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Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
VARIATION
OF
ANIMALS
UNDER
AND
PLANTS
DOMESTICATION
BY
CHARLES
DARWIN,
M. A.,
F.R.S., Etc.
IN
TWO VOL.
VOLUMES
II
IVITH
ILLUSTRATIONS
NEW
YORK
AND
LONDON
j^ l)
D.
APPLETON
AND
COMPANY
5^
'^^
"^
"A
I
V V
Authorized
Edition.
"^
rnt
f.
N. O. ^
-^^^
ahage
-
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
XIII. Reversion
or
Inheritance,
Different forms
continued
In
"
or
Atavism.
"
pure
uncrossed cultivated
fowls, hornless
feral animals
and
"
sheep,
in
breeds, plants
as
in
pigeons,
in
"
"
Reversion
in crossed varieties and plants Reversion species in the and Reversion bud-propagation, by segments same through in the animal In different parts of the body flower or fruit same of reversion, various act of crossing a direct The of, with cause cases of reversion Latent characters instincts" Other causes proximate of the two sides Unequal development Secondary sexual characters derived with of characters of the body advancing Appearance age The with all its latent from a cross characters, a wonderful germ, in some Peloric flowers due to reversion. cases object Monstrosities Pages 1-35
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
CHAPTER
XIV.
of
Inheritance,
continued
"
Fixedness
"
Character
of
"
Prepotency Age.
of inheritance
same
"
Sexual
Fixedness of character
of
Limitation
Correspondence
not
apparently species
due
to
antiquity
of the
"
family, in in often than the other ; one sex stronger ; to the same character being present and visible in one and breed latent in the other Inheritance limited as by sex Newlyin our domesticated animals often transmitted acquired characters by Prepotency
crossed breeds due sometimes and
" "
transmission
in
individuals
lost by one at correInheritance alone sponding sex of life The periods importance of the principle with respect to embryology exhibited exhibited in domesticated animals : as ; as in the appearance and disappearance diseases ; sometimes of inherited
one sex
" "
alone, sometimes
than
in
the
parent
"
Summary
of the
36-59
CHAPTER On
Free
XV.
Crossing.
"
intercrossing obliterates
the numbers other The
"
When allied breeds the differences between the absorbs of two breeds are unequal, one commingling sion, transmisof rate of absorption determined by prepotency All organic selection of life, and by the conditions by natural
"
iii
iv
CONTENTS.
acters On certain charbeings occasionally intercross ; apparent exceptions have incapable of fusion ; chiefly or exclusively those which in On of old the individual the modification suddenly appeared and the formation of new crossed by crossing Some races, races, On have from their first production bred true the crossing of races distinct species in relation to the formation of domestic races. Pages 60-74
" " "
"
CHAPTER
Causes
which interfere with
of the
Varieties
"
Influence Difficulties
in
Domestication
Fertility.
"
"
crossed Various judging of the fertility of varieties when causes keep varieties distinct, as the period of breeding and Varieties of wheat said to be sterile when sexual crossed preference Varieties of maize, verbascum, bacco, tohollyhock, gourds, melons, and in some rendered Domestication nates elimidegree mutually sterile to sterility natural to species when crossed the tendency On and animals the increased fertilityof uncrossed cation plants from domestiwhich
" " "
and
cultivation
75-88
CHAPTER On
the
XVII.
and on the
Good
Effects
of
Crossing,
Evil
Effects
of
Close
Definition General of close interbreeding evidence of the good
Interbreeding.
"
Augmentation
efiects
of morbid from
tendencies
"
crossing, and on the close interbreeding evil eflfects from Cattle, closely interbred ; halfwild cattle long kept in the same parks Sheeji Fallow-deer Dogs, of incestuous marriages rabbits, pigs Man, origin of his abhorrence Hive-bees the Fowls on Plants, general considerations Pigeons from benefits derived crossing Melons, fruit-trees, peas, cabbages, On the increased size of hybrid plants, not wheat, and forest-trees On due certain either their to sterility exclusively plants which but both the fertile, are on are self-impotent, normally or abnormally distinct individuals crossed with either male and female side, when 89-122 of the same another or species Conclusion
" " " " "
derived
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
....
CHAPTER On
the
XVIII.
of
Advantages
OF
and :
Disadvantages
from
Changed Causes.
Conditions
Life
Sterility
Various
On
the
from of life rility Steslight changes in the conditions good derived from changed conditions, in animals, in their native country and Loss of secondary sexMammals, in menageries birds, and insects ual of instincts of sterility Sterility of domesticated and Causes characters conditions from Sexual animals changed incompatibility conditions of animals Sterility of plants from of individual changed
"
" " " " " " "
life
"
of
"
cause
of
rility ste-
the
excessive
CONTENTS.
y
of vegetation" From of the organs development long-continued by buds" Incipient sterilitythe primary cause of double and seedless fruit
gation propa-
ers flow-
Pages 123-151
CHAPTER
Summary
of
the
XIX.
Four
Last
Chapters,
with
Remarks
on
bridism. Hy-
On
the
effects of crossing" The influence of domestication on fertility Close interbreeding" Good and evil results from changed conditions of life" Varieties when crossed not invariably fertile" On the difference in fertility between crossed varieties" species and Conclusions with respect to hybridism" Light thrown on hybridism gitimate by the illeof heterostyled plants" Sterility of crossed progeny species due to differences confined to the Not reproductive system" mulated accunot
are
selection Reasons domestic varieties why Too much stress has been laid on the difference crossed species and crossed varieties clusion Con" "
152-169
CHAPTER
Selection
Selection with
a
XX.
by
Man.
natural selection
"
difficult art of
"
"
Methodical,
selection carried on
"
unconscious, and
Care
taken in
selection
"
Eesults
methodical Selection
"
plants people
"
by
Unimportant
circumstances
by
"
selection animals of
As
slowly change,
changed
different
through
have unconscious
so
our
breeders the on same sub-variety selection Effects of selection as by unconscious in the parts most of difference valued by great amount
"
Plants shown
man
.
as
fected af-
by the
170-201
CHAPTER
XXL continued.
Selection,
Natural
appear
selection
as
affecting domestic
often
"
productions
"
Characters
which
vourable faCircumstances importance and the man Facility in preventing crosses, of the conditions and nature Close attention sable indispenperseverance of individuals The especially production of a large number not favourable When is applied, distinct selection races are no in formed animals liable to Tendency degeneration Highly-bred extreme the to carry to an point, selection of each character man Characters leading to divergence of character, rarely to convergence in the same direction in which continuing to vary they have already of intermediate varied Divergence of character, with the extinction of trifling value to selection by
of
real
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
varieties, leads
power
races
to
"
distinctness
in time
our
domestic
"
races
"
of selection have
Lapse
of
"
important
Manner
Limit to in which
the
mestic do-
originated Summary
202-228
vi
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER Causes
of
XXII.
\
Variability.
"
Causes assigned Variability does not necessarily accompany reproduction differences authors Individual of every various kind Variability by the On of such of life nature due to changed conditions changes Effects of nutriment Slight changes sufficient Climate, food, excess of grafting on the productions variability of seedling-trees Domestic On the become conditions accumulative to habituated tion acchanged of changed conditions Close interbreeding and the imagination of of the mother variability Crossing as a cause supposed to cause from the the appearance of new characters Variability commingling and from reversion On the manner and of characters period of action of the causes either directly, or which indirectly through the reproductive variability Pages 229-250 system, induce
" " " " " " " " " " " "
....
CHAPTER Direct
and
XXIII.
of the
Definite
Action
External
Conditions
of
Life.
Slight modifications
in
"
from the of changed definite action tions, condiin the and of sues tischemical the state size, colour, properties, Local from modifications diseases climate Conspicuous changed of birds affected or food, etc. by peculiar nutriment, and Plumage of poison Land-shells Modifications of organic by the inoculation beings in a state of nature through the definite action of external of American and Galls conditions trees Comparison European Considerations Effects of parasitic fungi opposed to the belief in the in
plants
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
potent
varieties
influence
"
of
changed
"
conditions
"
Parallel with
Amount the
in of change unnatural by
of variation conditions
"
correspond
"
Bud-variation
Monstrosities
produced
251-273
treatment
Summary
CHAPTER Laws
Nisus
of
XXIV. Use
and
Variation
"
Disuse,
etc.
of the organisation On the formativus, or the co-ordinating power and of organs habits effects of the increased disuse of use Changed Acclimatisation with and life animals methods plants Various by this can of development which be effected Arrests Rudimentary
"
" " " " "
organs
274-300
CHAPTER Laws
of
Variation,
of term
continued
"
"
Explanation
correlated variation
the structure
"
correlation Connected with development tions Modificathe increased lated Correwith decreased size of parts or of homologous Feathered feet in birds assuming parts between of the the head and the Correlation wings
" " " "
extremities
Between
the
skin
and
dermal
appendages
"
Between
the
CONTENTS.
yji
organs
of
"
sight
and
hearing
"
Correlated
"
modifications Correlation
"
in between
the the
organs
of
and
plants
ears
"
Correlated Skull
and
monstrosities
crest of
skull
feathers
Skull
and
horns
of
"
Correlation
tion selec-
of
growth
"
complicated
as
by
the with
accumulated constitutional
effects
natural
Colour
correlated
peculiarities. Pages
301-321
CHAPTER
XXVI.
Laws
of
Variation,
parts
The
continued
"
Summary.
The
fusion
of
homologous
"
"
variability
"
of
multiple
pressure
and
"
gous homoloRelative
ovary, of 322-337
parts
Compensation
flowers variation with
"
of
growth
to
Mechanical
position
as
of
respect
the
or
axis,
and
of
seeds
"
in
the
inducing
three last
Analogous
parallel
varieties
Summary
the
chapters
CHAPTER
XXVII.
Provisional
Hypothesis
of
Pangenesis.
remarks
"
First
part
"
The
facts
to
be
of
connected
under
"
point
of element of
of
view,
namely,
parts
the female of the
"
the
various
kinds
"
reproduction
direct
action
Rethe
amputated
on
Graft-hybrids
"
The
"
of
Development
"
The
"
functional
"
pendence indeRever-
the
units
body
Variability
Inheritance
sion.
Second
part
"
Statement
are
of
the
"
hypothesis Explanation
"
How
far aid
of
the
necessary
sumptions as-
improbable
of facts
by
the
the
"
hypothesis
of
the
several
classes
specified
in
first
part
Conclusion.
338-387
CHAPTER
XXVIII.
Concluding
Remarks.
Domestication
and
"
Nature
of
and
causes
of
"
variability
Extinction
"
"
Selection
races
"
"
Divergence
distinctness
to
character
of of has
Circumstances
races
"
favourable
selection
each
by
man
Antiquity
variation
certain been
The
ordained pre-
question
whether
particular
specially
388-415
THE
VARIATION PLANTS
OF
ANIMALS
AND
UNDER
DOMESTICATION.
CHAPTER continued
of reversion
cattle and In
XIII.
INHERITANCE
REVERSION
OR
ATAVISM.
Different
forms
"
pure
or
uncrossed cultivated
in
breeds, plants
varieties
"
as
in
pigeons,
in
"
fowls,
feral Reversion flower The
hornless animals
and
"
sheep,
in
Reversion
and in
same cases
crossed
and
species
the
same
by
segments
in
or
fi'uit
In
different
a
parts
cause causes
"
of
the
act
of crossing
direct
of
of
body reversion,
reversion
the
animal
"
various
"
of, with
two
Latent of
charactersthe sides
characters
a
from
a
"
cross
"
The
germ,
"
its
latent due in
characters,
some cases
object The
Monstrosities
Peloric
flowers
to
great
has
principle
been
of
inheritance
to
be
discussed and
in
this
chapter
various
recognised
as
by by
the
agriculturists
scientific
term
authors
of
rived de-
nations,
from
or
shown
an
Atavism,
terms
atavus,
ancestor;
-hach
;
by by
the
or
the
English
of
version, Re-
Throwing
German
French
Pas-en-
Arriere;
When than the its
and
by
the
Riickschlag,
either
our
RiicJcschritt.
more
child
resembles
grandparent
attention is not
closely
arrested,
when
immediate
in truth
parents,
the
some
much but
though
child
in this
"
fact
is
highly
ancestor
remarkable;
or case some we
a
the
resembles
remote
"
distant
must
common
member
collateral
the
we
line,
of
a
in
the
last
attribute
to
descent
members of
from astonishment.
progenitor,
When
one
feel
just
degree
some
parent
alone
displays
and other But
and
generally
it, the
of
inheritable
cause
character,
lie in
the
the
inherit
power
are
parent
when
the
prepotent
parents
similarly
characterised,
1
INHERITANCE.
Chap.
XIIL
and the
the
child
does in
not, whatever
the
cause
may
be, inherit
grandparents, we have of reversion. We continually one of atavism, though another and simple case more even see under this head, namely, when the son not generally included than his paternal grandhis maternal more closely resembles male sire in some attribute, as in any peculiarity in the beard of man, of the bull, the hackles of the cock, the horns comb or diseases necessarily confined to the male sex; or, as in certain question, but of the simplest cases
for
as
character
resembles
its
the
mother
cannot must
possess
or
exhibit
such
male
tributes, at-
inherit
grandsire.
of reversion
may
some
main
other; an-
instances, blend
in
a
into
occurring
has and all
variety
variation
race some
appears. re-
which
been it
crossed, but
class
lost by which
cases
character
formerly possessed,
includes
afterwards
in which
a an or
second
some
distinguishable character,
former
race,
period been crossed, and a character from this cross, after having disappeared during one derived A third class,difseveral generations, suddenly reappears. fering or
at
some
has
only in the
to
manner
or
reproduction, might
effected
true
be
formed of
include
all
cases
of
reversion of
and
therefore
even a
independent
fourth class in the of the But
Perhaps
reversions and
might
same
by
by segments
parts
old.
individual
same
flower
or
fruit,
mal anibe will
in different
as
body in the
the
two
individual classes
it grows for
our
first main
sufficient
purpose.
Reversion
hy
pure
or
uncrossed
cases were
forms.
"
Striking instances
the sixth
first class
of
given in
in all
chapter, namely, of the occasional reappearance, variously-coloured breeds of the pigeon, of blue birds with
the
cases
marks
were as
characteristic
of the
case
wild
Similar
common
ass,
of the
wild
progenitor
that the
always
re-
striped, we
of such
feel the
assured
occasional
appearance
stripesin
domestic
animal
is
case
of
simple
Chap.
XIII.
REVERSION.
g
to
over.
our
version.
cases,
But
shall
be
compelled
pass
refer
again
to
these
and
therefore
here
them which
The and
from doubt
domesticated
; but
cattle several
"
possessed horns
Yet
"
hornless
well
established.
"
in
these
to
for find
instance, in
among
Southdown
sheep
some
it is not small in
unusual The
the thus
"
male
lambs
with
horns."
horns,
which
either skin
grow
alone
other occasionally reappear polled breeds, to the full size,"or are curiously attached to the " and The loosely down, or drop off." hang
^
Galloways
100
or
and
Suffolk but
cattle
a
have
been
hornless the
for horn
the
last
150
years,
horned
calf, with
often
loosely attached, is occasionally produced.* believe There is reason that sheep in their to
condition
"
but even dingy black ; certain flocks were in the time of David spoken of as white as snow. During the classical period the sheep of Spain are authors described by several ancient being black, red, or as tawny.* At the present day, notwithstanding the great care which is taken and to prevent it, particoloured lambs some black occasionally, or even frequently, dropped entirely are most highly improved and valued breeds, such as the by our Since the time of the famous Southdowns. Bakewell, during the last century, the Leicester sheep have been bred with the most yet occasionally grey-faced, or blackscrupulous care;
were or
brown
still appear.* This occurs spotted, or wholly black lambs frequently with the less improved breeds, such as the more this tendency in sheep to revert Norfolks.^ As bearing on state to dark (though in doing so I trench on colours, I may of crossed the reversion breeds, and likewise on the subject of
seven
prepotency)
white which had
that
the
Eev.
ewes
W.
were
D.
Fox
to
on
was a
informed so-called
that
Southdown
two
put spots
Spanish they
bethis
ram,
small
black all
234,
oe-
his
sides, and
Mr.
informed
Rev. W.
produced
1
thirteen
on
lambs,
pp. in
*
perfectly black.
*
Fox
of
D.
Youatt
same
Sheep,
of loose
20,
horns
I the
have
been the
The breeds
many;
fact
on
through
excellent see,
Fox,
Mr.
on
easionally
appearing
hornless in Ger-
observed i. Cattle,
s.
Wilmot: this
'
Bechstein, b. Deutschlands,'
2
Naturgesch.
362. 174. iri.5, pp.
subject Quarterly
"
article
in
the
Review,'
pp.
1849,
page
"
Youatt Youatt
on
395.
on
Sheep,
1838,
pp,
Youatt,
19, 234,
17, 145.
4
lieves that this
INHERITANCE.
Chap. XIII.
belonged to a breed which he has himself kept, and which is always spotted with black and white; and ways of this breed alhe finds that Leicester sheep crossed by rams produce black lambs : he has gone on recrossing these Leicesters white crossed sheep with pure cessive during three sucram
the same result. Mr. generations, but always with the spotted breed Fox was also told by the friend from whom for six or seven on was procured, that he likewise had gone generations crossing with white sheep, but still black lambs invariably produced. were
be For
given with
reckoned rumpless fowls, which were " able exhibition, in a considera prize at an so good that they won with fully developed furnished number of instances were of these tail-feathers." On inquiry, the original breeder he had first kept them, fowls stated that, from the time when with tails;but that they had often produced fowls furnished these latter would again reproduce rumpless chickens. in the vegetable kingof reversion occur Analogous cases dom " thus from the finest cultivated from seeds gathered ; varieties of Heartsease (Viola tricolor),plants perfectly wild both in their foliage and their flowers are frequently produced bred from
some
" '
but
the
reversion
in this
instance
is not
to
very
ancient
are
of
With
most
of
our
tivated cul-
what
is known
be, or
may
state;
not
and
this would
be
their beds
"
evident
if
rogues
some
as
they
few
are
called.
It
has
seedling apples and identical not apparently are pears In our with, the wild trees from which they are descended. " " break that is, turnip and carrot-beds a few plants often their roots and flower too are generally hard and soon; stringy, as in the parent-species. By the aid of a little se^
"
"
The
Poultry
1866,
'
Book,'
p.
a
by
Mr.
vol.
with that
"
'
much
experience
occurs.
on
this
me
Tegetmeier,
''
231.
subject,
Loudon's
Gard.
Mag.,'
assured
X.,
1834,
p.
396;
nurseryman,
Gard.
Chap.
XIII.
REVERSION.
lection, carried
cultivated
any
on
during
in
few
generations, most
of
our
plants could
change
"
great
Buckman C.
has
effected
this with
plants of Scotch
of the
Watson, as he informs me, three generations, " the most diverging of the least modified kail,perhaps one rieties vaHewett and
in
cabbage;
very
the the
third forms
generation
now
some
of in
close to
established
old
called
indigenous."
have
run
in Animals hitherto
not
which
wild.
"
plants have
in
been
and considered, the reverting animals exposed to any great or abrupt change of life which different could with have animals induced and this
their
conditions but
plants feral or run wild. It has been repeatedly which have become asserted in the most by various authors, that positivemanner and plants invariably return feral animals to their primitive specific type. It is curious on what little evidence this belief animals could not subsist rests. Many of our domesticated in a wild state; thus, the more highly improved breeds of " field search for their own food. the pigeon will not or be destroyed by become feral, and would Sheep have never
tendency;
"
it is very
almost know
every
beast
of
prey.^"In
been
any
several
cases
we
do
not
the
or
aboriginal parent-species,and
not
cannot
possibly tell
there
in any
has
close
known
instance have
what
several their
varieties
probably in
tend
to
wild,
obliterate and
new
character.
run
domesticated
"
animals
to
wild,
always be exposed
has well
1862,
conditions
for,as Mr.
9 Gardener's 721. 1" Mr. Boner
'
Wallace
obtain
Chron.,'
clinging
have lost
to
p.
the
to ois-hunting,' over icy (' Chamsteep speaks pass two occasion On one slopes. edit., 1860, p. but wild survived the ewes 92) of sheep winter, running in tlie Bavarian lambs their on perished. but, Alps; 11 remarks See excellent further at some making inquiries my Mr. this that he found Wallace, by are on request, subject they not Linn. able to establish Journal Proc. Soc.,' 1858, themselves; from the vol. iii. p. 60. they generally perish
2nd often
'
6
their native
INHERITANCE.
Chap. XIII.
own
food, and
animals
are
exposed
these
not
to
competition with
if
some our
the
productions.
would
this
Under did
mesticat do-
kind,
rived ar-
the
result
at
be
work.
quite opposed
the
conclusions
Nevertheless, I do not doubt that and the simple fact of animals plants becoming feral,does the primitive state; to cause some tendency to reversion
in
though
authors.
I
this
tendency
has
been
much
exaggerated
by
some
will
nor
briefly run
cattle
through
that
the
cases.
is the
primitive
Thus the
known;
assumed which
and
it has
in
former
chapters
are
they
different America
countries. their
heads
have in
run
wild
East generally brownish-bay, have become and this larger and coarser, be due to reversion. No careful has been description given of may the feral goat. which have wild in various countries run Dogs have uniform a hardly anywhere assumed character; but they are from several domestic and probably descended aboriginally races, the
dun-
coloured;
from La
several
distinct
species.
Feral
cats, both
in
Europe
and
to cases regularly striped; in some they have grown but do not differ from the domestic animal an size, unusually large character. in any other When rabbits variously-coloured tame turned out in Europe, they generally reacquire the colouring of are doubt the wild animal; there can be no that this does really occur, but we should remember that oddly-coloured and mals conspicuous anisuffer of prey and from would much from beasts being easily who tried to the opinion of a gentleman shot; this at least was stock his woods with a variety; if thus destroyed, nearly white of being transformed would be instead into, they supplanted by,
are
Plata,
the and
new
common
rabbit. The
We
have best
seen
that
the of
feral rabbits
new
especiallyof
characters. the of
Porto
Santo, have
known have
assumed
case
reversion, and
America,
the
in
the
acquired
even
wild in the West run Indies, have Islands, and everywhere bristles,and great tusks of the
boar;
have reacquired longitudinal stripes. young describes the half-wild of the pig, Roulin
animals
in different In Louisiana
parts
the
of South
America
run
as
differing in
and
several differ
respects.
pig
in
^^
has
wild,
the of
is said With
to
colour, from
wild
in
domestic
animal, yet
the
boar
Europe.
pigeons
pigs
of
Bureau 807.
de
la
From
Malle,
torn,
Comptes 1855, p.
ments
Rendus,'
xli.,
state-
the
concludes wild that the Louisiana descended not are Sus the European scrofa,
from
above
given,
the
author
Chap. XIII.
ItEVERSlON.
fowls," it is
character West With
not
known
what
variety was
assumed.
to
seems
the state.
to
feral birds
have
feral,
vary
than
in
the
domesticated insisted
has wild. Dr. Hooker^* plants run strongly the belief in their common slight evidence to rests. reversion Godron a describes wild primitive state turnips, carrots, and celery; but these plants in their cultivated their wild prototypes, except in the succustate hardly differ from of certain and which would leney enlargement parts, characters in certainly be lost by plants growing poor soil and strugglingwith other wild on so plant has run enormous plants. No cultivated scale as the cardoon in La Plata. a (Cynara carduncnlus) Every it growing there, in vast botanist who has seen beds, as high as struck with its peculiar appearance; horse's back, has been but a
on
^'
"
whether
it differs
in
differs
to
from
wild
not
Mediterranean may
be
social
(though
this know.
merely
to
the
of the
conditions), derived
from a Cross, in the case individual of Sub-varieties,Races, and Species. When an of having some recognisablepeculiarityunites with another the same not having the peculiarityin question, sub-variety,
"
Reversion
to Characters
it often several
reappears
in
the
descendants
after
an
interval
of
have noticed, or heard generations. Every one must from old people of children closely resembling in appearance in mental and small or disposition,or so complex a character of their grandparents, or some as expression,one distant collateral relation. anomalies of more Very many and of diseases,^" which instances have been
structure
given
into a family from one chapter, have come parent, and have reappeared in the progeny after passing over two three generations. The following case cated has been communior I believe, to me be fully good authority, and may, on
"
in the last
Capt.
to
W. the
'
stock,
a
and
more
as
still
vague
have the wild run on of Annobon, and have come bemodified in form voice. and and account is so meagre that it did not to appear
worth
classical of Flora
p. ix. De
times
bv
Varro.
