funny Great Really Ad Computers Just Subversive Macs Macbooks Having Air Lols Just Like Getting Weighted Length Count percentage (%) 3 3 4 8 6 4 4 8 4 4 4 3 4 3 2 8 4 4 6 4 3 3 7 3 5 5 6 2 9 4 4 8 6 3 4 4 4 7 5 6 59 33 32 30 25 24 24 20 17 17 4 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 11 8 8 7 7 7 7 6 6 6 253 220 211 185 159 147 146 133 121 114 2.78 1.55 1.51 1.41 1.18 1.13 1.13 0.94 0.80 0.80 3.51 2.63 2.63 2.63 2.63 1.75 1.75 1.75 1.75 1.75 2.28 1.66 1.66 1.45 1.45 1.45 1.45 1.24 1.24 1.24 1.49 1.30 1.24 1.09 0.94 0.87 0.86 0.78 0.71 0.67 Similar words Lol Air Have, having Macbook, macbooks Laptop, laptopes, laptops Like, liking Nice, nicely Thinkpad, thinkpads Haha Just Thin How Know Lol Xd Envelope From Fuck, fucking Hahaha Mean Lol Mac Macbook Air, airs Funny Great Really Ad Computer, computers Just Mac, macs Macbook, macbooks Have, haves, having Air, airs Lol, lols Just Like, liked, likes, liking Get, get, gets, getting What, whats Laptop, laptopes, laptops

Count Length Word Weighted percentage (%) Count Length Similar words Table 2. FGA and CGA word frequencies

Macs Macbook Having Apple Like Getting Air Pc Has Laptop Just Using What Song Computer Drives Better

4 7 6 5 4 7 3 2 3 6 4 5 4 4 8 6 6

164 128 110 91 89 88 81 79 76 71 63 60 60 59 56 56 53

2.03 1.58 1.36 1.13 1.10 1.09 1.00 0.98 0.94 0.88 0.78 0.74 0.74 0.73 0.69 0.69 0.66

Mac, macs Macbook, macbooks Have, having Apple, apples Like, liked, likes Get, gets, getting Air Pc Has Laptop, laptops Just Use, used, useful, uses, using What, whats Song, songs Computer, computers, computing Drive, drives Better

Macs Lol Macbooks Having Airs Liking Just Whats Getting Laptop Funny Computing Has Using Pc All Apples

4 3 8 6 4 6 4 5 7 6 5 9 3 5 2 3 6

325 317 284 265 250 204 183 162 157 147 144 141 141 135 134 130 130

Word

FGA

Whats Laptop

Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

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E. Pehlivan et al. products. Viewers have knowledge about the variety of its products. Concordant Concordant ads share the ofcial message and the positive attitude that FGAs also have. Most comments in these are about the product and its price. As seen in Figure 2, the viewers emphasize the size and the design of the product. There is also concern about price as air is associated with money, +buy, and spend. Contrarian Contrarian ads deviate from the ofcial message and have a negative attitude. These types of ads were least frequent and yet generated the most number of comments. The comments were distributed on a wide range. Figure 3a shows that the viewers of contrarian ads are discussing the product features and the price as well as the ad. As Figures 3b and 3c illustrate, the words +video and +song generate appreciation and inquiry. Viewers request to know what the name of the song and the artist are. Incongruous When an ad features a different message than the FGA and has a positive attitude toward the product, it is categorized
b: Macbook Concepts Links

product, the ad itself is the second most important theme in the comments. Concept link search results After analyzing word frequencies, we run concept links to identify the relationships between terms. We ran the concept link search for words that identied the themes within the comments. In each gure, the central theme is positioned at the center; the peripheral links are the concepts that occur with the central theme commonly. For instance, Figure 1a demonstrates a SAS Text Miner concept link search for the word air that is a central theme in FGAs (see SAS, 2011, for software details). It shows that air is linked to words such as +drive, fan, +inch, +have, macbook, +apple, +make, and +see. Similarly, Figures 1b, 1c, and 1d illustrate the relationships of themes dominating within the comments for the FGAs, like macbook, song, and apple, respectively. On the one hand, in Figure 1b, concept links for macbook indicate that comments related to the product are mostly descriptive. On the other hand, Figure 1d lists attitudinal connections to the brand. We can say that viewers are polarized since the brand name has a relationship with both of the words love and hate. Further, comments include many Apple
a: Air Concepts Links

c: Song Concepts Links

d: Apple Concepts Links

Figure 1. FGA concept links.

J. Consumer Behav. 10: 313321 (2011) DOI: 10.1002/cb

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Figure 2. Concordant concept links.

a: Macbook Concept Links

b: Video Concept Links

c: Song Concept Links

Figure 3. Contrarian concept links.