Australia,'
tom.
1859,
54,
Introdnct.,
^^
'
I'Espece,' Sedgwick
in
ii. pp.
many
58, 60.
1^ Mr. instances
copying;
Bureau de
but la
now
gives
'
find
that
Malle
the
British
and
torn, (' Comptes Rendus,' xli., this a as 1855, p. 690) advances of reversion to the good instance
Review,'
448, 188,
85
INHERITANCE.
Chap. XIII.
trusted
marked
pointer-bitch produced
blue
and
seven
puppies; four
were
is so unusual colour a white, which with thought to have played false with pointers that she was litter was of the greyhounds, and the whole condemned; one but the gamekeeper was one as a curiosity. permitted to save with
Two
years
afterwards declared
the that
friend he
was
of the
the
owner
saw
the
young
dog, and
bitch
image
of his
old
pointer-
pointer of pure descent led to close inquiry, and This it he had which seen. ever the great-great-grandson of Sappho; was proved that he was expression, he had only that, according to the common so Sappho,
l-16th of her
on
blood
in
his
veins.
may
the
authority of Mr.
He with
in
R.
give Walker, a
one
other
stance, in-
large cattle-
breeder of
a
in Kincardineshire.
cow
black
white 1870
a
bought a black bull, the son legs, white belly and part of the
calf the
and
was
gr.-gr.-gr.-gr.-grandchild
same
born
coloured
in the
very
peculiar manner;
In offsprings having been black. there can rived these cases hardly be a doubt that a character deindividual of the same with from cross an variety a three generations in the one reappeared after passing over
all the
intermediate
case,
and
When the
distinct
in the
races
are
crossed, it is notorious
revert
many
that
tendency
seen
offspring to
endures evidence
to
one
or
both
parentI have
forms
is strong,
and
for
generations.
in
myself
and of Essex of the before
the
clearest
of this
"
crossed
pigeons
with
various
pigs, two
in
Berkshire
states that, in a litter Sidney the image ones appeared which were young boar that had been used twenty-eight years
plants. Mr.
constitution
to
the
breed.
served ob-
fowls showing a farmyard at Betley Hall some told by Mr. Toilet strong likeness to the Malay breed, and was that he had forty years before crossed his birds with Malays ; and that, though he had at first attempted to get rid of this strain, he had subsequently given up the attempt in despair, the Malay character would as reappear. This rise to
17
in
strong endless
In his
tendency
discussions
edit, of
'
in crossed in
breeds
many
the
to revert
has
given
a
how
on
generations after
Pig,' 18G0, p. 27.
Youatt
10
INHERITANCE.
Chap. XIII.
by long-continued selection; but these subjects will more properly be discussed in a future chapter on Crossing. From
what
races,
we see
and
of reversion, both in pure of the power and scope infer when varieties or species are crossed, we may of almost been from
every
a
that
kind great
are
capable of
ing reappear-
lost for
length of time.
But
it
does
not
follow will
in each
particular case
not
certain
occur
characters
when
a race
reappear;
is crossed
with
with
prepotency
of transmission.
Sometimes
our
of reversion
any
a cause
wholly
for the
fails, without
failure: thus
out
being
been
GOO
assign
that
in
it has
French
six
family in
generations,
not
which
had
85
of above
to
been
subject
has
been who
of parents
themselves
free from
Reversion
hy segments
same
individual
animal.
"
In
the eleventh
of reversion
were
by buds, independently of
"
generation,
given
as
when
leaf-bud
on
variety suddenly
a
reassumes
Provence-
rose
appears
some
on
moss-rose,
or
peach
on
a or
nectarine-tree.
In smaller
of these
or we
cases mere
fruit, or
former Vilmorin from
stripes,reassume
reversion
cases
their
character;
^^
have
by segments.
to
has
recorded
ing revert-
several
with
plants derived
their
seed, of flowers
primitive colours ; he states white that in all such cases a or pale-coloured variety must this is propagated for a length of first be formed, and, when time their apby seed, striped seedlings occasionally make pearance; afterwards and these can be multiplied by by care
seed.
2" Quoted by Med.-Chlrnrg.
by stripes or blotches
Mr. Dr.
transmitted
to
several
members
during
the
never
^i
1801,
'
p.
-
4Sr".
Dobell, analogous
in
Med.
vol. case,
when but generations; blemish it once disappeared reappeared, Des Verlot, Vari^tSs,' 18G5,
'
five
which,
in
p.
63.
fingers with
thickened
Chap.
XIII.
REVERSION.
n
to
are
The far
cross,
as
stripes and
is known, but
to
'^
segments
to
just referred
to
not
due,
from
as a
reversion lost
characters
derived These
on
characters
by
variation.
cases,
ever, how-
as
Naudin
are
closely analogous with crossed plants have been known eleventh chapter, in which to or striped flowers and fruit,or distinct produce half-and-half kinds of flowers on the same root resembling the two parentforms. under this same Many piebald animals probably come shall see in the chapter on Crossing, Such cases, head. as we ing apparently result from certain characters not readily blendof this incapacity for fusion, together,and, as a consequence the offspring either perfectly resemble of their two one
character,
parents, parent
in
or
one or
parent
whilst
in
one
part, and
are
the
other in
part;
young revert
intermediate
character, but
to
advancing
or
age to
either
parent-form,
both.
of the
in intermediate are Cytisus adami the two older the buds between parent-forms; but when continually revert either partially or wholly to both forms. The cases given in the eleventh chapter on the changes which occurred during growth in crossed plants of Tropseolum. all analogous. As, however, Cereus, Datura, and Lathyrus are these plants are hybrids of the first generation, and as
their
not
come
buds
after
time
come
to
cases
resemble
do
not
their
at
parents
and
their
grandparents,
the law
as
these
under
of reversion the
word;
thus
nevertheless,
of included. facts
more
change
on
through
cession suc-
bud-generations
have
the
plant, they
in the
occur
may
be
Analogous
and
are
been
observed
as
animal
same
dom, king-
remarkable,
sense,
they
not
in the
dividual in-
in the strictest
a
and
as
with
plants through
version, bud-generations. With animals the act of reif it can be so designated, does not pass over true a in the the early stages of growth generation, but merely over
succession
of
same
individual.
"
'
For
instance, I crossed
du Mii-
several
white
hens
Nouvelles
'
Archives
Soc,
holds
Brann
1853, p. similar
Ray
12
with black
INHERITANCE.
Chap.
XIII.
of the chickens during the cock, and many were, perfectly white, but acquired during the second of the chickens feathers; on the other hand, some first black, became at during the second year white. which
"
piebald
Brahma
in
with hen
great breeder
any
^^
says,
that
Pencilled
has
of the blood
a
her, will
the shoulders
occasionallyproduce
but
first year,
she
will most
of the
the
and
become
The
same
quite unlike
year."
thing
occurs
impure
is
blood.
have
observed
with
offspring from
remarkable
differentlycoloured
fact
:
I crossed
frill formed
a
by the
and
a
feathers
one
being
young
reversed
its
breast, with
trumpeter;
not
of the of the
pigeons thus
ing but, after moultfrill, thrice, a small yet unmistakably distinct frill appeared on its breast. According to Girou," calves produced from a red
trace
cow
by
black
bull, or
from
black
cow
by
red
bull,
are
not
I posblack. rarely born red, and subsequently become sess white of terrier fox-coloured the daughter by a a dog, a about six she was quite white, but when bulldog; as a puppy her nose, and brown old a black spot appeared on months little older she When her was badly a on ears. spots
on
the of
a
back,
brown the
and
the
hair
which
grew
on
This
is
from
most
having coloured
surface
In is white.
wounded
ing foregoing cases, the characters which with advancing reappeared, were present in the immediately precedage in the sometimes generations; but characters reappear Thus the after a much longer interval of time. same manner of cattle which calves of a hornless originated in Corrace adult rientes, though at first quite hornless, as they become sometimes acquire small, crooked, and loose horns; and these attached the to in occasionally become succeeding years the
2'
Mr.
Teebav,
in
'
The
Poultry
"
Book,'
p. 72.
by
Mr.' Tegetmeier,
1866,
die
'
s.
Ueber 98.
Chap.
XIII.
REVERSION.
I3
both
grow
skull." White
breed red been
and
black
assume
Bantams,
as a
of which old
a
generally
saffron
or
they
plumage.
instance,
first-rate black
seasons was more
bantam
has
described, which during three black, but then annually became more
deserves notice that this
perfectly
red; and
it
"'
and
to
it change, whenever is almost certain to prove in a bantam, occurs hereditary." blue-mottled The cuckoo or Dorking cock, when old, is liable in place of his proper hackles to acquire yellow or orange Gallus hanhiva is coloured red as bluish-grey hackles." Now and as Dorking fowls and bantams and orange, descended are from this species, hardly doubt that the change which we can in the plumage of these birds as their age occasionallyoccurs advances, results from a tendency in the individual to revert to the primitive type.
"
tendency
It has long been of Reversion. notorious that hybrids and mongrels often revert to both or of their parent-forms, after an interval of from two to to one authorities, even seven or eight, or, according to some a But that the of of number act generations. greater crossing in itself gives an impulse towards reversion, as shown by the of long-lostcharacters, has never, I believe, been reappearance hitherto proved. The proof lies in certain peculiarities,
Crossing
as
direct
cause
"
which
do not
cannot
parents, and
derived
two
them, frequently
crossed, which
extreme
in the
never same
offspringof
appear,
or as
breeds
when
arities peculi-
breeds, as long
seems
this conclusion
rarity,in these they are precluded from crossing. As to me highly curious and novel, I will
appear
with
in detail.
first called to this MM. certain
subject, and
and breeds
was
led
to
experiments, by
that, when
like the
they
wild
with slaty-blue,
double
having pigeons, birds the C. livia, or dovecot common namely, black sometimes wing-bars, chequered with
crossed
Boitard
Corbie
of
"
black, white
feathers
"
edged with
'
with outer the loins, the tail barred black, with white, ^^ere almost invariablyproduced. The
"
Azara,
These
Essais
ii.
are
Hist.
Nat.
de
'The
-''
'
Poultry
The
Book,'
by Book,'
Mr.
Paraguay,'
^'^
torn.
facts
Tegetmeier, Tegetmeier,
liSOG,p.
Poultry
248.
by
high authority
of
Mr.
Hewitt,
in
1866,
p.
97.
14
breeds been which
to
or
INHERITANCE.
Chap.
XIII.
I crossed, and
in the true
the
sixth
remarkable
results
I
attained, have
longing pigeons betrace and
or a
fully described
and
chapter.
but often
or
selected
not
ancient
breeds, which
had when
of
of the above specifiedmarks; any birds ^vere mongrels recrossed, young with coloured some plainly slaty-blue,
crossed,
more
produced,
all of the
proper
one
teristic characcase,
marks.
may
recall
to
the
namely,
Shetland two
that
reader's
the
wild
red-spot, white
when
C.
fantail, and
have duction probeen
black of
a
barbs,
from
any
of
which,
purely-bred, the
livia would
almost
I
was
wild
thus
on
experiments,recorded
in the
seventh in
chapter,
which
selected
trace
long-established pure
breeds,
of the mongrels of red, yet in several a was of this colour feathers appeared; and one magnificent bird, the and black cock white Silk of coloured a hen, was Spanish ofTspring
there
All w^ho know exactly like the wild Gallus hankiva. thing anythat tens of thousands of the breeding of poultry will admit of pure white Silk fowls of pure Spanish and might have been without the appearance of a red feather. The reared fact, given on in the authority of Mr. Tegetmeier, of the frequent appearance, of like or fowls, feathers, pencilled mongrel transversely-barred to many those common gallinaceous birds, is likewise apparently a to a character of reversion ancient case formerly possessed by some I of the the kindness this to of excellent owe family. progenitor neck-hackles tailobserver the opportunity of inspectingsome and from feathers the common fowl and tinct disa a hybrid between very species,the Gallus rarii(s; and these feathers are transversely metallic with dark blue and grey, striped in a conspicuous manner almost
a
character
I
which been
not
have
been B. P.
derived
from that
either he
diate imme-
parent.
have
by Mr.
and
a
Brent,
crossed
white
Aylesburj^
are
black
so-called
Labrador
duck,
both
he obtained drake a breeds, and closely young mallard Of the musk-duck {A. boschas). {Cairina moschata) there are two sub-breeds, namely, white and slate-coloured; and these I am informed breed true, or nearly true. But the Rev. W. D. Fox tells me to a drake that, by putting a white slatecoloured duck, black birds, pied with white, like the wild muskduck, were ahvays produced. I hear from INIr. Blyth that hybrids
true
from
on
the
gold-fineh almost
and the this
always have
must
streaked
ers feaththe
streaking
be the
derived
from
original
We
wild
canary.
seen
have
in
fourth This of
a
so-called
nose,
layan Himaformed
ears,
tail, and
perfectly true.
is known
to have
been
by
rabbit
^^'a"
produced; and
this is
evidentlya
case
of reversion to
Chap.
XIII.
REVERSION.
15
of
do
one are
of
born
the
parent varieties.
and
The dark
young
marks
the
not
Himalayan
appear until
rabbit
some
snow-white,
the
subsequently; but occasionally young Himalayan rabbits are of a light silver-grey,which colour born soon disappears; so that have trace of here we a reversion, during an early period of life,to the parent varieties, independently of any recent cross. In the third it shown that at was ancient an chapter period
time
some
breeds
ears,
of cattle
and
wilder
now
parts of Britain
were
white
certain
with
that
cattle
run
kept
half two
an
wild
in
parks,
those
are
which
have
quite wild
coloured.
in
world,
J.
likewise
Now,
distant
Beasley, of Northamptonshire,^* crossed some carefully selected West with shorthorn cows bulls. Highland purely-bred The bulls were and red, red and white, or dark roan; the Highland all of a red colour, incliningto a light or yelloAV shade. cows were But of the offspring and considerable number a Mr. Beasley calls
"
to
this
as
fact
none
"
were
that the
of
in
of
the
white, or parents
of the in
white
were
with
white,
that to
offspring reverted,
ancient
comes
cross,
the
The do Now
following
natural not
perhaps,
have
so
the but
head:
cows
their
state
their much
to
little cross-bred
developed, and
animals. animals between
and
yield
is
nearly
some
milk
as
^"
our
domesticated
there
tAvo
reason
believe
are
that
both often
In
of which
turn out
worthless
on
kinds, Shorthorns,
the the
chapter
that
were
primitive stock
striped
in
all
and
dun-coloured;
of the world
given, showing
colour the
parts
dark
on even
frequently appear
on
shoulders, where
the
the
or
body of horses of all breeds and of all colours. But the stripes appear most frequently on the various kinds In of duns. foals they are sometimes and plainly seen, and the stripesare subsequently disappear. The dun-colour ly strongtransmitted when I
was a
sometimes
face
thus
to
characterised that
two
is crossed
with
are
any
erally gen-
other;
of which The of
but
not
produced
are
from the
striped duns
distinct
occur.
breeds, neither
may
duns, though
of
ass are
sometimes
legs
as a
striped, and
parent
are
this
be
sidered con-
reversion
to
the the
and p. I
form, the
Eqinis twniopus
Abyssinia,^" which
the
is
generally thus
shoulder Ag528.
am a
animal
-^
'
stripes on
1869,
to
1216)
cross
admits
my
a
ciple of
^o
giving
'
printendency
Ibid.,
to
1860,
that
cattle
p.
so as
843.
rever.sion.
glad
find
of
experienced
Mr. Wil-
breeder
Zoolog.
lougliby
Wood
('Gard.
CUron.,'
16
INHERITANCE.
Chap.
XIII.
is species. There the that the more to believe frequently striped on reason the horse, I have not acquired As with legs than the adult animal. of difl'erently-coloured the varieties distinct that evidence crossing any the of the ass stripes. brings out and result of crossing the horse to the But turn let us now in not numerous as mules so are nearly England ass. Although with number and much I have striped legs, a greater seen asses, in either parent-form with the stripes far more conspicuous than and mules Such might be called falloware generallylight-coloured, at instance in was one duns. The deeply forked shoulder-stripe instance in another was the extremity, and double, though united of with in the middle. Mr. Martin a a Spanish mule figure gives and remarks that mules its legs,^^ marks are on strong zebra-like their legs. In South striped on particularly liable to be thus frequent and America, according to Roulin,^- such stripes are more In the United in the ass. than States, conspicuous in the mule
forked
at
the
extremity,
as
in
certain
zebrine
foal
is
that in a Gosse,^^ speaking of these animals, says, banded the of in nine out are ten, number, perhaps legs every
Mr.
"
great
with
transverse
dark years
from
stripes."
ago
I
saw
curious a triple Zoological Gardens female male and from ass a a bay mare, by a hybrid when old had This animal zebra. hardly any stripes;but I was shoulderit had assured by the superintendent, that when young its and I and flanks mention this faint legs. stripes, stripes on instance of the case more especially as an stripes being much
Many hybrid,
in the
than such
in old
a
age. and
legs, and hybrids from this animal would had their legs in some the common have ass degree striped; but it appears from the figures given in Dr. Gray's Knowsley Gleanings,' and still more plainly from that given by Geoffroy and F. Cuvier,^^ that the much more legs are conspicuously striped than the rest of the body; and this fact is intelligible only on the aids belief that the ass in giving, through the power of reversion, this character to its hybrid offspring. is banded The the whole front part of its body like over quagga of them. traces a But zebra, but has no stripes on its legs, or mere famous in the Lord bred hybrid Morton,^^ from a chestnut, by the nearly purely-bred, Arabian by a male mare, stripes quagga, defined than and darker those the were more on strongly legs of the quagga." The mare was subsequently put to a black Arabian horse, and bore two colts, both of which, as formerly stated, were plainly striped on the legs,and one of them likewise had stripeson and the neck body.
it
the
zebra
has
might have
been
expected that
'
"
"i
'
History
Mem.
k
of
the
Horse,'
par
p.
"
'
212.
"
'
1859. presentes
I'Acad. p. 338. divers
torn.
^^
'
Savans
Royale,'
1820,
""
'
from des
vi., 1835,
piiji. Transact.,'
20.
18
and
INHERITANCE.
Chap.
XIII,
so
rare
is it for them
in works
on
to incubate
that
I have
seen
notices
poultry,when hens of such breeds have sit.** Yet of course taken the aboriginal species was to a in of birds with state nature and a hardly good incubator; published
any
instinct
recorded
are
is
been
this.
Now,
so
many two
cases
have neither
the
offspringfrom
must goes
races,
of which
reappearance
incubators, becoming
of this instinct One author
first-rate
that sitters,
to say,
"
be attributed
so
reversion
that
a
from
cross
crossing.
between
a
far
as
to
two
non-sitting
becomes
"
varieties
almost
invariably produces
able remarka
mongrel that
that
broody, and
can
sits with
steadiness."
Another
striking
explained only on the two negatives make a principle that positive." It cannot, that hens produced from tween behowever, be maintained a cross stinct, their lost intwo non-sitting breeds invariably recover than that crossed fowls or pigeons invariably more any the red or blue plumage of their prototj'pes. recover Thus I raised several chickens from a Polish hen by a Spanish
"
example, remarks
the fact
cock,
"
breeds
at
which
do not
any
was
hens
the
on
first showed
one
"
only
which
preserved
in the
third
well
we
So her eggs and reared a brood of chickens. with advancing age of a have the reappearance
in the
same manner as we
that here
have
seen
the
red
reacquired both plumage of the Gallus hankiva is sometimes by crossed and purely-bred fowls of various kinds as they
grow
old.
Black Polish and steady birds to sit." Mr. B. P. Brent informs that he raised me some hens sitting good by crossing Pencilled and Polish Hamburg breeds. A cross-bred bird from Golden
are
*" and Cases of both Spanish Polish hens sittinc: are friven in the Poultry Chronicle,' 1855, vol. iii. p. 477. " Book.' The Poultry by Mr.
' '
and
Te^etmeier,
The two
1866,
who
pp.
119,
on
author,
remarks
of states
tween
fowls,
"
good
negatives
p.
were
(' .Journ.
Hort.,'
Spanish
1862.
broods
325),
that
from raised a ish Spanand cock Silver pencilled which of neither Hamburg hen, less and than incubators, no are in these of eiglit hens out seven broods showed two a perfect The Rev. in obstinacv sitting." PoulS. Dixon E. (' Ornamental that 200) try,' 1848, says p.
-
Cochin mentioned
and
non-incubating incubating
the iii. p. vol. mother."
an
cock hen
'
is
an
in
Poultry
as
Chronicle,' exemplary
"
13. On
the
other
hand,
in
p.
is
given
18G0,
a
the
'
"
388, which
of cock
hen and
raised
black
from
Sfjanish
hen
Polish
did
not
bate. incu-
chickens
reared
from
cross
be-
Chap.
XIll.
REVERSION.
19
animals
The
course
parents
of
all
our
domesticated
were
of
when cated a domestiaboriginally wild in disposition ; and with whether this is a distinct species, species is crossed only a tamed animal, the hybrids are often or a domesticated wild to such a degree, that the fact is intelligible only on the has caused to a a partial return principle that the cross ported primitive disposition. Thus, the Earl of Powis formerly imcattle from humped thoroughly domesticated some India, and crossed them with English breeds, which belong to remarked his agent without to me, distinct species; and a bred question having been asked, how oddly wild the crossany
were.
The
are
European
wild
boar
and
the
Chinese
pig
almost
a sow
crossed
wild
Alpine boar which had become extremely tame, but the young, blood in their veins, were though having half-domesticated " extremely wild in confinement, and would not eat swill like English pigs." Captain Hutton, in India, crossed a common from the Himalya, and he rewild one marked tame a goat with Mr. how to me surprisingly wild the offspringw^ere. cockHewitt, who has had great experience in crossing tame pheasants with fowls belonging to five breeds, gives as the
character
seen
of all
one
"
extraordinary
to
wildness
Mr.
'
*'
but
I have
self my-
this rule.
S. J.
a
who Salter,"
bantam-hen
by
sonneratii,
"
that
"
all
were
exceedingly wild."
from
were
Waterton
a common
bred
wild the
ducks
young
eggs
hatched
to
cross
duck, and
allowed
and with themselves the tame ducks; freely both amongst " half wild and half the dows winto tame they were ; they came about them to be fed, but still they had a wariness quite
hand, mules
least wild,
from
the
horse
and
ass
are
tainly cer-
in
the
though
has
notorious
for
obstinacy
with
me,
and
many
Mr.
Brent, who
were
crossed
canary-birds
as
of finches, has
in
any
by
not
way
observed,
he
informs
:
that
42
hybrids
Poultry
remarkably
"
*
wild
History
but
Mr.
Tjjp
Mv.
Tegetmeier,
Natural
Review.'
165,
1863,
**
'
167.
April, Essays
p.
on
277.
Nat.
Hist.,' p. 917.
20
Jenner
INHERITANCE.
Chap. XIII.
is of a Weir, who has had still greater experience, oppositeopinion. He remarks that the siskin is the directly of finches, but its mules are as wild,when young, tamest as and their often lost are tinued connewly caught birds, through
efforts to escape. Hybrids are often raised between the common and musk duck, and I have been assured by three
have who persons, not wild ; but Mr.
were
observed
that his
"
hybrids were
there
migratory
common
propensities of which
or
No case is duck. known of this latter bird having escaped and become wild in Europe or Asia, except, according to Pallas,on the Caspian domestic duck only occasionally becomes Sea; and the common
vestige in the
musk
have been recorded of cases Nevertheless,a largenumber of hybrids from these two ducks having been shot in a completelywild state, although so few are reared in comparison
improbable that
purely-bredbirds of either species. It is of these hybrids could have acquired any from the musk-duck having paired with a
in
acquired, renewed re-
not to be the case truly wild duck; and this is known North infer that they have America; hence we must well as as through reversion,their wildness, of flight. powers
These
That
no one
quently latter facts remind us of the statements, so fregraded made by travellers in all parts of the world, on the deof o f crossed state and savage man. races disposition and existed excellent kind-hearted mulattos have many will dispute;and a more mild and gentleset of men inhabitants of the island of
could hardly be found than the Chiloe, who consist of Indians in various proportions.On the long before I had thought of the
with
*5
commingled with Spaniards other hand, many years ago, I struck was present subject, of complicated America, men
v.,
his
p.
*"
Orton.
in
1845-46,
Breeding,'
12. de E. M. Selys-Longehamps Acad. refers de (' Bulletin Roy. torn. xii. No. 10) to Bruxelles,'
p. been
1254)
shot and
Belgium
Biography,'
North
Audubon ('Ornitholog. vol. iii. p. 168), speaking these tliat, hybrids, says
than of these seven hybrids shot in Switzerland and France. M. Deby asserts ('Zoologist,' vol.
more
America,
they
"
now
off and
become
Chap.
XIII.
REVERSION.
^|
descent
between the
a
had, whatever
"
and after
Spaniards, seldom might be, a good expression.*^ Livingstone, unimpeachable authority cannot be
the Zambesi, speaking of a half-caste man on described by the Portuguese as a rare of inhumanity, monster " It is unaccountable why half-castes, such remarks, as he, much cruel than the more are so Portuguese, but such is undoubtedly
quoted,
"
the
"
case." white
An
inhabitant
men,
***
remarked made
two
to
stone, Livingmen,
God
made
and
God
black
but
the Devil
made
in the progeny be to seems eminently bad. noble-hearted felt no Humboldt, who prejudice
races,
half-castes."
When
both
low
crossed
of the bad against the inferior races, speaks in strong terms and savage dians dispositionof Zambos, or half-castes between Inand Negroes: and this conclusion has been arrived at
by various
that
observers.*** From
these
facts
we
may
perhaps
fer in-
half-castes is in part degraded state of so many due to reversion to a primitive and savage condition, induced if mainly due to the unfavourable by the act of crossing,even moral conditions under which they are generally reared. the proximate causes leading to Reversion. Summary on When acters, long-lostcharpurely-bred animals or plants reassume
" "
the
when
the
common
ass,
for
instance, is born
with
of black white or race pigeons striped legs, when a pure heartsease with throws a slaty-blue a cultivated bird, or when small flowers produces a seedling with large and rounded and elongated flowers, we are quite unable to assign any
"
animals When wild, the tendency to proximate cause. run reversion, which, though it has been greatly exaggerated, no extent doubt to a certain intelligible. exists, is sometimes
Thus,
favour with
with
feral pigs, exposure to the weather is known the growth of the bristles, as
will
to
probably
case relation cor-
be the
animals, and
through
of coloured
be
pigs cannot
"
'
be attributed
of
to
to the
direct action
*^
of external
'
con-
1845,
*8
'
Researches,'
in the
Dr.
P.
Broea,
p.
on
the
Genus
Homo,'
39.
1865,
Zambesi,'
lat., 1864,
22
ditions. that
any
INHERITANCl^.
Chap. Xlll.
In
this
case,
and
in
many
others,
we
can
only
a
latent
in
the
species,to
return
to
the
primitive
state.
chapter that the position of flowers on of the axis, and the position of seeds the summit the capsule, sometimes determine within a tendency towards of sap reversion; and this apparently depends on the amount
It will be shown in
a
future
or
nutriment
which
the
flower-buds
on
and
seeds
or on
receive. roots,
The
times some-
branches
of mer for-
character
state.
proper
to
variety,or
its reversion
to
We
have
seen
in
the
last section
is the
that
when
two to
races
or appearance re-
species are
crossed
in the
there
strongest
tendency
the
offspring of long-lostcharacters, possessed im.mediate two by neither parent nor progenitor. When white, or red, or black pigeons, of well-established breeds, to inherit the same united, the offspring are almost sure are colours ; but w^hen differently-coloured birds are crossed, the each apparently counteract opposed forces of inheritance
other, and
in
which
is inherent
in both
parents
to
But
or
when,
with the
crossed
have
with
indicus
"
not
stripes on
said
legs and
even
which horse, animals the hybrids have conspicuous their faces, all that can be on
of reversion
with
indeed
is almost
offspring from a cross, namely, to the characters to either pure parent-form. As a genproper eral first in the crossed rule, generation are nearly offspring the grandchildren their but intermediate between parents, and succeeding generations continually revert, in a greater lesser degree, to one both of their progenitors. Several or or that hybrids and mongrels include authors have maintained
all the characters of both parents,
not
universal
the
fused
together, but
Chap. Xm.
MVElESlON.
^S
expressed it, a hybrid is a living mosaic-work, in which the eye cannot distinguish the discordant elements, so completely are they intermingled.
the
or,
as
body;
^Naudin^" has
We when
can we
hardly doubt
behold
in
that, in hybrid a
into
certain the
sense,
elements in the
or
segregating themselves
fruit, by
Naudin
a
segments
flower
or
process
of self-attraction
taking place either by seminal or bud-propagation. further believes that the segregation of the two specific
or essences
in the eminently liable to occur male and female reproductive matter; and he thus explains universal the almost in successive tendency to reversion be the natural result hybrid generations. For this would of pollen and of the union ovules, in both of which the of the same elements species had been segregated by selfincluded- the affinity. If, on the other hand, pollen which of one elements ing specieshappened to unite with ovules includof the other species,the intermediate the elements or hybrid state would still be retained, and there would be no But it would, as I suspect, be more reversion. correct to
say
elements
is
that
in
the
a
elements double
of both
parent-species exist in
blended
every
hybrid
separate.
essence specific or
attempt
But
to
show
together and comnamely, pletely How this is possible,and what the term element be supposed to express, I shall may in the chapter on the hypothesis of pangenesis.
state,
ble propounded by him, is not applicaof characters lost long ago by variation; to the reappearance and it is hardly applicable to races or species which, after having been crossed former at some period with a distinct form, and having since lost all traces of the cross, nevertheless reverts occasionally yield an individual which of the great-great-grandchildof the pointer (as in the case of reThe most Sappho) to the crossing form. version, simple case of its namely, grandparents, a hybrid or mongrel to is connected case by an almost perfect series with the extreme of a purely-bred race had been recovering characters which lost during many thus led to infer that all and we are ages; the cases bond. be related by some must common view,
as
w
'
ISTaudin's
Nouyellea
Archives
du
Museum,'
torn,
I, p, 151,
^4
Gartner
any
erroneous
INHIiRlTANCE.
Chap. Xlll.
believed
that
to
tendency
belief
may
reversion
to
their
parent-forms.
for
Thia
nature
perhaps be accounted
by
the
crossed of the genera by him, for he admits that the tendency The is also directly differs in different genera. statement contradicted by^^au^i's observations, and by the notorious
fact
a
perfectly W'tile mongrels exhibit the tendency in high degreCj^^vQ^in a higher degree, according to Gartner
that
himself,
reversions
rarely
have
not
occur
hybrid
they
a are
from
those
species which
which have This
been
been
occurrence.
conclusion
curious
on
discrepancy :
which instance
Max
Wichura,^^ who
not
sively exclu-
had
been
subjected
he
goes
culture,
far
as
never
saw
to
sufficiently protected : I^audin, on parent-species who the other hand, chieflyexperimented on cucurbitaceous other and cultivated plants, insists more strenuously than in all hybrids. the tendency to reversion other author on any
hybrids from
the
pollen of the
The
conclusion
that
is
the
one
of the
parent-species,
causes
as
affected by culture,
proximate
case
leading
to
reversion,
animals
agrees
well with
converse
of domesticated when
or stitution con-
and
cultivated feral
; for
they become
must
be disturbed,
very
different
way."
that characters often reappear in Finally, we have seen without being able to assign any our purely-bred races feral this is either but when they become proximxate cause; tions by the change in their condiindirectly or directly induced
of itself
"
'
life.
With
crossed
to
breeds, the
recovery species
seasons
act
of
crossing in
certainly leads
the
of
of
long-lostcharacters,
butterfly
at
Bastarderzeugung,'
Die fler
s.
582,
different
438.
^'
"o.
'
Bastardbefruchtimg
s.
For
to that
similar
cause
conclusion,
which
such
cocoons
namely,
the
any
turbs disas
s. heod, see Bastarderzeugung,' 474. 582. " in his Profesi=ior Weismann, the ent differcurious on very essay forms produced by the same
the
exposure
or a even
organisation,
of
to the
to
heat
gives
tendency
26
INHERITANCE.
Chap. XIII.
like war-
she
have
to
would
erect
to
fight. Thus
of
every
ter, charac-
even
must fighting,
in this hen as long lain dormant kinds The females of two act.
of deer, when old, have has to acquirehorns; and, as Hunter been known remarked, in the human something of an analogous nature we see
species.
the other hand, with male animals, it is notorious that less completely or the secondary sexual characters are more lost when they are subjected to castration. Thus, if the
On
be performed on operation
cock, he never, as Yarrell and spurs do not grow the comb, wattles,
a
young
the
hackles
assume
an
intermediate
between
true
Cases
are
recorded
hackles and the feathers of the hen. of confinement, which often affects the
acters reproductivesystem, causing analogous results. But charproperlyconfined to the female are likewise acquired
capon
bring
the
up
sterile male
same
manner,
pheasant and the fowl act in the their delightbeing to watch when
hens leave their nests, and to take on themselves the officeof " ^* asserts that That admirable observer Reaumur a sitter."
cock, by being long confined in solitude and darkness, can be taught to take charge of young chickens; he then utters a peculiar cry, and retains during his whole life this newly well-ascertained cases acquired maternal instinct. The many
a
of various
condition. We
male
mammary
mammals
mentary giving milk shows that their rudiin latent a glands retain this capacity
in
many,
thus
see
that
probably
in
all
cases,
the
secondary characters of each sex lie dormant or latent in the stances. opposite sex, ready to be evolved under peculiar circumit is posWe can thus understand how, for instance,
kinds of Aristotle
birds.
was
It
well
appears
aware
that
of the
"
'
Cottage
Art
Gardener,'
faire
1860, p.
379.
^^
'
chanf^e
hens.
acquiring
horns
de
Eclore,' "C.,
Chap.
XIII.
REVERSION.
27
to transmit her good qualities good milking cow through her male offspringto future generations ; for we may confidently believe that these qualities are present, though
a
sible for
of each
generation.
So
it is with
the
transmit his superiority in courage game-cock, who can and vigour through his female to his male offspring; and with that diseases,such as hydrocele,necessarily it is known man be transmitted confined to the male sex, can male through the feSuch these offer, to the grandson. cases as as was marked reof this chapter, the simplest at the commencement possibleexamples of reversion; and they are intelligible on the belief that characters to the grandparent and common sex are grandchild of the same present, though latent,in the of intermediate the parent opposite sex. The subject of latent characters is so important, as we shall see in a future chapter, that I will give another tration. illus""*
Many
with and
the
animals
have
known
be the
case
which
the
colour
and
in the
of the
to
fish
one
eye
the lower
the upper
surface.""
in
some
fishes flat-
side, but
"
it is the
right;
reversed or ally occasionfishes," are though in both cases wrong flesus the right or left side developed; and in Platessa With fish, is indifferently the upper gasteropods or shellone. the right and left sides are extremely unlike; the far and of species are dextral, with rare casional ocgreater number few are normally reversals of development, and some Achatisinistral; but certain species of Bulimus, and many
nellse,"^ are
case
as
often the
so
sinistral great
as
dextral.
I will
give
an
ogous anal-
in
"
of Verruca
so
are
sides kingdom : the two wonderfully unlike, that without careful articulate
Medical 3rd edit..
'
Sir
and p.
H. 31.
Notes
Holland, Reflections,'
"i
nals
"2
Martens,
of
in
An-
Nat.
Hist.'
1855.
60
tlie 'Ob/SffP Steenstrnp on Annals ': in liqnitv of Flounders and Nat. Hist.' of Magr. May, abpriven an 1865, p. .361, I have of stract of Malm's explanation in this wonderful phenomenon the Edit, 6th Origin of Species p. 186.
' ' '
1S66, p. 209. Balanida?,' Ray Darwin, the apSoc. 1S54, p. 499: srr also the remarks on apparentpended of the development ly capricious March.
limbs thoracic in left sides
ceans,
on
the
28
dissection parts
a
INHERITANCE.
Chap.
XIII.
it is
on mere
the
body;
yet
it is apparently the
right of change. the left side that undergoes so singular amount or in which the flower, according as One plant is known to me it stands on the one other side of the spike, is unequally or
of chance
"'
whether
it be
the two sides are developed. In all the foregoing cases fectly perNow, early period of growth. symmetrical at an whenever a species is as liable to be unequally developed on
the
one
as
on
the other
side, we
a
may
infer
that
the capacity
for such
development
side. And
as
is present,
occurs
in animals
very
common.
of many
veloped though latent, in the undereversal of development occasionally kinds, this latent capacity is probably
The
are,
young
of characters lying dormant simplest cases perhaps, those previously given, in which chickens and between oured differentlycolpigeons, raised from a cross best yet
birds,
are
at
first of
one
colour, but
in
year
or
two
acquire feathers of the colour of the other parent ; for in this the tendency to a change of plumage is clearly latent in case So it is with hornless breeds of cattle,some bird. the young
of which black
assume,
acquire small horns and white bantams, and with advancing years,
I will here
a
as
they
some
old.
of the
case,
as
parentit
nects con-
species.
in Mr.
add
manner
striking
"
of two
classes.
Hewitt
possessed an
as
she
male
in
this breed
in
the males
females and
except
it
their
combs,
pected ex-
wattles,
masculine
instincts; hence
which
might
to
have
been
have
assumed
the
only those
proper
breed, but she tail sickle-feathers quite the and hackles loins, on
as
the would
neck,
"
ornaments
as
which,
Mr.
Hewitt The
remarks,
be held
abominable
in this breed."
July, 1864, opportunity
remarkable
p.
Sebright
of
of
Horticulture,'
kindness
of
I have had the 38. of these examining feathers the through Mr. Tegetmeier.
Chap.
XIII.
REVERSION.
29
the
a
bantam from
a
is known
cross
*"
to
a
have
common
originated about
bantam and and
year
1800
between
a
recrossed
hence
by
can
hen-tailed
bantam,
Polish
there
hackles Polish
which fowl
or
hardly be a doubt that the sickle-feathers and derived from the appeared in the old hen were
common
bantam;
characters masculine
and
we
thus
to
see
that
not
only certain
bantam,
first
masculine other
proper
the
Sebright
from the
but
characters
derived
progenitors of the breed, removed by a period of above lying latent in this henbird, ready to be sixty years, were
as soon as
evolved
From
her
ovaria
became
these
instincts,may
of
lie latent in
dividua inour
in
succession
without individuals,
When sign being able to detect presence. fowls, pigeons, or cattle of different colours are crossed, and their offspring change colour as they grow the old, or when the least
of their
crossed
turbit
or
moult,
were
acquired the characteristic frill after its third when the red purely-bred bantams partiallyassume
we
cannot
doubt
first present,
dividual in-
moth
pillar. cater-
produced offspringbefore
characters, they had acquired with advancing age their new mitted nothing is more probable than that they would have transwould them to some of their offspring, who in this case in appearance have received such characters from their grandparents
or more
distant
progenitors.We
should
then
have
in the is, of the reappearance ing child of an ancestral character, actually present, though duryouth completely latent, in the parent; and this we
had
case
of reversion, that
may
safely conclude
however This view of the
is what
occurs
in
all reversions
to
genitors, pro-
remote.
acters latency in each generation of all the charwhich through reversion, is also supported by appear their actual presence in some during early youth alone, cases and greater distinctness or by their more frequent appearance that this is have seen We at this age than during maturity. often the case with the stripes on the legs and faces of the
"5
'
TUe
Poultry
Book/
by Mr.
Tegetmeier,
1866,
p.
241,
30-
INHERITANCE.
Chap.
XIII.
species of the horse-genus. The Himalayan rabbit, when crossed, sometimes revert to produces offspring which the parent silver-grey that in purely breed, and we have seen bred animals pale-grey fur occasionally reappears during feel assured, would early youth. Black cats, we casionally ocmay
produce by reversion kittens, with
*""
several
tabbies; and
on
young
black
to have been long pure, faint pedigree known of stripesmay almost which traces afterwards always be seen Suffolk cattle occasionally produce by disappear. Hornless
a
horned
animals
"
and
Youatt of
"
asserts
a
that
may
even
in
individuals
the
rudiment
horn
be
often
early age."
it appears that in every
at first sight in the
jNo doubt
horse
of every
to
be
latent
may
capacity and
not
tendency
in
a
produce stripes,though
generations
;
these
every
appear
or
once
thousand
that in
have
white, black,
latent
other
coloured
pigeon, which
may
transmitted be
a
its proper
in cai^acity certain
colour
marked
in
a
with
characteristic
child
should
production of an additional digit; and so in other cases. inherent there is no more ISTevertheless, improbability in this than in a useless and rudimentary being the case or organ, the in of to a only a tendency production even rudimentary being inherited during millions of generations, as is organ,
beings. inherent improbability in each domestic There is no more pig, during a thousand generations, retaining the capacity and tendency to develop great tusks under fittingconditions, than
to
occur
a
well
known
with
multitude
of
organic
in
the
young
calf having
retained incisor
for
an
indefinite
never
number
trude pro-
of generations
rudimentary
the
gums. at the
teeth, which
through
I shall
give
end
of the next
chapter
summary
of
preceding chapters; but as isolated and striking of reversion have here been chieflyinsisted on, I wish to cases guard the reader against supposing that reversion is due to
the
three
some rare or
accidental
'
combination
on
e?
"
of circumstances.
Qu
When
""
Carl
Man,'
Eng.
Cattle,* p.
174.
p.
411.
Chap.
XIII.
REVERSION.
^i
of
generations, suddenly
must
reappears,
doubt the
some
such
combination
occur;
but
immediately preceding generations may be constantly observed, at least,in the offspring of most unions. This has been universally recognised in the case of hybrids and mongrels, but it has been recognised simply from the the difference between united forms rendering the resemblance of the offspring to their grandparents or more remote Reversion is likewise almost progenitors of easy detection. invariably the rule, as Mr. Sedgwick has shown, with certain conclude Hence that a tendency to this diseases. must we is an of transmission peculiar form integral part of the general law of inheritance.
to
reversions
Monstrosities.
"
large number
are
of monstrous
growths and
to
of lesser anomalies
an
admitted
by
every
one
be
due
an
to
bryonic em-
arrest
of
condition.
monstrosities
trace
can
cannot
be thus
in the
be detected of the
may
same
in other
members these
class
occasionally appear,
to reversion.
and
probably with
I have
'
As, however,
'
treated
in my
recur
Descent it.
of Man
(chap,
to
which have come benormally an irregular structure nists peloric,the change is generally looked at by botareturn to the primitive state. But Dr. Maxwell a as Masters,**^ who has ably discussed stance, this subject, remarks that when, for inall the sepals of a Tropa3olum of the and become green same of being coloured with shape, instead one prolonged into when a all the of Linaria become or a simple and petals spur, such to arrest be due merely of development; regular, cases an may for in these flowers all the organs during their earliest condition are at this stage of growth, they symmetrical, and, if arrested would not become to take the arrest were irregular. If, moreover, be a place at a still earlier period of development, the result would of tuft this and call would a no simple leaves; one probably green
regular
"8 Natural Hist. Review,' April, 1863, p. 258. 8re also his Lecture, Royal Institution, March On subsame 16, 1860. ject, see EleMoquin-Tandon, ments de Teratologie,' 1841, pp.
'
'
184, 352.
lected Akad.
LX.
a
Dr.
Peyritsch
number of
lias very d.
coliu-
large
terestinj?
1872,
32
INHERITANCE.
Chap.
XIII.
ease
of
as
reversion.
Dr.
Masters
and form of
designates the
cases
first alluded
to
regular peloria;
assume a
parts
in
a
similar
Linaria
to
become
the
all the corresponding in which all the petals irregularity,as when have no spurred, as irregular peloria. We
others,
right
shown had
from the
to reversion, until it can be cases of the Linaria had for instance, parent-form, genus all its petals spurred; for a chance of this nature might result
attribute
these
latter
that
the
spreading
to
of
an
anomalous
in
a
structure, in
of
accordance
with
law, chapter, homologous parts But both forms of peloria manner. as tending to vary in the same individual the same on plant of the Linaria,''^ frequently occur in some close relation to one another. On they probably stand is the of development that result of an the doctrine arrest simply peloria
be
it is ditlicult
a
discussed
future
to
understand
how
an
organ
arrested
at
very
of
should
to
as
acquire
be
an
fection; peror
thus
arrested, should
to the
acquire
a
its brilliant
stamen
colours, and
efficient
serve
envelope
flower,
occurs peloric many chance pelorism variability,but of development arrest to reversion, we either to an or infer may made observation Ch. from an ]\lorren,'" by namely, that families return often which have irregular flowers by these monstrous their whilst to form; we regular never see a growths regular of an flower realise the structure irregular one." have almost flowers Some less comor certainly become more pletely the following interestingcase peloricthrough reversion, as of its two shows. nectaries Corydal'is tuberosa properly has one half nectar destitute of the size of the other, and colourless, only therefore, to a certain extent, in a rudimentary state; the pistil the is curved of towards the perfect nectary, and hood, formed the inner in one direction stamen and petals, slips off" the pistil sucks the perfect nectary, the stigma and alone, so that, when a bee stamens eral are exposed and rubbed against the insect's body. In sevin Dielytra, "c., there two as are closely allied genera, perfect is straight,and the hood nectaries, the pistil slipsoff on either side, the bee sucks I have either examined Now, according as nectary.
produce
That
flowers.
with
"
several
flowers
of Conjdalis
tuberosa,
in which
both
nectaries
were
see development nectar; in this we only the reequally developed and contained of a partially aborted but with this ment redeveloporgan; the pistilbecomes straight, and the hood slips off" in either direction, so that these flowers have acquired the perfect structure, of Dielytra and its allies. well adapted for insect agency, We so to attribute these cannot to chance, or coadapted modifications must to to attribute them reversion correlated we a variability; of the species. primordial condition The peloricflowers of Pelargonium have their five petals in all
69
Verlot,
89;
du
p.
Nandin,
chives 167.
'
1S65,
Ari.
p.
''^
In
his
'
discussion
on
some
peloric
Journal
Calceolarias,
of Horticul-
34
INHERITANCE.
Chap.
XIII.
and
Gloxinia
and
sometimes
in
that
of
the have
peloric Corydalis
been in
As
solkla.''add that Lastly I may many not flowers, generally considered are abnormally augmented organs
instances
as
recorded increase
nor
as
of
of due
peloric,
number.
of
which
an
certain
in
parts
to
cannot
be
looked
at
as
an
arrest
development,
the
as
redevelopment
these
to
and with
additional
are
present,
a^ sions rever-
relationship
its natural
a
be
viewed
primordial
These
us
in
an
intimately certain
namely,
parts
and
now
states
arrests
mentary rudidevelopment causing parts to become to be wholly suppressed, the redevelopment of or in a more less rudimentary appearance condition, the reor be detected, of organs of which not a vestige can of
" "
"
to
presence
of animals, the added, in the case tain during youth, and subsequent disappearance, of certhese
may
be
characters life.
as a
which
occasionally are
look
at all such
retained abnormal
to
throughout
structures
Some
return
naturalists
to
of the
group
which
the
fected af-
being belongs; but it is difficult to conceive what is naturalists to be conveyed by this expression. Other meant maintain, with greater probability and distinctness of view,
that the
common
bond is
an
of connection
between
cases
the structure be
progenitor of the
believe that
a
group.
If this view of
characters, capable organic being. But be a mistake it would that to suppose the number is equally know, for instance, that plants of great in all beings. We orders occasionally become peloric; but many more many have been observed in the Labiatas and Scrophulariacese cases than in any other order ; and in one of the Scrophularigenus namely Linaria, no less than thirteen species have been acese,
must vast
number
in every
described
in
this
condition.'^
On
the
view
of the nature
of
in peloric flowers, and bearing in mind certain monstrosities conclude that the progenitors the animal kingdom, we must of most plants and animals have left an impression, capable
'2
"
Godron,
de
reprinted
I'Acad.
"
Moquin-Tandon,
p.
Teratolo-
gie,'
186.
Chap.
Xm.
REVERSION.