J. Consumer Behav. 10: 313321 (2011) DOI: 10.1002/cb

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E. Pehlivan et al. I am denitely a mac person by cool ad. Windows is no more or less secure than a Mac. Well, let me say that I have been a PC guy for 20 years.

as incongruous. In the MacBook Air example, incongruous ads featured themes about the ad. More specically, the word ad had links with words great and job, suggesting that the ad is appreciated among the viewers (see Figure 4.)

Subversive Subversive ads have the ofcial message but a negative attitude toward the product/brand advertised. The comments for this type of ads were focused on the ad like the other CGAs and the product itself. In Figure 5, the product mac had association with the words +pc, os, and windows. Viewers of these ads compared the software, and there is a very clear polarization in the comments, as can be seen in the examples below:

DISCUSSION Our analysis identied patterns in ad responses in terms of frequency and relationships. Both the categories of FGAs and CGAs and the types of CGAs among themselves share some common themes of emphasis and differ from each other at other points of focus. The comments in their entirety are a testament to how the contemporary consumer becomes

Figure 4. Incongruous concept links.

Figure 5. Subversive concept links.

J. Consumer Behav. 10: 313321 (2011) DOI: 10.1002/cb

Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Response to consumer- vs. rm-generated ads vocal in cyberspace and how they are empowered through social media. Figure 6 illustrates main themes with example words. Three main themes emerged for FGA comments: product/ brand, competitors product, and the ad. Similarly for CGAs, the main themes were the product/brand, the competition, and the ad itself. Within the comments focusing on the ad in the CGA category, there were attitude and descriptive patterns. As the work sets in Figure 6 reveal, the main themes are similar whether the ads are rm generated or consumer generated. What stands out, however, is the difference between the content discussed within the theme. The viewers express appreciation for the FGA and emphasize the song; however, they nd the CGAs funny and talk more about the visuals such as the envelope within the ad theme. The product/brand is described in further detail in the FGA comments in comparison to the comments left for the CGAs. In terms of being a catalyst for discussion, contrarian ads stood out with 3716 comments for just three ads. By denition, contrarian ads deviate from FGAs in terms of both the message and the attitude. One may conclude that this deviation from the original ad creates a greater space for discussion. The ad that got most of the comments was a comedic take on eating disorders of a fat laptop (PC) as she sees a thin one (MacBook Air). Interestingly, most comments focused on the ad rather than the product itself. For instance, one comment explained the plot to the rest of the viewers who seemed to be lost: ok. you see hes watching thin notebook? hes not thin. so you see the food next to it all the time? it has eating problems. it watched the fat girl and tried to work out. Then it became anorexic and throwing up to be skinny like the MacBook. GET IT YET? Other comments praised the ad and the creator: Very, very good :) My favorite part is when its doing sit-ups. (Open-andcloses?) That was so cool!!!! Im laughing my head off!!!!
Ads

319

Some had information for those who wished to buy MacBook Air: thalliumproductions is giving away an macbook for free. all you have to do is be subscribed to him, theres a video with all the info in my channel. so subscribe to him The word frequency query revealed several interesting points; the similarities and differences between the comments left for FGAs and CGAs were rather curious. First, references to the product itself, such as Mac, MacBook, Apple, and Air, as well as references to the category of PCs, computers, or laptops are among the common words for both categories. Secondly, allusion to the song used in the original ad is mostly seen in the FGAs. Audience asks for the name of the song and the singer, and others respond with the information. It is worth noting that the same song is used in many of the CGAs; however, the newness factor probably diminished after the original ads aired there for references in the CGAs, although not nonexistent, became less. Also, in the comments for FGAs, we encounter comparatives such as better or more and action verbs such as buy, which is not as common in the comments left for CGAs. Finally, CGA comments feature abbreviations such as LOL, smileys like XD, and descriptives for the ad such as funny, great, and nice job to indicate the general attitude toward the CGAs. From these we deduce that humor is more commonly used in CGAs and that the audience is able to appreciate it. Furthermore, the song choice on the part of Apple proves to be successful in creating a light mood to get the consumer into a buyers mindset (Van Raaij 1993). One might even argue that it is perhaps a bit too successful inasmuch as the song overshadows the product at times in the discussion. The last stage of our analysis focused on the relationship between the most commonly occurring words and themes. For this, we used the concept link search tool and found that for FGAs, the comments are product descriptive. The concept links on Apple especially reveal that the audience has knowledge of Apple products, not limited to the product featured in the ad. Moreover, the links between the brand Apple and both like and

Themes

Patterns

Examples

Figure 6. Themes and patterns.