35
of
redevelopment,
these The fertilised
is
to
so
on
the been of
one
germs
of
their
descendants,
modified.
though al-
have
since
germ
profoundly
of the
higher
from
animals,
the
subjected
cell
as
it old
vast
series
of
changes by
germinal
to
age,
"
incessantly
vital,
It is
"
agitated
is
what the
most
Quatrefages
wonderful
a
calls
the in
tourhillon
nature.
perhaps
that
probable
without
hardly
some
change
being
as
kind the
affects
either But
on
parent,
the becomes
mark
left
in
germ.
doctrine
a
of far which
more
reversion,
marvellous it
given
this
chapter,
besides believe both
to
a
germ
object,
we
for,
must to
visible
it
to
changes
crowded the male thousands with
undergoes, characters,
side
of
is both of
proper
sexes,
right
and
the
body,
and
long
or
line
even
ancestors
separated
from
on
by
generations
those
Vv^ritten
the
present with
and
these
characters,
lie
paper
ink,
disturbed
ready by
to
be
evolved
whenever
or
the
tion organisa-
certain
known
unknown
conditions.
36
INHERITANCE.
Chai". XIV.
CHAPTER
INHERITANCE
"
XIV.
of
Continued
SEXUAL
"
fixedness
"
character OF
"
tency prepo-
LIMITATION
CORRESPONDENCE
AGE.
Fixedness
of character apparently not due to antiquity of inheritance in individuals of transmission of the same family, in crossed breeds and species ; often stronger in one than the other ; sex sometimes due to the same character being present and visible in one Inheritance breed and latent in the other limited by sex as Newlyanimals often transmitted acquired characters in our domesticated by lost by one sex alone Inheritance one sex alone, sometimes at corresponding periods of life The importance of the principlewith respect in domesticated to embryology animals exhibited : as ; as exhibited in the appearance and disappearance of inherited diseases ; sometimes of the supervening earlier in the child than in the parent Summary three preceding chapters.
"
Prepotency
"
"
"
"
"
In
chapters the
which
nature
and
interfere
its many In
with
and
tingencies, con-
tendency
related
to
Reversion, with
discussed. will be
remarkable
were
the
present
other
materials
phenomena permit.
treated
Fixedness It is
a
of Character.
breeders that the
longer any character has been transmitted fully it by a breed, the more I do not wish to dispute the will continue to be transmitted. ply truth of the propositionthat inheritance gains strength simit can through long continuance, but I doubt whether the propositionis little better than be proved. In one sense general belief amongst
a
truism; if
any
has
remained
constant
so,
during
a
many
a length breed, if care be taken will obviously tend breed the individuals,
become
truer,
as
it will not
an
have
been
crossed We have
by
inferior
animal.
Chap.
XIV.
FIXEDKESS
OF
CHARACTER.
3^
being able
appears,
much,
aggregate
than
assign any cause, that, when a new it is occasionallyfrom the first constant, or So it is or wholly fails to be transmitted.
to
the
of slight differences
some
which kind
variety, for
truer
propagate
Even
their with
first
much
others.
plants multiplied by
in one be said to form sense bulbs, layers,"c., which may that certain individual, it is well known parts of the same varieties retain and transmit through successive bud-generations
their In
none
newly-acquired characters more truly than others. in the following cases, does there appear of these, nor
relation and between
the
to be any
which
character
is
length of
sweet-peas,
the
during which
as
it has been
Some white do
In
varieties,such
varieties
white
and
yellow hyacinths
colours
more
transmit
their have
faithfully than
natural colour.
which
retained
their
in the twelfth family, mentioned chapter, the peculiar tortoiseshell-like colouring of the eyes our. far more transmitted faithfully than any ordinary colwas Ancon and Mauchamp sheep and niata cattle, which all comparatively modern breeds, exhibit remarkably are of inheritance. could be Many similar cases strong powers
the Irish
adduced.
As
animals
and from
the
varied, and
which
no
descended retained
we
cultivated
had
same
immensely antiquity
true.
epoch,
a
see
that
scarcely any
be said
that
degree of
character
being transmitted
it may
In
this
case,
however,
perfectly changed
not
conditions
certain
modifications, and
case
that
the power
some
cause,
of
failure,
It in
interfere.
will
our
generally
to
are
found
parts which
or
domesticated
vary,
"
productions have
that with
genus.
varied,
which
still
continue state,
"
fail to retain
their former
the
same same
species of the
the species of the modification, since they branched off from that the characters by which
same a
have
been
another
38
have
INHERlTxVNCE.
Chap. XIV.
varied, whilst
unchanged;
now
other and
vary
parts
it
of
the be
organisation have
argued
that
or
remained
same
might
these fail to
*
characters
under
lesser
to
be in
inherited, from
a
their
seems
variation
state
of nature
stand
with
changed
varied under
vary
conditions
under
characters would
have apt
on tiquity. an-
already
to
the
still greater of
changes
their
consequent
or
domestication, independently
Fixedness of character,
or
greater
less
strength of inheritance,has often been judged of by the preponderance of certain characters in the crossed distinct races; but preoffspring between potency of transmission here comes into play, and this, as we shall immediately see, is a very different consideration from
the the
strength
that
or
weakness breeds
of inheritance.^
It has
often
been
inhabiting wild and mountainous countries cannot be permanently modified by our improved breeds; and as these latter are of modern origin, it has been thought that the greater antiquity of the wilder breeds has been the cause of their resistance to improvement and by crossing; but it is more probably due to their structure tions. constitution being better adapted to the surrounding condiWhen plants are first subjected to culture, it has been their found that, during several generations, they transmit
characters
to
observed
of animals
truly, that
ancient
is, do
not
vary,
and
this has
been
tributed at-
characters
or
it
may
with
equal
action.
be
greater
probability be consequent
a
on
changed
cumulative would
conditions
more deny that characters become I lieve betransmitted; but strongly fixed the longer they are into characters resolves itself that that the proposition this,
perhaps
"
new
or
old, tend
to
be inherited,
those
which and
have
influences
been
rule, continue
inherited.
1
to withstand
them, and
consequently
be
fully faith-
See
Youatt
on
Cattle,
and
pp.
92,
on
Sheop,
'
p.
325.
Also
torn.
Dr.
Lucaf5,
310,
163;
Youatt
L'Herea.
Nat.,'
ii. p,
Chap. XIV.
PREPOTENCY
OP
TRANSMISSION.
39
of Character.
the when
same
individuals, belonging
enough
two to
to
or
family, but
well-marked
be recognised,
two
species,are crossed, the usual result,as stated in the previous chapter, is, that the offspring in the first between their parents, or resemgeneration are intermediate ble
one
part.
many
part and
no
the the
other
means
individuals,races, and in transmitting their likeness. This species,are prepotent subject has been ably discussed by Prosper Lucas," but is rendered the sometimes extremely complex by prepotency ning runin both sexes, and sometimes equally more strongly in than in the other; it is likewise complicated by the one sex of secondary sexual characters, which render the presence comparison of crossed breeds with their parents difficult.
It would
appear
it is found
that
certain
some
one
and
power
after
him
others
the
same
family, have
through
how
the
same
in transmitting
we
their
likeness
the male
line;
many
so
for
cannot
so as
otherwise be
understand after
features
should
often
transmitted
case
females,
was,
in the
to
it
according
Roman
*
Niebuhr, with the mental tain qualitiesof ceris believed families.'' The bull Favourite famous
had
a
to
race.
have
prepotent
observed
influence
'^
on
the
short-horn
It has
with
English race-horses
that certain
acter, chargenerally transmitted their own blood have allowed whilst other mares of equally pure black greythe character of the sire to prevail. A famous hound,
mares
Bedlamite,
got colour
all his
as
hear
from
Mr.
no
C.
matter
"
M.
Brown what
a was
"
variably in-
puppies black,
"
the
of the bitch
but
then
Bedlamite
on
had
ance preponderside."
dam
out
more
truth distinct
of the
races
principleof prepotency
are
clearly
not-
crossed.
ii.
'
The
*
'
improved Short-horns,
Gardener's
N.
on
Hfr$d. Sir
on
Nat.,' Henry
torn.
pp. p.
Chronicle,'
'
1860,
112-120.
3
ters
Mental
ChapPhysiology,' 1852,
Holland,
Smith, Breeding,'
H.
Observain p.
quoted
p, 234,
Ency.
of
Rural
Sports,'
278,
a?
40
INHERITANCE.
Chap.
XIV.
withstaHding
acknowledged
on
that
to
the
breed
and
is
comparatively modern,
in
are
generally
likeness
possess
great power
it is
impressing
their
all other
breeds;
so
that
a
they
are case
highly
of
a
ram
valued
curious
Cape
of Good from
Hope,
two of
which
of this power chiefly in consequence has for exportation.** Godine given from the breed of of a goat-like sheep guished produced offspring hardly to be distin-
himself,
when
crossed half-bred
with
ewes,
ewes
of
twelve to
a
other
breeds.
ram,
But
these
when
put
merino
Girou breed. closely resembling the merino produced lambs found the de Buzareingues that of two of French races ewes sheep when crossed with successive merino of one, during generations far sooner than the ewes of the yielded up their character rams, and Sturm Girou have with other race. cases given analogous of breeds other sheep and with cattle, the prepotency running in these assured cases on side; but I was through the male good in crossed South that when niata cattle with America, are authority males common cattle, though the niata breed is prepotent whether females or are used, yet that the prepotency is strongest through tiio female has line. The Manx cat is tailless and long hind legs;
^
Wilson female
In
crossed
Manx
male
crossed
Manx
were
with
common
cats, and,
out
of
twentj^-three kittens,
was
seventeen
destitute
they were imperfect." between making reciprocalcrosses pouter and fantail pigeons, to be prepotent the poutei"-raceseemed over through both sexes the fantail. But this is probably due to weak in the fantail power to any rather than in the pouter, for I unusually strong power that barbs also preponderate over have observed fantails. This weakness of transmission in the fantail, though the breed is an to be general ; but I have ancient is said observed one one, tion excepin to the rule, namely, between fantail and laugher. a cross a
"
tails, though
The least
most
curious
instance
known This
to
me
power
well
in both known
sexes
is in the
trumpeter pigeon. it breeds perfectly true, as I have been assured by years: who have birds: those it is characterised long kept many by a tuft of feathers the crest the head, by over beak, by a on peculiar a singular coo quite unlike that of any other breed, and by muchbreed for at
130
I have feet. crossed almond with tumblers, breeds, them; mongrels and recrossed
feathered
both
sexes
with
turbits
of two
and most
or
feathered
feet
I have
were never
breeds),
heard
reared runts, and spots, and though the crest on the inherited (as is generally the case the seen a vestige of the tuft over Boitard and Corbie
^"
and
the
peculiar coo.
result
Bronn,
assert
that
the
"
invariable Quoted
der
of
in b.
'
crossing trumpeters
Geii. s. Uebor For
' '
with
*
other
breeds.
by
also,
s.
schiehte
170.
Natur,'
See.
Racen,'
the 146.
1825,
Sturm. 104-107.
my
Jourpage
1845,
L'Hereditg Nat./ ii. p. 112. " Mr. of Orton, Physiology 1855, p. 9. Breeding,' " and Roitard Les nal PiCorbie, geons.' 1824, p. 224. i" Ibid., pp. 168, 198.
Lucas,
torn.
'
'
42
shown"
when
INHERITANCE.
Chap.
XIV.
that Nicotiana
of N.
this
is the
case
with
and
plants. To
are
give
one
vinca'flora
crossed, the
in the
completely
lost
hybrid;
quadrivalris be crossed with N. vinccefiora, this latter species, almost in its turn disappears before so which Avas prepotent, now
if A",
under
the
power
of
as one
of
N.
quadriralvis.
It
is remarkable
that
the
prepotency
which With the
dependent is quite inin transmission another species over with less the of or shown facility greater by Gartner,
one
fertilises the
the made the
case
other.
is
jackal
prepotent over
crosses a
the
I
dog,
once
as
is stated and
of
likewise and
a
many with
I
animals;
saw
hybrid
doubt,
between
jackal
terrier.
cannot
Colin than
more
is and others, that the ass in this instance running female the so ass; through
resembles
closely than
Mr.
seen,
as
does
from
Hewitt's
is
the
preponderates over
concerned,
domestic
fowl; but
latter, as
colour
considerable
five differently hybrids raised from curious I examined in some hybrids in formerly plumage. greatly of the comthe mon between Penguin variety the Zoological Gardens, though althe Egyptian goose and {Anser wgyptiacus) ; and duck domesticated the that assert I will not variety preponderated it had natural the strongly impressed its yet species, over unnatural upright figure on these hybrids. I
15
am
aware
that
such
cases
as
the
tail
foregoing have
of
the
been
ascribed
'
Bastarderzeugung,'
"e. du
a
290,
Archives
Naudin
Museum,'
striking
in
149)
when
gives
prepotency
crossed Flourens,
p.
Datura with
'
species.
I*'
this is genand mule, erally the for accounted by ting transmitboth males of species this part with greater power but a pound comtheir of structure; I saw in the whicli hybrid from mare a Gardens, Zoological
a
LongSvite
crossed
to the
by
hybrid
its
ass-zebra,
mother in who
closely
its
sembled re-
mnine.'
With
between I hinny. generally sire and
am
144, on respect
the
aware
Mr.
Hewitt,
mule
that
been dam
attributed
the
in raising great experience these (' Poultry hybrids, says 1S66, bv Mr. Tegetmeier, Book,'
such
their transmitting Colin, characters differently; but .537ii. pp. tom. Comp.,' Phys. who has the have that
pp.
was
165-1G7)
destitute
that
in
of
given
in
his
'
539,
I
Traite which
hybrids,
crosses, This degree.
both
all closely and and ear-lappets; in the the resembled pheasant the and tail general of shape These of the contour brids hybody. of hens raised from were
several but breeds another
likewise
and
'
the
clusion con-
by
of stein
tail in
Flourens. his b.
of 294.
BechThe
more
Naturgeschichte
i.
is
s.
Deutschlands.'
like of the of that the
hinny
much
frorn raised a Bantam silver-laced cock, rudimental this possessed a and wattles.
and
comb
horse
than
is the
Chap. XIV.
PREPOTENCY
OP
TRANSMISSION.
4.3
to one individual being or species, race, its in character the other its crossed on impressing prepotent the that father but to such rules influences as the external offspring, internal and mother the the vital characters or But organs. almost the great diversityof the rules given by various authors has fully discussed this proves their falseness. Dr. Prosper Lucas ^^ that none of the rules (and I could add and has shown point, Similar rules others to those quoted by him) apply to all animals. and have been proved by Gartner ^^ for plants, have been announced view to the domesticated If we confine our to be all erroneous. to the species of the same of a single or even races species, perhaps for hold it such rules that instance, seems good; may genus, some breeds of fowls various the male in reciprocally crossing generally exceptions have passed under my gives colour; -'^ but conspicuous that the ram It seems own usually givesits peculiarhorns eyes. and the bull the presence or and fleece to its crossed offspring, absence of horns. In the following chapteron CrossingI shall have occasion to blended by crossshow that certain characters are rarely or never ing, state from either parentin an unmodified but are transmitted it is sometimes form ; 1 refer to this fact here because accompanied side which thus acquires the false apthe on one by prepotency, pearance of unusual strength. In the same chapter I shall show that the rate at which breed absorbs and obliterates a or species another by repeated crosses, depends in chief part on prepotency in transmission.
by
various
authors, not
over
In wide
conclusion, some
of the
cases
"
above
prove
given, for
"
stance, ina
pigeon,
our
that there is
and
inheritance
prepotency.
to us, in
when by different sf)ecies, prepotent force" or singular feebleness. It is obvious, that a purely-bredform of either sex, in all in which prepotency does not run cases more stronglyin one will transmit its character with prepotent than the other, sex force over a mongrelised and alreadyvariable form."^ From
very monstrous
crossed,either with
18
'
book
'
Nat.,'
tom.
ii.
i" 264s. Bastarderzeugung,' Ar266. Nandin ('Nouvelles chives du Museum,' i. p. 148) tom. has arrived at similar conclua sion. ^"
head Mi-.
with
respect
to
'
sheep
by
of striking instances are given by M. Malingie-Nonel RoVal (' .Tourn. Agrioult. Soc.,' revol. xiv. 1853, p. 220) with
pp.
*i
'
Gardener,'
remarks
on
1856,
this
spect
lish found
to and
crosses
between
that
EngHe de-
I:
4:4
several of the
INHERITANCE.
Chap.
XIV.
above-given
In
some
cases
we
may
conclude
means
that
mere
antiquity of character
make it prepotent.
on
does
not
cases
by
any
prepotency
the
same
character which
are
of the two
breeds
one
the other
breed; and
is
in this
it is natural in
that the
which
potentially present
both
breeds
should
have reason is a Thus to believe that there we prepotent. latent tendency in all horses to be dun-coloured and striped; and
other
when
horse
of this
kind
is crossed
with
one sure
of
any to be
almost
striped. Sheep
a ram
similar have
seen
latent
with
tendency
what
with
to
become force
dark-coloured, and
with
a
prepotent white
few
black
crossed
sheep
a
of various
breeds, coloured
to
latent tendency
become
All
pigeons have
istic charactercoloured
certain
marks, and
is crossed
it is known
one
with
_pf any
difficult
nearly parallelcase is offered by those black bantams old, which, as they grow But there develop a latent tendency to acquire red feathers. are exceptions to the rule : hornless breeds of cattle possess latent capacity to reproduce horns, yet when crossed with a horned ing breeds they do not invariably produce offspring bearhorns. with analogous cases plants. Striped flowers,though they can be propagated truly by seed, have a latent tendency to become once uniformly coloured, but when afterwards crossed by a uniformly coloured variety,they ever fail to produce striped seedlings." Another is in some case curious : plants bearing peloric flowers have so respects more strong a latent tendency to reproduce their normally irregular flowers, that this often occurs by buds when a plant is I crossed the richer soil.^^ Now transplanted into poorer or in the majus), described peloric snapdragon (Antirrhinum form ; and the latter, last chapter, with pollen of the common with peloricpollen. I thus raised two great beds reciprocally,
meet
afterwards
to eradicate
the blue
We
with
sired
breeds
influence
of French breeds.
the breeds
English
p.
"
Verlot,
Des
Varietes,'
'
1865,
by
crossing
intentionally
with
66. Teratolo-
Chap.
XIV.
PREPOTENCY
OF
TRANSMISSION.
45
"
of seedlings, and
same
not
one
was
result from
I
form.
obtained peloric. Naudin the peloric Linaria with the common the flowers of ninety plants of
in the two
beds, and
cross,
their structure
been
by the
instances
the minute
was
rudiment
more
of the
fully or even veloped. completely deIt must be supposed that this entire obliteranot tion in the crossed plants can of the peloric structure be accounted for by any incapacity of transmission ; for I raised a large bed of plants from the peloric Antirrhinum, artificially fertilised by its own alone pollen, and sixteen plants, which all as the winter, were survived perfectly peloric as the ference parent-plant. Here we have a good instance of the wide difalways present,
between of the inheritance of
a
character
transmitting it to crossed offspring. The which the common perfectly resembled snapdragon, were allowed to sow and twentythemselves, and out of a hundred seven seedlings, eighty-eight proved to be common dragons, snaptwo
were
and
in
an
intermediate
condition
were
between
the
thirty-seven
structure
perfectly
one
of their
to
a
parent. grandwhich
is
at
first
sight
offer
an
exception
the
rule
one
character is
present in
For
in
with
prepotent
and
forms
crossed.
genera
all the
Scrophulariacese, and
Linaria, there
especiallyin the
was
Antirrhinum
is, as
shown
in
the last
chapter, a strong latent tendency to become peloric; but there is also, have seen, a still stronger tendency in all peloric as we So that irregular structure. plants to reacquire their normal in the same have plants. two we opposed latent tendencies the tendency to proNow, with the crossed Antirrhinums duce normal irregular flowers, like those of the common or dency Snapdragon, prevailed in the first generation ; whilst the tenmission to pelorism, appearing to gain strength by the interin the of a generation, prevailed to a large extent it is possible for a character to second set of seedlings. How
**
*
Nouvelles
Archives
du
Museum,'
torn.
i. p.
137.
46
INHERITANCE.
Chap.
XVI.
intermission
on
of
generation, will be
chapter
pangenesis.
to
tricate, whole, the subject of prepotency is extremely inin strength, even in regard from its varying so much the same ning character, in different animals, from its run"
"
either
with than
equal
"
in
both with
sexes,
or,
as
frequently
is the
case
stronger in one sex plants, much charthe existence of secondary sexual acters, of certain characters
"
from
as
we
the
transmission
being
limited,
characters
from the
not
from certain by sex, blending together, and, perhaps, occasionally shall immediately
see,
"
effects of
not
It is therefore in
drawing
previous fertilisation on the mother. has hitherto ceeded sucsurprising that no one general rules on the subject of prepotency. up
a
as
limited
in
sex,
hy Sex.
one
often
to
appear
same
sex,
and
are
wards after-
the
either
greater both
not
degree than
with
to
the other. of
many
because
animals
state
of
nature,
acters, char-
with the organs of reproducdirectly connected tion, mals, aniconspicuously present. With our domesticated are of this kind often differ widely from characters those of the parent species; and the distinguishing the two sexes principle of inheritance, as limited by sex, explains how this is possible.
Dr.
P. Lucas with
much
has the
shown
"^
that
when the
peculiarity,in
in
no
manner
connected it is often
or
reproductive organs,
transmitted the
exclusivelyto
to
Tims,
skin
in
were so
parent, appears offspring of the same sex, them than of the opposite sex. the horn-like projections on the
to of his
sons
either
transmitted
it has
the other
father
cases
and
grandsons
ichthyosis, with supernumerary and with of a deficiency digits, digits phalanges, and in a lesser degree with various diseases, especially with colour-blindness and the ha^morrhagic diathesis, that is, an extreme to proliability fuse the and uncontrollable from On bleeding trifling wounds.
2^
'
alone;
been
with
L'Hered.
137-165,
Sec,
Nat.,' also,
torn.
ii. pp.
Mr.
Sedg-
wick's ly to
Chap.
XIV.
SEXUAL
LIMITATION.
47
other
hand,
to their
may that
sex
generations, blindness colourdigits, So that the very and other same peculiarities. arity peculibe long inherited become attached to either sex, and by
and
mothers
have
transmitted,
during several
deficient
alone; but
to
one
the
attachment other
sex.
in
certain The
same
cases
is much
more
frequent
than
the
to either sex. be promiscuously transmitted may the male that his peother cases, occasionallytransmits showing culiaritie and the his daughters alone, mother to to her sons that inheritance in this case is to a certain we see alone; but even
extent,
though
inversely, regulated
evidence,
be
comes
by
to
sex.
Dr.
Lucas,
that
after every
to
as
weighing the
that
I
sex
whole
to
the
conclusion
or
tends peculiarity
in
in
greater
a more
lesser definite
degree
rule,
it first
But either
have
elsewhere
shown,-"
first
generally holds
sex are
good, namely,
at
a
that
variations of
appear
late
tend
period
to be
life, when
reproductive
sex
functions
active,
which
to
developed in
early
I am, A
alone;
sex are
in life in either
commonly
transmitted is the
however,
few details
here
from the
supposing
many
cases
sole Mr. in
cause.
from
collected from
some
by
Sedgwick,"
cause,
unknown nine-tenths
in females;
upwards
women.
of
hundred
;
cases
collected
by
Mr.
Sedgwick,
of
related
families
but
it is
eminently
Dr.
liable to be transmitted
through
related
were
given by eight of during five generations: these families consisted ninesixty-one individuals, namely, of thirty-two males, of whom of and of sixteenths were twentyincapable distinguishing colour, afTected. nine thus females, of whom were only one-fifteenth thus Although colour-blindness generally clings to the male sex, in instance in which it first appeared in a female, one nevertheless, it was transmitted during five generations to thirteen individuals, all of whom females. The companied were ha3morrhagic diathesis, often achas alone males to been known afTect the by rheumatism, during five generations, being transmitted, however, through the females. It is said that deficient phalanges in the fingers have been inherited the females alone by during ten generations. In
case
the
Earle, members
affected
another
case,
man
thus
deficient
in both
hands
and
and sons one peculiarity to his two daughter; but in the third generation, out of nineteen sons grandchildren, twelve had the family defect, whilst In free. the seven daughters were of sexual or ordinary cases limitation, the sons daughters inherit the
2"
the
whatever peculiarity,
'
it may
2nd
be, from
April, April,
150. flnence
ease.
father
477;
or
mother,
108; .Inly, p.
the in-
Descent Sexnal
of
Man,'
edit.,
in
Heand
p.
.7nlv, p.
and 'On
p.
-2. "On
Limitation
'
Also
p. 44r,; in 18G7.
reditary
For. Med
Diseases,
-
Brit,
of
Age
in
Hereditary
Dis-
Chirurg.
Review,'
4:8
INHERITANCE.
Chap.
XIV.
and
transmit with
and
it the in
to
their
children
of
the
and
sons
same
sex;
but
hsemorrhagic
some
diathesis,
cases,
often
never
with
erally gencolourblindness,
the
other
the
inherit
the daughters alone their fathers, but peculiarity directly from that the of the daughters the latent so sons tendency, the Thus alone exhibit it. father, grandson, and great-greatgrandson will exhibit a peculiarity, the grandmother, daughter, it in a latent and state. great-granddaughter having transmitted Mr. kind Hence double remarks, we a have, as Sedgwick of atavism or reversion; each grandson apparently receiving from his and the each developing peculiarity grandfather, and the latent daughter apparently receiving tendency from her grandmother. transmit
"
From
and
the
various
facts recorded
appearing
the
Prosper Lucas, INIr. Sedgwick, be no doubt that can peculiaritiesfirst variably though not in any way necessarily or inthat sex, strongly tend to be inherited by
are
by
Dr.
state
offspring of the same sex, but through the opposite sex. domesticated to Turning now
not
often
transmitted find
often
in that the
latent certain
proper
to
sex
inherited
by,
one
we are
confined
to,
not In
know the
history
Sheep,
ewes
first appearance of such characters. have of certain that the males we seen females of
some
the
chapter on differ greatly races in the shape of their horns, these being absent in in differ of also the development fat breeds; they
the outline of of the the forehead. wild These
in the
differences,
be
judging
accounted horns zebu of
character There
sexes a
allied
species, cannot
by supposing that
two
parent
is said
forms.
to
have
two
tinct disthey have been derived from difference the between a great breed of goats. The Indian in one bull In the Scotch larger hujup than the cow.
is, also,
deer-hound
the of the
sexes
differ
in
size
more
than
in
variety analogy, more dog,^ and, judging aboriginal parent-species. The peculiar colour called tortoise-shell in a male is very cat; the males of this variety being of rarely seen
a
from
any than
other in the
rusty tint.
In various
and
breeds these
of the
fowl
the
are
and
females the
often
same
differ
greatly;
those GalhfS
unusual
differences
which
In
case
hankiva;
certain of
of white
the
have than
the the
the
differing from
a
each
other shaded
cocks. hens
In
an
Indian
colour
with
black, the
invariably have black skins, ancl their bones are covered by a black most periosteum, whilst the cocks are never or rarely thus characterised. for throughPigeons offer a more interesting case; out the whole the two do not often differ sexes great family much;
"
Scrope,
'
Art
of
Deer
Stalking,'
p.
354.
50
INHERITANCE.
Chap.
XIV.
Inheritance This
'
at
important subject. Since no Origin of Species/ I have seen my truth of the explanation there given of facts in biology, namely, the
is
an
publication of
to
doubt
most
the
markable re-
of the
difference
between
explanation is, that variations do not at a very necessarily or generally occur early period of embryonic growth, and that such variations
the
embryo
and
the
adult
animal.
The
are
inherited
at
corresponding
even
age.
As
consequence
of
parent-form has undergone bryos great modification, is left only slightlymodified ; and the emwhich descended from of widely-differentanimals are a common progenitor remain in many important respects like another and probably like their common one progenitor. We thus understand why embryology throws a flood of light can of classification, this ought to be as the natural system on as far as possiblegenealogical. When the embryo leads an independent that is,becomes to be adapted to life, a larva, it has in its structure the surrounding conditions and instincts, independently of those of its parents; and the principle of inheritance this at corresponding periods of life renders possible. obvious that it This principle is,indeed, in one so way
this the embryo,
escapes
after
the
attention.
We
possess
number
of
races
of animals
and
plants,which, when compared with one another and with their parent-forms, present conspicuous differences, both in
and of peas,
how
mature states.
Look
at
can
the seeds be
of the
propagated
they differ in size, colour, and shape, whilst the full-grown plants differ but little. Cabbages, on of the other hand, differ greatly in foliage and manner growth, but hardly at all in their seeds ; and generally it will that the differences be found cultivated between plants at different periods of growth are not necessarily closely connected in their seeds and differ much together, for plants may little when full-grown, and conversely may yield seeds hardly when distinguishable, yet differ much full-grown. In the several breeds of poultry, descended from a single species,
differences in the
eggs
truly, and
and
chickens
whilst
covered
with
Chap.
XIV.
AT
CORRESPONDING
PERIODS.
5^
down,
well
as
in the
plumage
and
at
subsequent
teeth
moults,
With
man
as
in the comb
wattles,are
and second
all inherited.
inheritable,and longevity is often transmitted. So again with our improved breeds of cattle and sheep, early maturity, including the early development of the teeth, and with certain breeds of fowl the early appearance of secondary characters, all come under the same head of inheritance at corresponding periods. Numerous analogous facts could be given. The silkoffers the best instance; for in the breeds moth, perhaps, which transmit their characters truly,the eggs differ in size, in moulting three colour, and shape: the caterpillarsdiffer, in having a dark-coloured four times, in colour,even mark or
like
an
(of which
I have
eyebrow, and
instincts and
;
"
the
coons co-
the
colour
differences
being followed
in the
mature
quality of by slight or
moth.
it may be said that, if in the above cases a new liarity pecuis inherited,it must be at the corresponding stage of
an
development; for
or
egg
or a
seed
can
resemble
ox can
only
at
an
egg
a
seed, and
The
the horn
in
full-grown
show
resemble
only
horn.
following
more
cases
inheritance
ing correspond-
periods
which
plainly,because supervened,
are as
they
far
as
refer to
we can
peculiarities
see,
earlier
at
or
inherited
at
the
same
period
which
family
at
the
excrescences porcupine-like
in the
father
and
sons
the
same
families.
These
cases
border
on
diseases
inherited refer.
is his to
at
corresponding
periods
to which of life,
'
I shall
of Hist, 349. p. of Court third The
immediately
generation
Yule in
Mission
by
of
Capt.
the
of
Ava,*
Ava,'
vol,
i. p.
320.
1855, p. 94.
52
It is the full well-known
INHERITANCE.
Chap.
XIV.
with peculiarity
almond-tumbler
of
or
beauty
the
and
peculiar character
has moulted of
two
the
until
bird
and white
figures a
feathers its first
brace
pigeons
head;
in
and
body is plumage
is
more
coloured
is
edges.
Another
rusty-red wing-bars plumage these marks then come beon crescent-shaped mark so during three or four moults; but after white, and remain the body, and the bird loses its this period the white spreads over tail have their black; wings and canary-birds beauty.^- Prize until the first moult, so that this colour, however, is only retained the change takes be exhibited ere place. Once moulted, they must the Of all birds the course emanating peculiarity has ceased. tails the first year." black A have from this stock wings and has been of account curious and somewhat a analogous given first observed in 1798, near were family of wild pied rooks which that date from the period of to Chalfont, and which up year every several of their brood have the published notice, viz., 1837, coloured, partiThis ever, black and white. variegation of the plumage, howthe next but with the first moult; disappears among young These there families are changes of always a few pied ones." inherited at various are corresponding periods of plumage, which life in the pigeon, canary-bird, and rook, are remarkable, because such the parent-species passes through no change. in some diseases afford evidence Inherited respects of less value diseases not because than the foregoing cases, are nected necessarily conin other in but with any structure; change respects of more been the periods have tain Cermore value, because carefullyobserved. communicated to the child diseases are apparently by a process
remarkable:
a
and
"
^^
^*
"
cases
like inoculation, and the child is from the be here classes over. passed Large may
at certain in
first affected
such
of
diseases in
appear
and
ages,
such
as
St.
at
Vitus's the
dance
these
are
later, and
same
apoplexy period.
recorded,
or
later;
in
But
as
even
diseases
of
have
been
with of
St.
to
unusually early
most
cases
late
tendency
the
appearance
any
largely determined by certain critical periods in each person's life,as well as by unfavourable conditions. There other which not attached to are diseases, are particular many any in the child at about certainly tend to appear period, but which the same the parent was An first attacked. of age at which array and ancient could be in high authorities, modern, given support of this proposition. The illustrious Hunter believed in it; and Pi'2
'
Das
Ganze
der
Tauben-
iv., fig. 2;
on
'
Mag.
p.
'
of
Nat.
167. H6r6d,
dj.
prosper
ii. p.
Lucas,
713.
Kidd's
p.
'
Treatise
the
Ca-
Nat.,'
torn.
nary,'
18.
Chap.
XIV.
AT
CORRESPONDING
PERIODS.
53
the the child
at
"^"
orry
cautions any
the
physician
to
look
closely
to
the Dr.
period when
Prosper
asserts collecting facts from source, every related to any of all kinds, though not that alTections particular in the offspring at whatever period of life,tend to reappear period of life they first appeared in the progenitor. be well As to give a the few subject is important, it may for not as instances, proof; simply as illustrations, proof, recourse to the authorities above be had of the followmust ing quoted. Some for the sake have been selected of showing that, when cases the child is affected somea slight departure from the rule occurs, In the family of Le Compte the parent. Avhat earlier in life than inherited blindness was through three generations, and no less than and all affected at about grandchildren were twenty-seven children in blindness their to advance the same about general began age; and ended in total sixteenth the fifteenth or deprivation of year, father case twenty-two,^^ In another a sight at the age of about all became blind at tw^enty-one years old; in and his four children blind at thirty-five, her daughter at another, a grandmother grew
Lucas/'
grave after
inheritable
disease
attacked
parent.
nineteen,
cleven.'^^
and So
three
with became
grandchildren
two at
at
the
ages
of
thirteen and
and
deafness,
several
paternal
grandfather,all
at the
same
deaf
of
forty.**'
Esquirol gives
committed be
age, suicide
as
as
that
near
given,
of
whole
of insanity coming on striking a grandfather, father, and son, who all their fiftieth year. could Many other cases who at became insane the family age of
fortv."
Other
cerebral
affections and
sometimes
A
woman
follow
the died
same
rule,
"
epilepsy apoplexy. of her daughters at fortysixty-three years old; one three, and the other at sixty-seven: the latter had twelve children, who tubercular all died from this latter meningitis.*^ I mention because it illustrates a frequent occurrence, case namely, a change in the precise nature of an inherited disease, though still affecting
of the latter
the
same
organ.
Asthma
has
attacked
other
several
members
of the
same
family
The most
when
forty
various
ferent difduring infancy. as angina pectoris, stone in the bladder, and affections of the skin, have appeared in successive generations nearly the same The little began from finger of a man age. families
dans p.
*
36
'
L'Hered.
les
For
Mala-
in
the
'
Baltimore of
so
dies.'
see
1S40.
1.35.
Hunter,
Harlan's
'
Med.
Researches,'
tom.
and
Mr.
as
to
copy.
Nat.,'
'
ii. p.
For.
Prosper
tom. i. p.
Lucas,
400.
Her6d.
Nat.,'
Brit,
some
Sedsrwick,
48.^). p. number
seems
and
*o
Sedgwick, Piorry,
tom. p. ii. p.
ibid., July,
109;
759.
tom.
1861,
cas, Lu-
Med.-Chinu-g.
1861,
the
this
Review,'
In of is be children
April,
accounts
p.
202.
*i
Prosper
ii.
and
grandchildren
to
given
an error
as
37;
but
*2
Prosper
Lucas,
p.
from
the
paper
first
judging published
748.
54
some
INIIERITAHCE.
Chap.
XIV.
unknown
sons
cause
to
grow
inwards,
and
the
same
finger in his
in
two
manner.
parents
of 1
inwards to bend a began at the same age Strange and inexplicable neuralgic afl'ections have sufier to and children the same agonies at about
cases,
similar
caused
period
life.-*" will
which
as
are
interesting as
well their
tlie
aflected
brothers, same age. their paternal grandfather, were all similarly cousins, and called a "the skin-disease, pityriasisversicolor; disease, by
Two
the
about of
family (though transmitted usually appeared at puberty, and peared disapof The or second forty forty-fiveyears." age
brothers, who
week when about
males
of
the
is
that
almost
twelve which
years
were
old
lieved re-
suffered
from
severe
headaches,
a
recumbent
from
in
dark
room.
Their all
father,
sufl'ered
and
granduncles
ceased at
way
headaches,
who
which lived
so
the
long.
None
of the
family
is
were
affected.*'*
It
many
on
impossible
which
or
to
read
the
foregoing accounts,
recorded, of diseases
in several
and
the
others
have
even
been
more
coming
members
case
during
same
three
generations
same
of the
rare
family
at
the
age,
especiallyin
cannot
a
the
of
affections
in which
to doubt at
the
coincidence is
be attributed
to
chance, and
in
that there
strong
tendency
of life.
to
heritanc in-
disease
corresponding periods
is apt to
come on
When
the
disease the
than
the
parent;
rarer.
exceptions
Dr. Lucas
*^
in
direction
cases
being
much
alludes
earlier wath
several
of inherited
diseases
one
already given
three
period.
that
seems
I have
blindness
during
this
generations;
occurs
remarks
cancer
quently freto be
with
With
there
Sir J. Paget, who peculiar liabilityto earlier inheritance: this subject, and tabulated to has particularly attended a informs that he believes that in of cases, me large number
a
nine
43
cases
out
of ten
torn.
the
later generation
Mr. of
suffers
on
from
the
Prosper
Lucas,
iii. pp.
Sedj^rwiek,
Dr. H.
the
authority
in
'
700. 702; 678, isr53, p. April, Dr. 1S().3, p. 162. on Hereditary say
pp.
**
Sedgwick,
and 449, J. Steinan.
ibid.,
Stewart,
Med.-
July,
'
Chirurg.
Review,'
April,
1863, pp.
ii. p.
Es-
449, 477.
*^
'
Disease,'
are
1843, by
Hered.
Nat.,'
torn.
27,
34.
cases
852.
These
given
Ceap. XIV.
SUMMARY.
55
disease at
an
earlier
adds,
and
age
"
In
the
period than the previous generation. He the opposite relation holds, instances in which
of later generations have
I think predecessors,
cancer
the members
than
at
later
their
it will be found
non-cancerous
parents
have
lived to extreme
seems
old ages."
to
that the
longevity of non-affected parents of influencing the fatal period in power element thus apparently get another we
inheritance. The
the
offspring;and of complexity in
the
period of inheritance frequently advances, are occasionallyor even for they important with respect to the general descent-theory, with it probable that the same render thing would occur
ordinary modifications
of characters thus
come
certain
diseases
of structure. would
The
final result
of
be the
gradual obliteration
larva, which
would
mature
the
more
embryo
and
and
more
to
resemble
any
closely the
was
parent-form. But
embryo tendency
and
or
structure
which
of service to the
at any age.
larva
would
be
this stage of
to
manifested
early
an
Finally,
domestic
of
cultivated
plants
or
animals, in which
one
the young
and
from
those
of the
parent-
in which characters have apnew species; from the cases peared afterwards at a particularperiod, and been inherited with respect at the same period; and from what we know believe in the truth of the great principle to disease,we must of inheritance at corresponding periods of life.
"
of the three preceding Chapters. Strong as is of the force of inheritance, it allows the incessant appearance characters. beneficial or injurious, of new These, whether the most trifling importance, such as a shade of colour in a of the lock of hair, or a mere flower, a coloured or gesture, highest importance, as when affectingthe brain, or an organ of so grave as so perfect and a nature or complex as the eye, to deserve to be called a monstrosity, peculiar as not to or so natural class, of the same occur normally in any member often inherited by man, by the lower animals, and plants, are Summary
" " "
" "
"
3^
56
In numberless that
one
INHERITANCE.
Chap.
XIV.
cases
inheritance be thus
of
liarity pecu-
characterised.
to
sides of the
evidence
ample
pecially es-
or
i^erhapsexclusivelywhen
There
can
followed be
no
by disease, are
the
to
occasionally inherited.
effects of the conditions So it is,as effects of the Periodical would
use are we
doubt of the
evil
jurious inspring. off-
long-continued
shall disuse likewise
see
exposure
sometimes in
a
transmitted future
the
and
are
of parts, and
habits
appear,
we
with
are as our
little force.
led
to
Hence
look
inheritance
But
as
the
rule, and
often
pears ap-
non-inheritance
to
a us
the
anomaly.
to act
this power
in
ignorance
capriciously, transmitting
The inexplicable strength or feebleness. same peculiarity,as the weeping habit of trees, silky very be inherited either firmlj'^ not feathers, "c., may at all by or different members of the
In this
character
with
of the
same
same
group,
and
even
by different
in
individuals
manner.
species,though
case we see
treated
the
same
latter
that
quality which is merely As with single characters, so it is with the several concurrent slight differences which distinguish sub-varieties be propagated almost as truly or races can ; for of these, some whilst others cannot The rule be relied on. as species, same holds good with plants,when "c., propagated by bulbs, offsets,
is
a
which for
some
in
one
sense
parts inherit
of the
same
individual,
budothers.
tainly cer-
varieties
through
successive
far
more
truly than
proper
to the
parent-species have
inherited
from
an
therefore whether
be considered
as
epoch, and
it is doubtful
length of inheritance
gives fixedness
true
or
of
obviously in favour
as
of any of life
transmitted
unaltered,
true
as
long
the
conditions
We
know
the
character
58
thousands
as
INHERITANCE.
Chap. XIV.
of generations
in invisible
in the
case
of pure
at any
breeds, written
to be evolved
it
were
time
under What
certain these
conditions. conditions
know. do not precisely are, we But disturbs the organisation or constitution which cause any A cross to be sufficient. certainly gives a strong seems of long-lost characters, both tendency to the reappearance In the case of plants, this tendency corporeal and mental. have been crossed is much stronger with those species which after
long cultivation
disturbed with
and
which
cause
therefore
as
have
as
had
their
constitutions
by this
have then
and
well
by crossing,
their natural
than
species which
and
have
been
return,
to
a
also, of
state
animals
cultivated
plants
wild
stances circumtendency under has been much exaggerated. differ someWhen of the same individuals what, family which and when races or species are crossed, the one is often
reversion; but
the
these
prepotent
race
over
the
a
other
may
as
possess
we
strong
seen
crossed,
have
with
race. sexes
prepotency
may
runs
It plays an sex. strongly in one important part in determining the rate at which be modified one race can or with another. We can wholly absorbed by repeated crosses makes seldom tell what one race or species prepotent over character another; but it sometimes depends on the same
visible in
one
parent,
and
latent
or
tially potenin
to
in the other.
than
sex,
but
oftener
be transmitted
In this case feel confident offspringof the same sex. we may that the peculiarity in question is really present though latent in the opposite sex ! hence the father may transmit to his grandson ; and the through his daughter any character mother We thus learn, conversely to her granddaughter.
and
the fact
is
are
an
important
one,
that
transmission
and these
velopmen detwo
distinct be
powers.
Occasionally
powers
seem
to
antagonistic,or
incapable of combination
'
Chap.
XIV.
SUMMARY.
59
have
a
in the
in
same
individual;
the
or son
for
several
cases
been
which
has
not
directly inherited
it to
character
son,
his
father,
it
directly
transmission it
transmitted
his
but
by
through
his
his
non-affected
and
to
through
have
non-affected
daughter.
see
being
may
limited
by
arisen
sex,
we
how
sexual
under
nature;
on
accumulation
being
dependent
character
their
service
to
either At
sex.
whatever
period of life
latent and
in
new
first appears,
a
it
generally remains
age
the
offspring
is the
until
ing correspondthis
an
is
attained,
the
then
developed.
character
When
at
rule
fails, the
child
generally
parent.
we
exhibits On
can
earlier
at most
this
principle of inheritance
how
periods,
understand
to
it is that
a
display from
the
germ
maturity
obscure
such
marvellous
Finally, though
we
remains
at
with laws
respect
as
to
heritance In-
may
the
following
in
fairly well
new
established. and
Firstly,
be
tendency
every
character,
bud and
on
old,
to
transmitted counteracted
or
by seminal by various
which
and known
generation,
unknown sion transmisin bud
may
though
causes,
often
reversion and
atavism,
depends
powers:
development
manners
being distinct
through
be
degrees and
confined
to
both
seminal
Tnirdly, prepotency
one as
of transmission,
common
be
sex,
or
to
both
to
sexes.
Fourthly,
same sex
transmission,
which
many,
limited
by
sex,
generally
first
on
the
in in
the
inherited
most at
character
cases,
a
appeared;
the
new
and
this
probably
first
at to
depends
late
character
ing hav-
appeared
the laws
see an
rather
period of life.
of the
Fifthly,
some
heritance in-
corresponding
earlier of
periods
of
life, with
inherited under
dency ten-
development
as
In
these
we
inheritance,
displayed
ample
natural
through
variability and
60
ON
CROSSING
AS
CAUSE.
Chap.
XV.
CHAPTER
ON CROSSING.
XV.
Free
the differences between allied breeds When of two breeds absorbs the commingling are unequal, one of transmission, rate of absorption determined by prepotency of life, and selection All organic by natural by the conditions acters charintercross certain On beings occasionally exceptions : apparent have incapable of fusion ; chieliy or exclusively those which modification of old On the suddenly appeared in the individual and formation the of new crossed by crossing Some races, races, have bred true from their first production races On the crossing of distinct species in relation to the formation of domestic races.
intercrossingobliterates
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
previous chapters, when discussing reversion and prepotency, I was facts on necessarily led to give many crossing. In the present chapter I shall consider the part in which crossing plays in two opposed directions, firstly, obliterating characters, and consequently in preventing the of formation of new and secondly, in the modification races;
two
"
In
the
old
races,
a
or
in the formation
of
new
and
intermediate
races,
tain cer-
by
combination characters
are
of characters.
that
incapable of fusion.
or
The members
uncontrolled
breeding between
the
variety or of closelyallied varieties are be discussed that they need obvious not important; but are so at much length. It is free intercrossingwhich chiefly and under domestication, gives uniformity, both under nature of the same to the individuals they species or variety, when ducing inlive mingled together and are to not cause exposed any excessive variability. The ing, prevention of free crossand
are senses
the
intentional
matching
breeder's
or
of
individual
art.
a
animals,
in
his
the
corner-stones
of the
No breed
man
would
manner,
expect to improve
or
modify
true
keep
an
old breed
and
The killing of inferior animals in separated his animals. to the same each generation comes thing as their separation. the inhabitants and semi-civilised countries,where In savage
he
Chap.
XV.
OF
UNIFORMITY
OF
CHARACTER.
61
separating their animals, more than exists. In same species rarely or never a single breed in the United former there times, even States, tinct diswere no of for all had been races sheep, mingled together.^ The Marshall celebrated remarks that " sheep that agriculturist kept within fences, as well as shepherded flocks in open are if not a uniformity, of countries, have generally a similarity, in the individuals of each flock ; " for they breed character freely together, and are prevented from crossing with other
not
means
have
the
of
of the
kinds; whereas
or
in the
parts of England
the
un-
owing
have British different
many
to
seen
true
and of
the
cattle in each
several
in
the
during
cannot
parks are nearly character; from not having mingled and parks, generations, they differ to a certain
that the extraordinary of the number of varieties
extent.
doubt
to at least pigeon, amounting is partly due hundred and fifty, ferently to their remaining, difone from other domesticated birds, paired for life once the other matched. On hand, breeds of cats imported into this country soon disappear,for their nocturnal and rambling it habits render hardly possible to prevent free crossing. with Rengger gives an interesting case respect to the cat in Paraguay : in all the distant parts of the kingdom it has assumed, apparently from the effects of the climate,a peculiar the capital this change has been character, but near vented, prehe the native animal to as owing, frequently asserts, like In all cases crossing with cats imported from Europe. the foregoing, the effects of an will be augoccasional cross mented of the crossed by the increased vigour and fertility of which fact evidence will hereafter be given ; for offspring, this will lead to the mongrels increasing more rapidly than the pure parent-breeds. When distinct breeds are allowed to cross sult freely,the rewill be a heterogeneous body; for instance, the dogs in
sub-varieties
'
Communications
of
to
the
ports,
200.