J. Consumer Behav. 10: 313321 (2011) DOI: 10.1002/cb

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E. Pehlivan et al. FGAs and the humor for the CGAs. We also found patterns within the comments about which types of ads and topics elicited discussion from consumers. Ads that deviated from the FGAs, both in the message and the attitude, were the ones that generated the most comments. We believe this is because the deviation provides originality and more points of discussion. When it comes to the common themes and patterns in the comments, we see that the product, MacBook Air; its alternatives, Thinkpad, laptops, PCs; and their features are one identiable group. The other patterns that emerge in the CGAs are mostly about how funny or good the ads are. Limitations and directions for future research During the analyses, we encountered several limitations to our chosen methodology. The rst one was concerning the coding of CGAs; however, the existence of two independent coders and the binary system focusing on the feature of the ads rather than the ads themselves helped alleviate this limitation. Another one was choosing the appropriate tools of text mining among many options. We decided to use SAS Enterprise Text Miner and NVivo after careful consideration and a survey of the literature; both programs provide us with two important analyses: word frequency queries and concept link searches. The third important limitation of this study was in part about making sense of the results because we chose a grounded theory approach. Our starting point was not a theory but the observations from the data we gathered; hence, the results were the fruit of discovering the themes and patterns, not identifying what was suggested by previous researchers. Since all cases would be unique in terms of the results, starting from the data is more sensible than starting with preconceptions. Future research should focus on generalizable patterns of response to ads from different sources. This way, a systematic strategy can be formulated. Our results suggest that there are three important topics that receive a response: the product, the competitors, and the ad. With enough data, it might be possible to create a model to explain the role that each topic plays and test the model to see which ones are more inuential. Scholarly and managerial contributions This paper contributes to the literature by analyzing the extent of consumer power in the marketplace by the use of CGAs as well as source effects as manifested in the comments, using a grounded theory approach. To our knowledge, the literature does not have examples of this sort. Our analysis identied patterns in ad responses and enabled us to provide suggestions and recommendations on how to use this information. The managerial implications of these ndings rest in the subtle differences between the responses to FGAs and CGAs. With the growth of social media, companies may inict unnecessary harm to their businesses by ignoring CGAs and the impact of communicative technology on their
J. Consumer Behav. 10: 313321 (2011) DOI: 10.1002/cb

hate are strong, suggesting that there may be polarization in the discussion. Several such comments carry the discussion as follows: this made me fall in love with apple products.. I like Mac computers. I HATE mac users :D I also love my PC laptop. macbook user trolls and L2play minesweeper. the only reason mac people hate pc people is because they spent a fortune to buy the crappy OSX that can do nothing serious, not even play games, while pc users get 5 times more things with 1/3 the price. . . Another result from the concept link search revealed that comments pertaining to the CGAs of all types focus on describing the ad. The description is provided by word associations such as video or ad and funny. Positive attitude toward the incongruous ads, for instance, are evident in the links between ad and great, nice, and job. Two categories of CGAs, the concordant and the subversive ones, also feature links that focus on the product. For instance, there exist concept links between apple or air and thinkpad pointing to a comparison. Also, there are references to the price of the product and features such as USB drives (or lack thereof). The examples and results mentioned above all support the premise that the social media provide the venue for customers to let their opinions be known about anything and everything. The comments themes, as suggested earlier, range from the product/brand or the competition to the ad itself or the creator of the ad. There is not much inhibition when it comes to what consumers say or even how they choose to say it, whether it be through videos as in the example of CGAs or text as in the example of comments.

CONCLUSION Three of the worlds most popular brands online are social-media related (Facebook, YouTube and Wikipedia) and the world now spends over 110 billion minutes on social networks and blog sites. This equates to 22 percent of all time online or one in every four and half minutes. (Neilsen Reports, 2010) In consideration of the signicant impact that social media have had on how we relate to each other, it is important once more to realize its impact on marketing and the consumer. We nd that consumers are empowered through the freedom that social media provide when it comes to making the consumers voice heard. In this paper, we analyzed a set of comments left for FGAs and CGAs for the MacBook Air. Using a grounded theory approach, we explored source effects when it came to the responses toward ads, and on which topics consumers were vocal. We found that the comments differ for the FGAs and CGAs; there was no indication of a source effect but rather references to the dominant features such as the song for the
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Response to consumer- vs. rm-generated ads products. Companies must recognize this new trend in consumer behavior and should capitalize on consumer efforts to promote their brands by adjusting their marketing strategies to harness this trend.

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J. Consumer Behav. 10: 313321 (2011) DOI: 10.1002/cb