3
'
North
of
von
England,' Paraguay,
p.
Board p. 367.
2
Agriculture,'
'
vol. of
i. Re-
gjiugethiere
s.
Marshall,
Review
1830,
212,
62
ON
CROSSING
AS
CAUSE
Chap.
XV.
Paraguay
to
are
far from
uniform,
and
can
no
longer
which
a
be
ated affili-
their
parent-races.*The
"
character
crossed
must body of animals will ultimately assume eral depend on sevof the contingencies, namely, on the relative members individuals which or more races belonging to the two are the prepotency of one allowed the to mingle; on race over
other
in the transmission
of character
are
; and
on
the conditions
two exposed. When commingled breeds exist at first in nearly equal numbers, the whole will later become intimately blended, but not so soon, sooner or in all respects, as might both breeds being equally favoured have been expected. The shows that following calculation if a colony with this is the case: of black equal number an that they marry and white men founded, and we assume were in thirty and that one indiscriminately,are equally prolific, in 65 years the number of annually dies and is born ; then would be equal. In 91 years blacks, whites, and mulattoes
of life to
which
they
"
the whites
or
would
be
1-lOth, and
not
the
lattoes, mu-
people of intermediate
number. exist." of two
three centuries
part of the
w^ould
one
mingled
soon
races
exceed
the
other
number,
and
absorbed
lost.*" Thus
in
greatly wholly,
been and of doubt
largely introduced
the native about
were races
the been
;
of the and
Pacific
Ocean,
course no
have
lost in the
races
fiftyor
favoured. Some
sixty years
Rats
may
but
the
imported
as
be considered
semi-domesticated
(Mus alexandrinus) escaped in and the Zoological Gardens of London, for a long time afterwards the keepers frequently caught cross-bred rats, at with less of the character first half-breds, afterwards of the
animals. snake-rats
"
snake-rat, till at length all traces of it disappeared." the other hand, in some parts of London, especiallynear docks, where
*
On the
fresh
'
rats
are
frequently imported,
tention
discussed
"
an
endless
and
Rengger,
'
Saugethiere,'
Szc,
to
s.
154.
5
this it.
D.
subject,
ably
in Ben-
Gradation
in des his at-
Rev.
*
Tverman of
and
nett,
1829.
*
Journal
Yovages,'
'
1821-
Dr.
W.
F.
Edwards,
vol. Mr.
'
Caracteres
Humaines,'
Races
called
Linn.
Chap.
XV.
OF
UNIFORMITY
OF
CHARACTER.
^3
between the
forms variety of intermediate may snake brown, black, and rat, which ranked How
race
''
be
are
found
all three
usually
or
as
distinct
many
species.
for has
one
to absorb
;
species
been
often
cussed dis-
and
requisite number
writers have
has
probably been
that
;
a
exaggerated.
or
maintained
necessary
score,
or
even
generations, are
but
improbable, for in the tenth generation there would be only l-1024th part of foreign blood in the offspring. Gartner that with found,'" plants, one species could be made
to
itself is
absorb
in from could
three
to
he
"
always be effected in from six to generations. In one instance, however, Kolreuter seven speaks of the offspring of Mirahilis vulgaris,crossed during eight successive generations by M. longiflora, as resembling this latter species so closely,that the most server scrupulous ob" could vix aliquam notabilem detect differentiam " he says, he succeeded, ad plenariam fere transmutaor, as tionem." But this expression shows that the act of absorption then not was even absolutely complete, though these crossed plants contained only the l-256th part of M. vulgaris.
"
believes
The
conclusions
are
of such of far
accurate
observers than
those
as
Gartner
made
account
and
Kolreuter
higher worth
The
without which
scientific aim
I have
met
by breeders.
is given by
most
precise
with
and Stonehenge,'"'
is illustrated
by photographs. Mr. Hanley crossed a greyhound bitch with a bulldog; the offspring in each succeeding generation being As first-rate greyhounds. recrossed with marks, Stonehenge retake sevit might naturally be supposed that it would eral of the bulldog; but to get rid of the heavy form crosses no Hysterics, the gr-gr-granddaughter of a bulldog, showed
trace
whatever
same
of this breed
in
were
external
"
form.
She
and
all
in
of the
litter,however,
remarkably deficient
I
stoutness,
9
though
'
fast
Racen,
'
as
well
"c.,'
as
clever."
1"
'
believe
clever
s.
1825,
Sturm. 107. s.
Ueber
Bastarderzeugung,'
Nova
see
463,
^"^^
Bronn,
Geschichte
470.
"
'
der b. ii. s. 170, gives Natur,' a of table the of blood proportions after successive P. Dr. crosses. L'Heredite Lucas, Nat.,' torn. ii. p. 308.
'
Acta
also
Petrop.,
1(94,
179-
p.
393:
^^
'
The
volume,
184.
64
refers
ON
CROSSING
AS
CAUSE
Chap.
XV.
to
skill in
"
turning.
Hysterics
fifth
was cross
put
to
a as
son
of
Bedlamite,
but
is not
yet, I
the On satisfactory than that of the fourth." believe, more shows how other hand, with sheep, Fleischmann" persistent " that the original be : he says the effects of a single cross may
coarse
square
5500
fibres of Merino
wool
cross
on
fourth
cross
duced pro-
8000,
blood
the
twentieth
27,000,
So that
the
perfect
man Gerdid
pure
pure
Merino
common
sheep crossed
not
successivelywith
as
Merino of the
by
any
means
acquire wool
all
cases,
fine of
as
that
breed.
But
in
the
rate
of life being favourable to any largely on be suspect that there would particular character; and we may constant tendency to degeneration in the wool of Merinos a unless prevented by careful of Germany, the climate under case selection; and thus perhaps the foregoing remarkable also depend rate of absorption must be explained. The may the two of distinguishable difference between the amount on which insists, forms crossed, and especially,as Gartner are the conditions
on
prepotency
have of
seen
of transmission
in
in the
one
form
one
over
We
the
last
up
chapter that
its
of two
breeds
sheep yielded
very
character, when
crossed
slowly than the other; and the German be in sheep referred to by Fleischmann common may there will be more this respect analogous. In all cases or less liability to reversion during many subsequent generations, has probably led authors and it is this fact which to of generations are requisitefor that a score maintain or more
Merinos,
much
more one race
to absorb
another. of two
or
In
more
the that
commingling
the
act
must
not
forget
of
crossing
not proper
in
to
to
of the conditions
to
cross
two
allowed
freely,unless
both
to the country indigenous and have long been accustomed be unequally affected where they live,they will, in all probability, by the conditions, and this w^ill modify the result.
in the quoted of Breeding,' by Principles
"
As
'
True H.
C.
and
Dr.
H.
Madden,
66
will
ON
ALL
ORGANIC
BEINGS
Chap.
XV.
that
many
plants, though
in function in
;
"
maphrodit heras
unisexual
such
those
called
pollen and
periods;
which
or
by C. K. Sprengel dichogamous, flower are matured at different stigma of the same those called by me reciprocally dimorphic, in
own
which
the
the flower's
or
pollen is
not
fitted
to
fertilise its
own
stigma;
kinds in which cal curious mechaniagain, the many contrivances tion. exist, effectuallypreventing self-fertilisaThere hermaphrodite plants which are, however, many
in any
way
ing, speciallyconstructed to favour intercrossnevertheless but which commingle almost as freely as This is the case animals Avith separated sexes. with cabbages, radishes, and onions, as I know from having experimented on the peasants of Liguria say that cabbages must them: even " with In from be prevented each other. falling in love
are
not
"
the of
orange
tribe, Gallesio
kinds
^^
remarks
that
the
the
various
is checked So
it
by
is
their with
continual
numerous
almost
regular crossing.
the other
plants.
On
hand,
some
cultivated
plants rarely or
pea
are
never
intercross, for instance, the common {Lathy rus odoratus) ; yet their flowers
for
cross
and
sweet-pea and
certainly adapted
the
tomato
fertilisation.
The
the
even
varieties
of
aubergine
are
(Solanum)
never
and
said
^''
to
cross,
another.
But
we
it should do not
when
common
be know
observed how
all exotic
in
plants, and
native
they would
the have
proper
behave
their With
it is
country
to
visited
pea,
by
I
insects. that
respect
the
ascertained
tion. fertilisaowing to premature There plants which under their exist, however, some such as natural conditions to be always self-fertilised, appear the Bee Ophrys (Ophrys apifera) and a few other Orchids; yet these plants exhibit the plainest adaptations for crossfew plants are believed to produce fertilisation. Again, some cannot possibly only closed flowers, called cleistogne,which
rarely crossed
in
this country
lished arrives
elusions other
by
at
as
Dr.
Hildebrand,
same
who
eon-
the
I
general
and
especially by Delpino.
^'
'
Hermann
Miiller
have
peared
treatises the on
same
subject,
more
della Teoria Riproduzione Vegetal,' 1816. p. 12. " Verlot, 'Des Var.,' 1865, p. 72.
Chap. XV.
OCCASldsfALLY
mTie^RCROSSma.
be the
67
ease
be crossed. Leersia
This
was
long thought
to
with
the
oryzoides" but this grass is now known occasionally which to produce perfect flowers, seed. set Although some plants, both indigenous and naturalised, rarely or never produce flowers, or if they flower never doubts that phanerogamic produce seeds, yet no one plants are adapted to produce flowers, and the flowers to produce believe that such plants under difseed. When we they fail, ferent would conditions perform their proper function, or that they formerly did so, and will do so again. On gous analogrounds, I believe that the flowers in the above
anomalous do
so cases
specified
would
which
do
not
now
intercross,either
conditions, or that they for affectingthis being generally will again intercross still retained and future at some extinct. this view On period, unless indeed they become and action of the reproalone, many points in the structure ductive in and animals telligib inhermaphrodite plants are organs
"
different
and
female
gans or-
completely enclosed as to render access from without conclude that the we impossible. Hence may for giving uniformity to the most important of all the means individuals of the same species,namely, the capacity of occasionally intercrossing, is present, or has been formerly of the present, with all organic beings, except, perhaps, some
never
being
so
lowest.
On crossed but
and
some
certain their
state
Characters
not
hlending.
"
Wlien
two
breeds in When
are
characters either
are
usually become
from
intimately fused
are or
together;
an modified un-
characters mice
not
refuse
transmitted
from
one.
white but
piebald, or
so
grey,
common a
of
intei'mediate
are
tint;
collared
turtle-doves Mr.
of
great authority,
of both breeds years
fowls,
state
a
strange fact:
birds
if you
cross
black
with colour."
white
Sir R.
game,
Heron
the
clearest
during many
and white, black, brown once got these colours all four
'
fawn-coloured
mingled
in
colours
Soc.
p.
in
the
same
litter.^^
in
'
From
Duval
de
Bot. 194.
Bull.
x.,
Ascherson
Bot. letter me
Zeitung,'
from Sir
1863,
see
1864,
^^
"With
the
perfect
Dr.
350. Extract
p.
of
flowers
setting
seed,
R.
Heron,
1838, given
by Mr,
68
ON
CERTAIN
CHARACTERS
Chap.
XV.
of the two the colours parents are transmitted have all sorts of gradations, to the we offspring, separately quite 1 will instance: fusion. an to a give gentleman leading complete hair dark fair complexion, light but with a a lady eyes, married hair and with dark complexion: their three children have very light like these, in which
hair, but
scattered When dwarfed
not
on
careful
search of the
about
dozen
on
black the
hairs
of
were
found have
in the
midst
light hair
ancon common
heads
of all three.
turnspit dogs
limbs,
or are
and with
sheep, both
take
which
crossed
in
intermediate
hornless but
structure,
animals
are
but
quently, perfect animals, it frethat the ineans invariably, happens by offspring are in a perfect state, or with these organs either furnislied are quite of them. of destitute According to Rengger, the hairless condition is either all not at to transmitted its the Paraguay perfectly or dog one partial exception in a dog mongrel offspring;but I have seen had part of its skin hairy, and of this parentage which part naked, in the parts being distinctly separated as When a piebald animal. crossed with other breeds, the Dorking fowls with five toes are tailless
no
crossed
often
have
five toes
on
one
foot
in
and
between
four
on
the
other.
crossed
common
by
Sir R. with
Heron
an
the
solid-hoofed
all four
feet
intermediate
condition,
two
two
feet hoofs.
with Trevor
Analogous
crossed
facts the
a
observed
plants: Major
stock
little, glabrous-leaved, (Muthlohi), large, red-flowered, rough-leaved, biennial stock, that half the called cncurdeau by the French, and the result was seedlings had glabrous and the other half rough leaves, but none intermediate state. That the glabrous seedlings had leaves in an the of the were rough-leaved variety, and not accidentally product show^n of the mother-plant's own pollen, was by their tall and In the habit of growth.^^ succeeding generations raised strong from the rough-leaved crossed seedlings, some glabrous plants appeared, showing that the glabrous character, though incapable of all the time modifying the rough leaves, was blending with and in this family of plants. The latent numerous plants formerly
annual
pollen of
Yarrel.
see
With
des I have
respect
Sc.
For heard
'
to
mice,
toni. i. other geons.' Pithe
thiere
I
saw
von
Annal.
Nat.,'
in
were
the
s. Paraguay,' Zoological a
p.
180;
and
cases.
of
Les For of
mongrels,
which
or
from in and
similar
similar
Eoitard
turtle-doves,
and
Corbie,
'
hairy
with
hairless, patches,
hair. For other the crossed
quite
that
crosses
"S:c., Game
fowl.
p.
p. The For
28S.
Poultry
crosses
Book,'
less tail'
Dorking
'
fowls,
vol. ii.
1866,
128.
Poultry
About
Chronicle.'
p.
tract ex-
Beehstein,
b. der
Na-
355.
to
pigs,
iii.
s.
403.
b. facts
Bronn,
ii.
with
s.
'
Geschicte
Natur,'
hairless can Ameri'
170,
horses.
gives
of On crossed
see
analogous
the South
condition
dogs,
Rengger,
Siiuge-
of letter from Sir R. Mr. other Yarrell. For P. L'Hered. see Lucas, torn. i. p. 212. 19 Internat. Hort. and of London,' 1866. Congress
' '
Heron
cases, Nat.'
Bot.
Chap.
XV.
NOT
BLENDING.
09
referred
in
to, which
common
raised
from
peloricand
the
in first the
Antirrhinum,
and
between tlie reciprocal crosses a nearly parallel case; for the common plants resembled form,
ofi'er
of
one
hundred
and
thirty-seven
others form.
plants, two
Trevor stock
in either
an
intermediate
condition, the
common
perfectlyresembling
Clarke with
also
the
peloric
the
or
Major
fertilised
above-mentioned
red-flowered
pollen from the purple Queen stock, and about half the seedlings scarcelydiffered in habit, and Hot at all in the red colour half bearing blossoms the mother-plant, the other of the flower, from like those of the rich of a paternal plant. purple, closely
Gartner of the crossed many white
and and
yellow-flowered species
colours
were never
and
rieties va-
verbascum;
these
offspring bore either pure white or pure in the larger proportion.-" Dr. Herbert former
as
he
informed
me.
from
Swedish
turnips
by
varieties, and these never produced flowers of an intermediate of their parents. I fertilised the purple tint, but always like one has dark a odoraius), which reddish-purple sweet-pea {Luthyrus standard-petal and voilet-coloured wings and keel, with pollen of
other the
has a pale cherry-coloured standard, painted lady sweet-pea, which keel and almost white and from the and same ; wings pod I twice raised plants perfectly resembling both sorts; the greater So perfect was the resemblance, number resembling the father. I had should been that have some mistake, if the thought there with first identical the at were paternal variety, plants which in the not had later the season produced, as namely, painted-lady, with streaked in a former and mentioned chapter, flowers blotched and I from raised dark great-grandchildren grandchildren purple. the to resemble these crossed paintedplants, and they continued rather blotched more lady, but during later generations became reverted with completely to the original motherpurple, yet none is slightly differThe ent, following case plant, the purple sweet-pea.
but
the the
same
: principle
Naudin
-^
raised
the
numerous
hybrids
pnrpurea,
yellow
Linaria
during three successive flower. parts of the same in which the offspring of the From such the as cases foregoing, first generation perfectly resemble either come by a parent, we flowers borne small in coloured which to those cases differently step both the same root resemble on step to parents, and by another with flower those in which fruit is striped or blotched the same or colour of the the two bears or a or colours, single stripe parental With other characteristic of the quality of one parent-forms. hybrids and mongrels it frequently or even generally happens that
distinct in different
-0
'
and
With
respect
'
to
the
in
70
one
ON
CROSSING
AS
CAUSE
Chap.
XV.
closely one parent and to resistance again some mutual to the same comes fusion, or, what thing, some affinity of the same between the organic atoms nature, apparently comes termediat be equally inall parts of the body would into play, for otherwise the So again, when in character. offspring of hybrids in character, intermediate themselves whicli are or nearly mongrels, to their either wholly or by segments revert ancestors, the principle of the affinity of similar, or the repulsion of dissimilar atoms, must to be extremely To this principle,which into action. seems come in the chapter on pangenesis. general, we shall recur has been It is remarkable, as strongly insisted upon by Isidore of Geoffroy St. Hilaire in regard to animals, that the transmission without when fusion characters occurs rarely species are very of one exception alone, namely, with the hybrids crossed; I know and hooded the common crow (Corciis naturally produced between and fering closely allied species,difcorone comix), which, however, are I met Nor in nothing except colour. have with wellany part
of the another
part the
more
or
less
and
here
ascertained
is
cases
of
transmission
of this kind,
even
when
one
form
two crossed races are another, when strongly prepotent over have been therefore selection, and slowly formed by man's natural extent resemble to a certain as species. Such cases puppies in distinct the litter closely resembling two same breeds, are probably due to superfoetation, that is, to the influence of two
which
"
fathers.
in
"
All
a
the
characterg
to
above
some
enumerated,
which
not
are
mitted trans-
perfect state
horns have
of the
offspring and
to
others,
ture, struc-
as
distinct
of
"
of skin, smoothness
of leaves, in individual
"c.,
and
known this
to
suddenly
from the
plants.
not
aggregated differences
one
which
another,
we
slight, and races distinguish domestic species mission, being liable to this peculiar form of transthat it is in
some
fact, and
several
may
conclude
way
connected
with
the
sudden
appearance
of the
characters
in
question.
Modification of old Races and the Formation of Races We have hitherto c onsidered new hy Crossing. chieflj^ the effects of crossing in giving uniformity of character; we
the
"
On
must
now
look at
an
that
be no doubt opposite result. There can the aid of rigorous selection during several
a
potent
ones.
means
in
modifying
crossed
old his
races,
forming
new
Orford
famous
stud
of greyhounds
once
perseverance.
from dash
a
the and
Rev.
Fox, with
strains Game
the of
foxhound
to
give them
have had
speed.
Certain of
Dorking
fowls
slight infusion
bloody
Chap. XV.
OF
THE
MODIFICATION
OP
RACES.
Yl
and
I have
crossed greater
In
his
known
great fancier
who
breadth
the
of beak.
breeds have been crossed once, for foregoing cases the sake of modifying some particular character; but with of the improved races of the pig, which now most breed true, there have been repeated crosses, for instance,the improved its excellence to repeated crosses with Essex the Neapolitan, owes infusion of Chinese together probably with some British So with our blood." sheep : almost all the races, except in fact, the Southdown, have been largelycrossed ; " this, has been the history of our To give an principal breeds." Oxfordshire Downs rank as an lished estabexample, the now breed.'* They were produced about the year 1830 by " instances Southdown crossing Hampshire and in some ewes " Cotswold the itself with : rams now Hampshire ram was between the native Hampshire produced by repeated crosses and the long-woolled Cotswold were sheep and Southdowns; latter again is with the Leicester, which improved by crosses between several long-woolled believed to have been a cross Spooner, after considering the various cases sheep. Mr. have been carefully recorded, concludes, " that from a which judicious pairing of cross-bred animals it is practicable to
"
^^
"
"
establish
new
breed."
races
On
the
continent of other
the
history of
has
been
several crossed
of cattle and To
animals
well ascertained.
instance: the King of Wurgive one temburg, after twenty-five years' careful breeding, that is, breed of cattle after six or seven a new generations, made
a cross
from with
true ago
between
Dutch
and
Swiss
breed, combined
which about breeds
as
other
as
breeds.^* The
other kind
Sebright bantam,
was
any
a
of fowl,
formed
sixty years
are
by
complicated cross.^"
some
Dark
Brahmas,
a
which
lieved be-
by
22
fanciers
'
to
constitute
24
.
distinct
were species,
Richardson, Pigs,' 1847, pp. of edition S. 37, 42; Sidney's Youatt the on Pig.' 1860. p. 3.
"
Gardener's Bulletin
de torn.
'
Chronicle.'
la ix.
cases,
1857,
pp.
25
649, 652.
.
Soc.
p.
23
W.
on
C.
Journal XX.,
Royal
part
mat.,
and
1862,
Ba?uf,'
1860,
vol.
p.
vol.
equally Howard,
good
in
'
ii. : article
also
an
xxxii.
26 poultry 1854, p. 36.
by
Mr.
Ch.
Chronicle,'
il.,
Chroni-
a9
72
ON
CROSSING
AS
CAUSE
Chap. XV.
in the United States, within a recent undoubtedly formed With between Chittagongs and Cochins. period, by a cross plants there is little doubt that the Swede-turnip originated and the history of a variety of wheat, raised from a cross; after six years' from distinct two varieties, and which very culture presented an even sample, has been recorded on good
"
authority/'*
Until
not
averse
lately,cautious
to
a
and
single infusion
that the
two
universally convinced
race,
establish
new
widely distinct races, was they clung with superstitious tenacity to the hopeless : of purity of blood, believing it to be the ark in doctrine Nor alone true this which safety could be found." was
intermediate
"
"'*
between
conviction the
unreasonable
the
when
two
distinct
are
races
are
crossed,
be the of As
offspringof
in
first generation
even
character; but
the animals been But first
are
this sometimes
case,
especially with
from
crossed
are
dogs and
fowls, the
much
size
young
which
sometimes
diversified. and
cross-bred
generally of large
in
vigorous,
sumption. con-
they have
for
raised
great numbers
for breeding
they
are
utterly useless;
in character, themselves be uniform though they may generations astonishingly diversified they yield during many offspring. The breeder is driven to despair, and concludes
that he will
cases
never
form
an
race.
But have
from been
the
corded, re-
which
patience alone
opposes
no
Spooner remarks,
nature
of time, by the aid of selection and admixture; in the course breed." careful weeding, it is practicable to establish a new After
most
six
cases or
or
seven
in
be
obtained; but
then
an
occasional The of
sion, rever-
failure to
be expected. conditions of
attempt,
life be
the
characters
either
parent-
B. p.
765.
=*" in Journal Spooner, Royal Agrlcnlt. Soc.,' vol. xx., part il. ^^ See Colin's Traite de Phys. des Animaux Comp. Domes' '
74
CROSSING
AS
MODIFYING
RACES.
Chap.
XV.
tions but
in
there
most
can cases
be
little
one
doubt
that will
this
occurred have
that
with absorbed
cattle;
and
form for
it the
probably
not
obliterated
men
the
have their
other,
taken
is
likely
semi-civilized
to
would
necessary
pains
and best
modify
by
stock.
selection
commingled,
those animals would
means
crossed,
which
were
fluctuating
Nevertheless,
conditions and
aided in
adapted
natural
have
to
of
life this
have
survived will
through
often
by
the
recent
crossing
of
as
indirectly
breeds. the
formation
primeval
as
domesticated
are
Within
times,
far has
animals done
of
concerned, nothing
It is which
crossing
the
known been With
of
distinct
or
species
modification
little
our
or
towards
not
formation
whether
races.
yet have
races.
the
several
in
can
species
will
of
silk-moth
recently plants
France be
yield
by
multiplied
as
buds
cuttings,
of
hybridisation Khododendrons,
done
wonders,
with
many
Roses,
Pelargoniums,
these but
Calceolarias,
be
Petunias.
most
Nearly
them
all
plants
can
propagated
or none come
by
seed,
true
of
freely;
Some
extren"ely
believe
few
by
seed.
cause
authors
"
that the
gone
crossing
appearance
so
is
the of
chief
of
new
variabilitj%
characters. sole
cause;
that Some
but
is, of
have
this
on
absolutely
look
at
far
is
as
to
it the
as
conclusion Bud-variation.
either
disproved
The
or
by
belief
given
in
not
the
chapter
present
in
that
parent
is
in
their
ancestors
originate
do
so
from is
crossing
but
doubtful;
that
they
be
causes more
casionally oc-
probable;
in
a
this
subject
on
will the
conveniently
Variability.
A
discussed
future
chapter
of
condensed
summary
of
some
this
and
of
on
the
three
following
will be
chapters given
in
together
the
with
remarks
Hybridism,
nineteenth
chapter.
Chap.
XVI.
CROSSING
OF
VARIETIES
CHECKED.
^5
CHAPTER
CAUSES WHICH
"
XVI.
THE FREE
INTERFERE INFLUENCE OF
WITH
CROSSING
ON
OF
TIES VARIE-
DOMESTICATION
FERTILITY.
Difficulties in judging
causes
which
keep
"
sexual
"
preference
of the fertility of varieties when crossed" Various varieties distinct, as the period of breeding and Varieties of wheat said to be sterile when crossed
Varieties of maize, verbascum, hollyhock, gourds, melons, and bacco, toin some rendered degree mutually sterile Domestication nates elimito species when to sterility natural the tendency crossed On animals and the increased from fertilityof uncrossed cation domestiplants and cultivation.
" "
plants,when crossed, are, with extremely few exceptions,quite prolific, in than the purely-bred parent-races. some cases even more so The offspring,also, raised from such crosses likewise, as are in shall see the following chapter, generally more we vigorous and fertile than their parents. On the other hand, species ably when crossed, and their hybrid offspring,are almost invarito exist in some degree sterile;and here there seems and species. and insuperable distinction between races a broad The importance of this subject as bearing on the origin of
races
The
domesticated
of both
animals
and
"
species is obvious
and
we
recur
to
it.
precise observations have been and plants during made the fertility of mongrel animals on remarked has several successive generations. Dr. Broca that no one has observed M^hether, for instance, mongrel dogs, fertilit bred inter se, are fertile; yet, if a shade of inindefinitely in the offspringof be detected by careful observation when natural forms crossed, it is thought that their specific breeds of sheep, cattle, distinction is proved. But so many pigs, dogs, and poultry, have been crossed and recrossed in from if it had existed, would that any sterility, various ways, In investigat being injurious almost certainly have been observed. of of crossed varieties many the fertility sources
It is unfortunate how
^
'
Journal
de
Physiolog.,'
tom.
ii.,1859, p. 385.
76
doubt
two
occur.
CAUSES
WHICH
CHECK
Chap.
XVI.
Whenever
the
least trace
of
between sterility
observed by Kolreuter, plants,however closelyallied,was who counted and more the exact ber numespeciallyby Gartner, ranked of seed in each capsule,the two forms were at once
as
distinct
never
species; and
be
if this
will
proved
We
that
varieties
in breeds
any
degree dogs do
been
sterile.
not
produce the full the latter are perfectly fertile and whether number of young, inter se; but, supposing that some degree of sterility were found to exist, naturalists would simply infer that these breeds were from descended aborginally distinct species; and this it would be scarcelypossible to ascertain whether not or the true one. explanation was less prolific The Sebright Bantam is much than any other
made breed
very
formerly seen readily pair together; but no whether, w4ien paired, they
have
that
of
observations
have
of fowls, and
is descended
from
a
cross
between
two
sub-variety. But it would be extremely rash to infer that the loss of fertility was in any connected with its crossed origin, for it may manner with more probabilitybe attributed either to long-continued close interbreeding,or to an innate tendency to sterility related corby
with Before be
ranked the
third
absence
of hackles
and
cases some causes
sickle tail-feathers. of
forms, which
must
varieties, being
remark that
in
crossed, I
with
may
other
interfere
varieties
in
greatly
says
size, as
editor
can
kinds Journal
with
differ too they may of dogs and fowls : for of Horticulture, "c.,'
the
"*
instance, the
that much he
of the
keep Bantams
larger breeds
out with-
danger of their crossing, but not with the smaller "c. With ference breeds, such as Games, Hamburgs, plants a 'difin the period of flowering serves to keep varieties
distinct,as with
Colonel Le the various
^
kinds
"
of maize
the
and
wheat
thus
Couteur
remarks,
than
wheat, from
is
sure
flowering much
continue the cattle those
2
earlier
In
any
kind,
to
pure."
are on
different
up
parts
Falkland different
Islands
breaking
the
p.
into
herds
and
Dec,
1863,
On
'
The
Varieties
of
66.
Chap.
XVI.
THE
CROSSING
OF
VARIETIES.
77
J.
usually breed,
months earlier
as
am
informed
on
by
Sir
Sulivan, three
lowland; and this would manifestly tend to keep the herds from blending. Certain domestic to prefer breeding with their races seem kind; and this is a fact of some own importance, for it is a that instinctive feeling which helps to keep step towards distinct. We have closelyallied species in a state of nature abundant evidence for this feeling, not that, if it were now more hybrids would be naturally produced than in this many We in the first chapter that the alco dog of have seen case.
Mexico dislikes dogs of other
mixes less
than
those
the
breeds; and
with
the hairless
dog of
European races, than In Germany the female the latter do with each other. Spitzfox is receive said to the more dog readily than will other Australian Dingo in England attracted the dogs; a female
Paraguay
wild male and due
foxes. But
power
readily
the
these
of the
differences various
in the
sexual
may
instinct
attractive
breeds
be
*
wholly
the believes
to their descent
from
distinct
an same
species.
excellent colour
In
Paraguay
size
horses
have the
much
freedom, and
horses of the
observer and
that
native
prefer
associating with each other, and that the horses w^hich have into Banda Oriental Rios and Entre been imported from Paraguay likewise prefer associating together. In Circassia
six sub-races
a
of the horse
have
'^
received
distinct
names;
and of
to
of three that horses asserts progenitor of rank these races, whilst living a free life,almost always refuse native
mingle and
It
cross,
and
will
even a
attack
one
has
been and
observed, in
Lincolnshire bred
a
light Norfolk
out,
in
short
time
separate to
and soil,
as as
drawing
breeds
In
own
long
there
tinct dis-
plenty of
as
"
grass,
the
keep themselves
case
rooks
to
and
pigeons."
races
this
different
one
habits
of
life tend
keejj the
more
distinct.
a
On
of the
Faroe
not islands,
than
are
half
mile
in
native
*
black
sheep
'
said not
von
to have
botte
'
readily mixed
and De
with
the
in torn.
Rengger,
s.
Siiugethicre
Paraguay,'
"
336.
See
memoir
by
MM.
Lher-
78
CAUSES
WHICH
CHECK
Chap.
XVI.
fact that the curious sheep. It is a more semi-monstrous have been origin ancon sheep of modern from the observed to keep together, separating themselves rest of the flock,when put into enclosures with other sheep." With live in a semi-domesticated respect to fallow-deer,which that the dark and states condition, Mr. Bennett pale have coloured herds, which long been kept together in the of Dean, in High Forest Meadow Woods, and in the New been known to mingle : the dark-coloured Forest, have never
" '
'
imported
white
deer, it
may
be added,
I. from
are
believed
to have
been
first
brought
ness. harditwo
by James
I
ISTorway, on
the
account
of their of Porto
greater Santo
imported from
island
of
described in the fourth chapdiffer, as ter, from rabbits; both proved to be males, and, common in the Zoological Gardens, though they lived during some years the superintendent, Mr. Bartlett,in vain endeavoured
to
make
them
to
breed breed
with
was
various due
to
tame
this refusal
or
any
simply
to
wildness, or
often
confinement
cannot
had
rendered
sterile,as
be
termined. de-
of the matching for the sake of experiment many of pigeons, it frequently appeared to distinct breeds most that the birds, though faithful to their marriage me vow, their desire kind. after retained own Accordingly I some
Whilst
kept a larger stock of various he thought in England, whether breeds together than any man that they would kind, supposprefer pairing with their own ing females males of and that there were enough each; and
asked
Mr.
Wicking,
who
has
he
without
was
hesitation
case.
answered often
an
that been
he
was
this
the
It has
to
;
noticed
the the
pigeon
fancy
a common
seems
have
*
actual
all
aversion
breeds
yet
have Rev.
39, of
'
certainly
W.
With
the
from
me
progenitor.
Norfolk
'
The
see
D.
Fox
respect
informs
to the
sheep,
Economy
130.
the
origin
Rural ii. p.
'
of
Rev.
S^e
Description
For
ancon
of
Faroe,'
p.
sec
'
00.
sheep,
p. 90.
T
Phil.
'
Tran.sact.,' 1813,
Hist, of
s^e dark-colonred deer, Deer Account Some of English Parks,' by E. P. Shirley, Esq. * Rev. The Dovecote.' by the E. S. ir".^; Bechstein, Dixon, p.
'
White's
Nat.
Selp.
Deutschlands,'
17.
Band
bourne,'
edited
by
Bennett,
Chap. XVI.
THE
CROSSING
OF
VARIETIES.
79
that
his
flocks
of
white
and
common
Chinese
geese
kept
distinct.
of them though some are of the of incapable proof, resting only on opinion experienced that domestic led by different some races observers, show are These
facts
and
statements,
habits others
manner
of life to keep to
certain
extent
separate,
and
that
same
prefer coupling with their own kind, in the as species in a state of nature, though in a much
less
degree.
With
know
respect to sterilityfrom
no
the with
crossing of domestic
animals. This
races,
of
well-ascertained
case
fact, seeing
between breeds of pigeons, some great difi'erence in structure with the sterility fowls, pigs,dogs, "c., is extraovdinarj^ in contrast of many shall crossed; but we species when closely allied natural show that it is to not hereafter so extraordinary as it at attempt the
a species not or they will breed together, guide for predicting whether crossed some closely allied species when being utterly sterile,and unlike others which are extremely being moderately fertile. I have in crossed of sterility said that no rests on case races satisfactory at first seems which evidence; but here is one trustworthy. Mr. better and cannot be quoted, states, that a Youatt," authority between crosses were formerly in Lancashire frequently made long-
it may be difference
well
here
to two
recall
to
mind is not
that
the safe
"
between
cattle; the first cross was excellent, but the uncertain; in the third or fourth generation the cows produce was bad addition to which, there much were milkers; "in was certainty unwhether the cows and would full one-third of conceive;
horn and the This breed
cows
shorthorn
at
some a
of
these
case: same
half-breds but
cross
failed
to
be
in
calf."
a
good
this
Mr.
was
Wilkinson
states,^"that
in actually established another the fact part of England; and if it had failed in fertility, would Moreover, surely have been noticed. supposing tliat Mr. Youatt had proved his case, it might be argued that the sterility was from wholly due to the two parent-breeds being descended distinct species. primordially In the case of plants Gartner states that he fertilised thirteen heads dwarf maize (and subsequently nine others) on a bearing of seed with tall maize yellow a pollen having red seed ; and one head alone produced good seed, but only five in number. Though these plants are not and therefore do monoecious, require castration, in the manipulation, had yet I should have expected some accident
"
derived
from
not
"
Gartner
'
expressly stated
in Sir J.
'
that
he
had
"
"
during
many
years
grown
s.
Cattle,'
Bastarderzeugunf:,'
the Table
87,
the
Mr.
Re-
Se-
169. end
at
80
CAUSES
WHICH
CHECK
Chap.
XVI.
together, and they did not spontaneously cross; moncecious and abound and this, considering that the plants are to known cross seems and well generally with freely, are pollen, in these varieties two that belief some are explicable only on the degree mutually infertile. The hybrid plants raised from the above in structure, extremely variable, and intermediate five seeds were
these
two
varieties
perfectlyfertile.^"
succeed
in
In
like
manner
Prof.
flowers of
Hildcbrand
^^
could
not
grains although
with the
once
with
female
a
certain the
same
kind
other that
a plant bearing brown bearing yellow grains; fertilised were plant, which
tlieir
seed.
are
Ko
one,
believe,
would with
even
suspects
have
of maize
I
species; but
Giirtner that relation
had
at
doubted un-
hybrids
so
been
the
least
sterile, no
may here
classed
them. is not
remark,
necessarily any and that of the hybrid oli'spring.Some of a first cross sterility with be crossed facility,but produce utterly sterile species can be with extreme but the crossed others can difficulty, hybrids; I not am moderately fertile. produced are aware, hybrids when quite like this of the maize, namely, of a however, of any instance but made with first cross difficulty, yielding perfectly fertile hvspecies there
the brids." The
between
following
Gartner,
case
is much
more
remarkable,
it
to
and
evidently perplexed
broad line of was a strong In the genus distinction between Verbascum, species and varieties. of experiments, and he made, during eighteen years, a vast number and counted their seeds. 1085 flowers less than crossed Many no white and consisted in of these rieties vayellow crossing experiments whose
draw
wish
of both
and
Y.
lychnUis
That
and the
F.
Mattaria and
with
nine
other
species
and
from
their
two
hybrids.
white
yellow
flowered
plants of
these the
seed
Giirtner seed
asserts
has doubted; species are really varieties, no one in of both raised the case species one variety actually of
the
crosses
other.
Now
in
two
of
liis works
^'
he the
distinctly
vield
more
that than
between
similarlv-coloured
flowers that
between so yellowdissimilarly-coloured; variety of either species (and conversely with the whiteflowered kind, yields variety), Avhen crossed with pollen of its own when crossed with that of the white seed than more variety; and so crossed. The coloured it is when general diff'erently species are flowered results may he instance be
seen
^"
in
the
Table
at
the
end
of his volume.
In
one
gives
avoid
Gartner,
to
following details; but I must premise that in his crosses, exaggerating the degree of sterility
the
maximum
always compares
1=^
'
the
number 87,
327.
obtained
from
he of
was
cross
with
admits
Bastarderzeugung,'
Bot. Zcitung,' 1808, Shirreff formerly
s.
577.
13
'
p.
now
the
an
Cereals,'
error.
i*Mr.
(' Gard.
the
tween
Kenntniss
s.
der
Befrnehthe
s.
cross
tung.' s. 92,
varieties
^^
'
1.37; 'Bastarderzeugung,'
became
181. On from
two
307.
s.
Bastarderzeugung,'
216,
82
CAUSES
WHICH
CHECK
Chap.
XVI.
yielded altogether thirty-sixsimilarly-coloured unions whilst dissimilarly-coloured thirty-five thirty-five good capsules; the foregoing unions yielded only twenty-six good capsules. Besides crossed was by a experiments, the purple T. phccniceum these two of the same white rose-coloured and species; variety a
made,
and varieties follows the
were
crossed
F.
together, and
by its
that
these
own
several
unions Hence
it
pIvTnicenm
pollen.
genus of the
Scott's
experiments,
in the but
Verbascum
similarly and
This remarkable
distinct
and Mr. Scott, may not be of very by Gartner not to by others. has been attended subject occurrence; to worth show how difficult it is The giving, partly following case has Herbert remarked that Dr. is to avoid error. variouslyvarieties of the Hollyhock be double coloured (Althea rosea) may seed from close with raised plants growing together. certainty by
"
I have not
been
informed their
that
nurserymen
I
who
raise
seed
for
sale do
procured seed of eighteen separate varieties eleven of named these, varieties; produced sixty-two produced fortyplants all perfectlytrue to their kind; and seven half of half false. of nine true which and Mr, Masters were plants, has he saved seed from given me a more striking case; Canterbury varieties planted in closelyadjoining a great bed of twenty-four named and each itself with variety reproduced truly only rows, in the hollyhock the shade of difTerence in tint. Now sometimes a is matured is abundant, and pollen, which nearly all shed before flower is ready to receive it; the stigma of the same and bees as
plants; accordingly
^"
1*
The
followinc:
'
facts,
given
of
len
each
species
'
Dritte Fortin his by Kolreuter at 34, 39, appear setznnff,' ss. conflrm to first strongly sight
(Kolreuter,
own
pols.
Forts.'
Gartner's statelimited certain Kolreuter asextent they do so. observainnumerable serts, from that insects incessantly tions, from one species pollen carry and to anvariety of Verbascum and I can this confirm asother; he found that the sertion; yet and white varieties of yellow Vcrbasrum li/c7initis often grew Mr. ments; Scott's and and
to
a
But
the
force
facts is much foregoing nimierous by Gartner's experiments, for, differently from he never once Kolreuter, got inter(' Bastarderz.,' s. 307) an mediate
yellow
ties of of fact rieties
our
yellow
their
va-
keeping
col-
wild
mingled
cultivated considerable
years
together:
these in two numbers
moreover,
he
in four
varieties
during
and when
does not that by seed prove not fertilised they were mutually by the pollen carried by insects from
^^
'
his
garden,
but
one
to
the
other,
they
he
liept
crossed
true
by
seed;
Amaryllidacese,'
has made
1837,
a
p.
them, they produced flowers of intermediate tint. an Hence it been have might varieties must that, both thought have elective a stronger affinity for the own vapollen of their for that of the other; riety than this elective add aflinity, I may
366.
simi-
first observed this de I'Acad. de St. vol. iii. p. 127. See Petersburg,' also C. K. Das EntSprengel, declite Geheimniss,' s. 345.
'
Chap. XVI.
THE
CROSSING
OF
VARIETIES.
63
pollen incessantlyfly from plant to plant, it would that adjoining v^arieties could not escape being crossed. As, appear that however, this does not occur, it appeared to me the probable that ot stigma over prepotent on its own pollen of each variety was all other this point. Mr. varieties, but I have no evidence on C. for his success in the cultivation of Slough, well known Turner of of the flowers which this plant, informs that it is the doubleness me to the pollen and stigma; and he prevents the bees gaining access
covered finds this that it is difficult
even
with
to
cross
them
for explanation will fully account themselves so seed, I do not know. truly by propagating The worth are following cases giving, as they relate to monoecious do not have forms, which require, and consequently cannot Girou de Buzareingues crossed what been injured by, castration. he and three varieties of that their mutual asserts designates gourd,^^ fertilisation is less easy in proportion to the diff"erence which they I in how the forms this am aware were imperfectly present. group until recently known; but Sageret," who ranked them according to their mutual
as
^*
the
three
melons
forms have
above
alluded M.
to
as
varieties,
far
Naudin.'^
Sageret
whatever
observed
cause
that
may
be,
had
of
such
immense
believes the
that
same
certain
readily
the
truth species; proved of this conclusion; the frequent abortion of the pollen near Paris close he has gether, todifficulty. Nevertheless, being one great grown
others
has
during
seven
years,
certain
forms
of
Citrullus, which,
as
crossed with they could be artificially perfect facilityand produced fertile offspring,are not ranked as varieties; but these forms when other crossed varieties, on the other artificially kept true. Many Naudin hand, in the same with such M. cross as facility, group far apart they cannot repeatedly insists,that without being grown be kept in the least true. Another be here given, as different, may though somewhat case, is it excellent evidence. on highly remarkable, and is established
Kolreuter which
were
minutely describes five varieties of the common crossed, and the offspring were reciprocally
and
as
tobacco,-'*
intermediate far
I
fertile
are
as
their parents:
and such
from
no
they
to
reallyvarieties;
doubted that
discover,
crossed
have
is
the
case.
He
also
reciprocally these five varieties with N. glutiunm, yielded very sterile hybrids; but those raised from the var.
^^
and
they
perennis,
Namely,
Giraumous:
torn.
Barbarines,
'
sons,
Annal.
Nat.'
and
22
'
XXX.,
sur
1833,
les
.55.
405. Memoire
pp.
'
Cucurbita-
ly,
Nicotiana
cese,' 1826,
Annales Berles, torn.
23
46,
perennis;
sub-var.
Forts.,' major
s.
name5,'?.
8i
DOMESTICATION-
ELIMINATES
STERILITY.
Chap.
XVI.
not sterile as plant, were so other the four varieties.-" hybrids from So that the sexual capacity of this one variety has certainly been in some degree of N. modified, so as to approach in nature that (jlutinosa.^^
as or
whether
used
the
father
mother
the
These
cases
facts with
respect have
to
plants show
their
that
in
some so
few far
certain
varieties
cross
had
sexual
powers
other that
together less readily and yield less varieties of the same species. We shall presently
functions of most animals and
the sexual
plants
to
eminently liable to be affected by the conditions of life which they are exposed ; and hereafter we shall briefly discuss the conjoint bearing of this fact,and others,on the difference
in
fertilitybetween
crossed
varieties
and
crossed
species.
Domestication eliminates
general with
This
the
to
Sterilitywhich
is
crossed.
first propounded by Pallas,"^ and has hypothesis was I can been adopted by several authors. find hardly any rect difacts in its support; but unfortunately no has comone
28
Kolreuter
struck
with that
this
much so was that he suspected fact of 2\^ little pollen a his of experiments one
have with
styled
sent
me
seed
and,
some more
they
sterile,
common own
all
in
accirteutally
that of
var.
thus
aided
But
we
its
tilising fernow
from
Scott
red
with has
p.
power.
equal-styled
10(i),
to be this several with
conclusively
s.
from
never
Gartner
the acts
cowslip
which
was
(P.
i^rris, ibid.
(* Bastarderz.,'
pollen of conjointly
less
own
two
on a
species
third
highly
the
was
by
him
but
crossed with
species;
a a
Avill
the
pollen
of with
latter sole
still distinct
common
cowslip;
red
plant's
be present have
quantity,
of
any
effect
of
mingling to produce
seeds
taking
aftpr
-''
which after
the other Scott
on
yield
the has the
bluing
spect
male
like
those
and
some
with female styled form, in and function resembling in structure those that
parent.
made
absolute
some
of
we
Mr.
observations
ility ster-
of
forms
the
of
Proc. p.
quire re-
combined in the same Hence it is not surprisng that be should these flowers in self-fertile a spontaneously
Linn.
but
Soc'
these
vol.
viii., 1SG4,
high
"^
degree.
'
9S);
number
observations
Act.
1780, part
Chap.
XVI.
FERTILITY
FROM
DOMESTICATION.
g5
of either animals pared, in the case or plants, the fertility of anciently domesticated crossed varieties, when with a that of the wild parent-species when distinct species with No has compared, for instance, the one similarly crossed. hankiva and of the domesticated of Gallus fertility, fowl, when crossed with a distinct species of Gallus or Phasianus; in all cases be surrounded and the experiment would by many has so closely studied difficulties. Dureau de la Malle, who classical literature, states the
common
""*
that
in
the
more
time
of
the
Romans
at
mule
was
produced with
whether
more
than difficulty
may
day; but
A
this statement
much
important, though
somewhat that
plants, from character and their intermediate known sterilityto be hybrids between ^gilops and wheat, have perpetuated themselves under culture since 1857, with a rapid hut varying In increase the fourth of fertilityin each generation. generation the plants, still retaining their intermediate fertile as become cultivated as common character, had
wheat. The
appears
is given
by M.
Groenland,"^" namely,
indirect
to
me
evidence
to
in favour
of the Pallasian
In the
doctrine
be
extremely strong.
our
earlier
I have
shown
that
various
breeds
are
from
case
several
wild
can
species; and
be
no
this
probably is the
Zebu
or
with
sheep.
Indian
the
may
ox
There
doubt
humped
cattle:
pean belongs to a distinct species from Eurodescended from two latter, moreover, are be called either
have We species or races. domesticated good evidence that our pigs belong to at least two Now tended specific widely exa types, S. scrofa and indicus. analogy leads to the belief that if these several allied first reclaimed, had been crossed, they would species, when have exhibited, both in their first unions and in their hybrid offspring, degree of sterility. Nevertheless, the several some domesticated
as
can
forms, which
races
descended
from
them
are
now
all,as
far
be
soning ascertained, perfectly fertile together. If this reabe trustworthy, and it is apparently sound, we must
admit
="
'
the Pallasian
Annales
rtos p
doctrine
Nat.,'
torn.
that
long-continued domestica^o
"
xxi.
(1st series),
So. 61.
p,"ii,
y^ot.
Soc. tom.
do
Frnnoo,'
p.
Dee.
27tb,
ISUl,
viii.
012.
86
tion tends when
INCREASED
FERTILITY
Chap. XVI.
to eliminate
that
crossed
in their
is natural
to species
On
increased Increased
to
Fertilityfrom Domestication
from fertility
may
and
Cultivation.
any
domestication, without
ence refer-
crossing,
be here
two
bears the
indirectly on
of
modification
organic beings.
animals breed
long
the
ago
marked,"*^ re-
domestic
oftener
year
and
of the same at a birth than wild animals produce more young breed at an earlier age. The species; they, also, sometimes would further hardly have deserved case notice, had not authors latelyattempted to show that fertility increases some and This decreases strange when
in
an
inverse has
ratio with
the
amount
of food. individual
doctrine
supplied with an inordinate quantity of food, kinds when and from plants of many on excessively grown rich soil, as a dunghill, becoming on sterile;but to this latter point I shall have occasion presently to return. With domesticated have hardly an exception, our animals, which been long habituated to a regular and copious supply of food, without the labour of searching for it,are fertile than more the corresponding wild animals. It is notorious quently frehow cats and dogs breed, and how they produce young many The wild rabbit is said generally to breed at a birth. four times six yearly, and to produce each time at most rabbit breeds six or seven times yearly,pro; the tame young ducing
animals each Weir time tells
at
a me
from of
a
four
case
to
eleven
young;
and
Mr.
rison Har-
produced supposed
to
sow
birth,
The
wild
sow
than its prolific is remarkably prolific; bears but from four the domestic oftener
at
a
she often
in the year,
and
eight and
sometimes
twelve
young;
regularly breeds twice a year, and would permitted ; and a sow that produces less than
31 Quoted Hilaire, rale,' torn.
'
breed
if
eight
the
in
birth
subject
MS.
has
GeofFroy St.Naturelle Geneiii. p. 476. Since this full been sent to press a by
Isid. Hist.
present
Herbert Mr. Spencer's Principles of Biology," vol. ii., 1867, p. 437 et seq^
CuAP. XVt.
PROM
DOMESTICATION.
87
is
"
is
worth
the
The
:
sooner
she
fattened
for
the
butcher of
the
the better."
same
amount
of food
affects the
fertility
sheep, which mountains on lamb than one at a birth,when never produce more brought down to lowland This difference pastures frequently bear twins. apparently is not due to the cold of the higher land, for animals said to be extremely are sheep and other domestic in Lapland. Hard living,also,retards the period at prolific
thus which animals
in
been
found
to
32
geous disadvantaallow
cows
the
of Scotland
years
to
bear
calves before
offer number
lien.
course
they
four
old.
Birds
of increased hankica
mesticati do-
of the wild
thought
from
one
lays
five to
in the
wild
the
from has
a
thirteen
second moderate
some
time;
measure
as
remarked,
of
warmth
is
habit than
which
becomes
in
hereditary."'
Whether
the more pigeon cated not; but the more rock-pigeon, C. livia,I know thoroughly domestitwice breeds fertile dovecots: the are as as latter, nearly however, when caged and highly fed, become equally'fertile with that the wild house pigeons. I hear from Judge Caton turkey in the
United
semi-domesticated
dovecot
States
is rather
does
not
breed
when
do. The
year
old,
some
as
the
of
cated domesti-
turkeys
birds
there
invariably
more
peahen
alone
cated domestiwhen
to
our
fertile,according to
accounts,
wild much
32
in its native
Indian
home,
than
in
Europe
when
exposed
colder
For
cats in
climate.^^
and
'
dogs,
Annal.
"c.,
des
see
S3
For
see
the
Nat
eggs in
of
'
Bellinger!,
Nat.,'
xii.
p.
'
Sc.
tom. Beoh-
2nfl
series,
For
Zoolog.,
ferrets,
kiva, Mag.
vol. and
Blyth,
p.
Gallus Annals
2nd For
han-
of
tame
Hist.,'
4.50.
and series,
wild
155.
i., 1848,
stein, Natnrgeschiclite i.. ISOl, s. lanrls,' Band For ditto, s. 1123, rabbits,
and
Dentseh7S6, 795.
1131;
tur.,'
Nader monntain s. For tility ferthe sheep, ditto, s. 102. Bechof the see wild sow,
Bronn's b. ii.
'
Macgillivray. ducks, vol. 37; v. Birds,' p. wild For 87. s. Enten,' Lloyd,
vol.
' Scandinavian ii. 1854, p. 413; ' Ornamental geese. E. S. Dixon, Rev. p.
Adventures,'
and for tame
steiu's
'
Naturgosch.
Deutsch-
lands,'
domestic Youatt Witli Acerbi's
b.
on
Pig,
to to
ISW,
p.
the of 62.
see
bv Poultrv,' 139. the On breeding of der Ganze Das Pistor, and zueht,' 1831, s. 40;
'
Pigeons,
TaubenBoitard 158.
cording ac-
and
Corbie to
'
Les
respect
Travels the
on
Lapland,
the
vol.
With
Nat.
respect
Gen. des
Cape,'
222.
see
Eng.
About
translat.,
North ii. p.
cows,
Temminck
(' Hist.
Highland
Hogg
Sheep, p. 263,
Ii. p.
even as
"c., lays
twenty
4Q
88
FERTILITY
PROM
DOMESTICATION.
Chap.
XVI.
With
more,
or
respect
and each in number
ear
to to soil that
plants, produce
a
no
one
would
expect
in
or
wheat than in
Seeds
to rich
tiller soil
so
more
grain,
ot to
poor
to
get
in
poor
heavy
it in is
a
crop
peas
beans.
vary
on paring com-
much
dillicult nursery
about
estimate
them;
with
much
but
beds
former
of
carrots to
garden
twice
as
wild seed.
as
plants,
Cultivated wild
the
seemed
produce
thrice
as
cabbages
from
the
enormous.
yielded
rocks
of
many Wales.
in
pods
The
by
excess
measure
cabbages by
is
the
South
of with
berries the
produced
wild such
cultivated
No
comparison highly
"c.,
cultivated
are
plant
as
plants,
or
pears,
and to
pineapples,
I
am
bananas,
to
nearly
to
quite
of
sterile;
food
recur.
inclined
this but
sterility
to
excess
and
other
unnatural
conditions;
this
subject
shall
In
some
cases,
are
as
with
the for
pig,
their
has
rabbit, seed,
the
"c.,
and
with
those of
plants
the their
more
which
valued
selection increased
occurred
numerous
fertile and
the
individuals
in
probably
this
may
fertility;
from
all
cases
directly, in-
better
more
of
some
of
the
spring offbeen
served. pre-
the with
individuals and
having
and
are
dogs,
which
with
not
a
plants
valued subordinate
to
like for
cabbages,
prolificacy,
and their
have
played
must
only
be
part;
more
fertility
of life
attributed which
the have
favourable existed.
under
they
long
eggs; and
but another
according
writer
'
to
Jerdon
in
eRgs: tlie
or
*
in
England Book,'
another
she
is
to
said, lay
in
five
(quoted Book,'
there nine
or
Poultry
but
Poultry
she
to
SIX,
writer eggs.
says
280,
four
282),
lays
ten
from
eight
to
twelve
from
/
90
ter to
GOOD
PROM
CROSSma.
Chap. XVII.
the
will
individuals
of the
same
race
or
species;for
if
spring off-
result will
have
occurred.
Lastly,
I
question is of high interest,as bearing on mankind. shall therefore discuss this subject at full length. As
prove
the
facts which
more
the
interbreedingare
copious,though less decisive,than those on the good of beings, begin effects of crossing,I shall, under each group
with
the
former.
is
no
in definingwhat is meant difficulty by a cross ; " in but this is by no means to regard breeding in and easy in close interbreeding," too shall see, or because, as we different species of animals affected by the are differently same degree of interbreeding. The pairing of a father and if cardaughter, or mother and son, or brothers and sisters, ried is several form during on generations, the closest possible of interbreeding. But some good judges,for instance Sir J. that believe the pairing of a brother and sister is Sebright,
There
"
"
closer than
is matched
that of parents
with
own
and
children
for when
as
the
his
daughter he
The
crosses,
is
said,
blood.
consequences
of close
interbreeding carried on for too long a time, are, as is generally ity, believed,loss of size,constitutional vigour, and fertilsometimes accompanied by a tendency to malformation. Manifest evil does not usuallyfollow from pairing the nearest four generations ; but several relations for two, three,or even interfere with our detecting the evil such as the causes
"
deterioration
being
very
gradual,and
tendencies
the
of distinguishing difficulty
the
between
such
morbid
inevitable
may
mentation augor
of any
which
the
be latent been
apparent
in
the
a
related
even
parents.
when
other
hand, the
any very
benefit from
cross,
close interbreeding, is almost invariably at once conspicuous. is good reason to believe, and this was the opinion of There that the evil that most experienced observer Sir J. Sebright,^ effects of close interbreeding may by the related individuals
be
checked
or
quite
vented pre-
generationsand exposed
1
'
The
Art
of
Improving
Breed,
"c.,' 1809,
p. 16,
Chap.
XVII.
EVIL
FEOM
INTERBREEDING.
9X
conclusion
Carr
^
is
now
held it is
a
by
many
Mr.
remarks,
climate
well-known
fact
as an
effects
as
perhaps almost
result
a
change of change in
of
constitution I
would show
in
from work
infusion
fresh
blood."
hope
to
future but
consanguinity
related
ganisms or-
by itself counts
for
nothing,
acts
solely from
constitution,and having generally having a to similar conditions. been exposed in most cases ing That any evil directlyfollows from the closest interbreedhas been denied by many ; but rarely by any persons tical pracbreeder; and
never,
as
similar
far
as
know,
by
one
who
has
propagate
the
their
kind
quickly.
the
bination com-
evil
exclusively to
is It
an
consequent
of morbid this
tendencies active
mon comsource
both
parents;
there that
a can men
of
too
doubt. various
is
unfortunately
animals
and
domestic
endowed
reditary constitution, and with a strong hefully are disposition to disease, if not actually ill, their kind. Close of interbreeding, on procreating capable the other hand, often induces sterility;and this indicates of morbid something quite distinct from the augmentation wretched tendencies
common
to
both
parents.
The
evidence
diately imme-
that it is a great law of name ture, given convinces that all organic beings profitfrom occasional an cross with in blood; and individuals not closely related to them that, on the other hand, long-continued close interbreeding is injurious.
to be
have had much influence general considerations in leading me the reader will probto this conclusion; but ably on rely more special facts and opinions. The authority of experienced observers, even when they do not advance the grounds all written
men
on
Various
some
Now
most alhave
have
bred
many
kinds
and
subject, such as Sir J. Sebright, Andrew Knight, "c., have expressed the strongest conviction on the of long-continued close interbreeding. Those impossibility
History Progress of the Herds,' p. 41. ^ For Andrew
"^
'
The
of
thp
T?ise
find
Walker,
p.
'
on
Killerby, Knight,
see
"c.
A.
quoted.
92
who have
GOOD
FROM
CROSSING.
Chap.
XVII.
agriculture,and have associated with much breeders, such as the sagacious Youatt, Low, "c., have their effect. strongly declared opinion to the same authorities, has Prosper Lucas, trusting largely to French compiled works
on
distinguished German agriculturistHermann Nathusius, who has written the von I have met able treatise on this subject which most with, concurs; this treatise,I may and as I shall have from to quote is not only intimately acquainted with that Nathusius state
come
to
similar
conclusion.
The
works
on
knows
the
grees pedibut
of has
an
British
breeds
our
better
than
most
Englishmen,
and
improved animals,
is himself
interbreeding can
most
of animals, such fowls, readily be acquired in the case as which from pigeons, "q., quickly, and, being kept propagate in the same conditions. Now place, are exposed to the same I have breeders of these birds, and I inquired of very many
have
hitherto
not
met
with
an
single
man
who
was
not
oughly thorstrain
convinced of the
same
that
occasional
cross
with
another
Most absolutely necessary. sub-variety was breeders of highly improved or fancy birds value their own unwilling, at the risk, in their opinion, strain, and are most of deterioration, to make The cross. purchase of a firsta bird of another strain is expensive, and exchanges are rate troublesome; yet all breeders, as far as I can hear, excepting those who keep large stocks at different places for the sake of crossing,are driven after a time to take this step. Another which ence has had great influgeneral consideration mind on is, that with all hermaphrodite animals my and plants, which been it might have have thought would and been thus subjected for perpetually fertilised themselves long ages to the closest interbreeding, there is not a single the structure discover, in which sures enspecies,as far as I can self-fertilisation. of
cases,
as
On
the contrary,
there
are
in
titude mul-
briefly stated in the fifteenth chapter, manifest adaptations which favour or inevitably lead to an occasional between cross one hermaphrodite and another of the same utterly are species; and these adaptive structures purposeless,as far as we can see, for any other end.
Chap.
XVII.
EVIL
FROM
INTERBREEDING.
93
close breeding inter-
With external is
Cattle may
there be The
for
can
be with of
"
no on no
doubt
long
and
case a
carried
characters,
interbred
manifest has
far been
as
respect to constitution
which
were
concerned.
Bakewell's
Longhorns,
often
long period, quoted; yet had acquired a delicacy of constitution and the propagation of common management," But certain," the Shorthorns not offer the the species was always of close interbreeding; for instance, the famous most striking case bull Favourite (who w^as himself the offspring of a half-brotlier and with his own matched sister from Foljambe) was davighter,granddaughter, and great-granddaughter; so that the produce of this last union, or the great-great-granddaughter,had jfths, or 93.75 closely
* the says with inconsistent
Youatt
breed
"
of with
the
blood bull
of
Favourite
in
her
veins.
This
cow
was
vourite Wellington, having 62.5 per cent, of Fain his veins, and Clarissa blood Clarissa was produced ; the with bull liancaster, having 68.75 of the same matched blood, she and offspring.* Nevertheless yielded valuable Collings,who these animals, and advocate for reared close was a strong breeding, with his stock crossed the cows from a tliis once Galloway, and realised the highest prices. Bates's herd esteemed the cross was
most
the
celebrated the
most
in
the
world.
For the
next
thirteen
seventeen
vears
he years,
bred
most he
closely in-and-in;
had infused fresh blood
but
during
notion
though
exalted
of the
value
of his
own
into his
own
his herd:
it is said
that
that
"
to
breed that
We
bad be
stock
was
ruin
and
vastation de-
yet
certain
rate
limits with
when
practice parents so
see
safely
are
followed
from
within
descended
been after find
firstbreeding intercareful of
a
that but
has
much the
no
close
most
Shorthorns;
Nathusius,
can
study
breeder life. close
* 5
'
who
pedigrees, says that has strictly followed his own this study and
necessary
to
instance
interbreedingis
Cattle,'
p.
ennoble
the dams Clarissa and one
stock;
given.
"
but
199.
on
'
Moreover,
two
give
this
of
'
Nathusius,
Rindvieh,'
1857,
bore
only
and in
cases
bullf?
next became
heifer,
her
the
generation
extinct."
progeny
are
1860, Gardener's Chronicle,' p. Mr. But J. Storer, a 270). large informs of hroeder me cattle, is that of Clarissa the parentage the In not authenticated. well she first vol. of the Herd Book,'
'
Analogous
interbreeding
pamphlet
Macknight
'
On
the
'
given
Breeding;
186.5. " Mr. Gardener's and 411;
'
Melbourne,
Australia,
in p.
was
entered
as
having
"
six
scents dein
was
from
was a
Favourite,
which
and mistake," palpable all editions she subsequent of as spoken having only four Mr. about the Storer
doubts
no names
See
the
scents. de-
very
clear
even
given
of
s.
four,
as
in 72-77.
pedigrees Rindvieh,'
94
GOOD
FROM
CROSSING.
Chap.
XVII.
is effecting this the greatest care to infertility and weakness. a'sserts that authority high many
'
necessary, It may
more
on
account
of
the
dency ten-
be
added, that
are
another
calves
less
born interbred
cripples
races
from
Shorthorns
than
from
other
and
closely
of cattle.
(as Nature Although by carefully selecting the best animals be of close law the does battle) interbreeding may by effectually effects between of a cross long carried on with cattle, yet the good shown the is breeds almost at once two greater size and by any writes Mr. to crossing Spooner me, vigour of the offspring; as Such distinct breeds certainly improves cattle for the butcher." of no but they to the breeder; value of course animals crossed are in several have been raised during many parts of England to years is now and their merit so be slaughtered ; fully recognised, that for their recephas formed class been at fat-cattle shows a separate tion. show the at The at best fat ox Islington in 18G2 was great
" **
crossed
The
animal.
half-wild
cattle, which
have
even as same a
been for
case a
herd
at
consequent
late Lord
injury.
Tankerville
With estimates
respect
owned
the
cattle
were
Chillingham, the
breeders.^
that
they
letter
bad
me,
agent, INIr.
Hardy,
herd
(in
to
dated
number of about fiftythe average and is about ten, fighting, dying, by is kept up to nearly the same average
or
to
ffve. the
As
the
herd of
number,
five. The the
annual
rate
increase engage
must
be
likewise
about of
one
in
in be
furious
battles,
me
a
^^'hich battles
add,
kerville Tan-
has
always
the
given rigorous
from account
graphic description, so that there will selection of the most I provigorous males. cured
D.
in 1855
Mr.
Gardner,
wild 200
agent
cattle
acres
to
the
Duke The
number
of Duke's
Hamilton,
following
varies
of the is about
kept
in
and
in the the
to
park
in
Lanarkshire,
cattle killed
annual
which from
extent.
number that
of the
Now
sixty-five to
eighty;
annually
so
(I
eight
ten;
one
than
in six. therefore
to Azara
in South
a
where of the
total
the of
herds
are
half-wild,
estancia
to adult
and
offer the
to
nearly
standard
comparison,
on an
according
is from
increase
the
cattle
one-third
and
this, no
Mr.
in between
three
four;
con-
animals
he
for
season
fit for
bred
some
Wrisht,
Ajrrieult.
Journal
vol.
of
Bates,
herd
"
Royal 1S46,
Soc'
J. Mr. Downing p. 204. successfnl of Shorthorns breeder informs that in Ireland) the me families raisers the of of great Shorthorns conceal carefully of want their consterility and stitution. He adds that Mr.
vii., (a
after in-and-in
in
one
had
his
years,
lost
twenty-eight
want
calves
solely
on
from
of 202.
con-
stitntion." * Youatt
^
'
Cattle,
British
p.
Report
Assoc,
Zo-
olog.
Sect.,' 1838.
Chap.
XVII.
EVIL
FROM
INTERBREEDING.
95
which have
sumption.
interbred fertile.
must be
Hence
the the
half-wild
of
British
same
cattle herd
are
long
within
limits
the
country
dilierent
to
herds, yet
"
there
in size
that
the
^^
occasional The
decrease
introduction in
of animals ancient
localities is necessary
prevent
degeneration
size from
fertility." cattle must have been Chillingham and Hamilton for Professor that Riitimeyer has shown they are almost prodigious, of the gigantic Bos prunitjoiius. No certainly the descendants in size may to less favourbe largely attributed this decrease able doubt of life; yet animals conditions roaming over large parks, and fed during severe winters, can as placed under hardly be considered
times
unfavourable conditions. very With iiheep there has often
been
;
long-continued interbreeding
but
as
within
the have
limits been
not
of the matched
same so
flock
whether in the
the
case
nearest
tions rela-
frequently
Messrs. into that
two
cattle, I do
never
know. fresh
He Barford
The blood
has
Brown the
during fiftyyears
flock
of
same
infused
1810
their
on
excellent
Leicesters.
Since Foscote
Mr.
him
acted
principlewith
flock.
asserts
convinced
sound
;
that
when
but
a century experience are nearly related animals quite breeding does not induce degeneracy not pride himself on breeding from
half
the for
nearest
France of
the
Naz of
a
Hock
has
been
bred ram."
single strange sheep have protested against close interbreeding prolonged for too great a length of time.^" The five celebrated of recent Jonas most breeders, Webb, kept separate families to work tionship thus retaining the requisite distance of relaon, ^^ between the and is of what probably greater sexes; importance, the separate flocks wall have been exposed to somewhat
years
sixty
the
introduction
Nevertheless,
great breeders
"
"
difl'erent conditions.
Although
of has
by
the
aid
of careful
selection any
to
the
near
sheep
cross
distinct that in
obtain
some
the
butcher,
from this Mr.
kind
on
plainly practice. We
good
of the
excellent detail
dence eviwhich
from the
A
of four
same
gives
a
cross-breed
money
value
ground, and he gives their produce the high authority, Mr. Pusey, sums up during an equal length of time, namely
Cotswolds
du la
223/., for
18G0,
p.
s.
Azara,
For
Qnadrupedes
d' Acclimation,'
'
Para.sruay,'torn.
'^
tlie
see
case
'
477.
Natliusius,
on
'
Brown, 1855,
416.
Gard.
For
Chronicle,'
the
65; Youatt
i^ i*
flock,
Chron..'
Naz
Gard.
'
Journal
vol.
xiv., 1853,
212.
96
Southdowns 293?. that
his A
GOOD
FROM
CROSSING.
Chap.
XVII.
204?.,
half-breeds than
for
Hampshire
celebrated
former
bred cross-
states
larger Ryelands and Spanish sheep were or Spanish sheep. Ryelands pure pure Mr. Spooner concludes his excellent on Essay Crossing by asserting in judicious cross-breeding, that is a pecuniary advantage there is larger than the female." the male especially when that to me As of British some our parks are ancient, it occurred there have must been long-continued close interbreeding with the but fallow-deer on inquiry I find (Ce?'vu8 datna) kept in them; to infuse blood that it is a common new practice by procuring from who has carefully studied bucks other parks. Mr. Shirley,^** that in some the management of deer, admits parks there has been of blood from of admixture time a no foreign beyond the memory the he concludes that in the end constant But man. breeding
from
animals
eitlier
the
"
in-and-in
is
sure
to
tell to
the
disadvantage
of
the
whole
herd,
take when a though it may long time to prove it; moreover, very of we find, as is very constantly the case, that the introduction fresh blood has been of the to both use deer, greatest by very
improving
service
to in
their deer
removing
are
being
not
of
diseases,
been
cross
which
sometimes
I think,
subject
be
no
when
but
the
blood
a
has
and
can,
doubt
that
judicious
is
stock
or
is of
the
to
greatest
the
later,
prosperity
have close he
consequence, of every
been
indeed
well-ordered
park."
Mr. that
and
no
Meynell's
famous from
and
adduced,
as
showing
Sir J. father brothers close carried
ill effects
follow
that and
and
from
from much be
sisters. far."
But
With Sir J.
greyhounds
the best
also
been it may
but interbreeding,
breeders
that
Sebright, declares,^*that by breeding in-and-ui which he and means sisters,he has actually matching brothers by the and seen offspring of strong spaniels degenerate into weak W. diminutive The Fox has communicated to Rev. D. lapdogs. the case of a small lot of bloodhounds, me long kept in the same had become bad and breeders, family, which nearly all had a very A in the tail. with distinct strain cross a bony enlargement single and of bloodhounds restored their fertility, drove the tendency away I have to malformation in the tail. heard the particulars of
another
1'
case
with
bloodhounds,
'
in
which
the
female
had
P.
to
be
Lord and
Somerville.
Facts
p.
on
Sheep
Mr.
Husbandry,'
Royal
vol.
Spooner, Agricult.
XX.
part
paper
'
cellent
in 'Journal Soc. of England,' ii. See also exan the subon same
6. of
Evelyn
'
Shir-
The
Dog,'
1867,
175-188.
'
The
Art
of
13.
Breed,'
to
"c.,
Scotch
'
p.
Chronicle,'
Howard.
1860,
Some
Charles Account
Scrope's
pp.
Art
deerhounds, of Deer
Stalking,*
of
English
350-353.
98 daughter,
in
many and
GOOD
FROM
CROSSING.
Chap.
XVII.
so
on
for the
seven
generations.
failed the when
to of
The
result in
was,
that
instances few
sense,
offspring
breed;
many
others
were
they
idiotic,
produced
without
not
that
even
latter
straight. of interbreedingwere sent produced by this long course to other boars, and they bore several litters of healthy pigs. The in external best sow produced during the whole seven appearance the in last stage of descent; but the litter one generations was
last
sows
walk
it deserves
of
this
one
sow.
She
a
would
and
or
not in
to So
the affect
to
stranger
her
Wright's
not
case,
long-continued
external
form
extremely
merit
and
close
interbreeding
with
and general especially the reproductive functions, were seriously affected. Nathusius more gives an analogous and even striking case : he from of the a sow England pregnant imported large Yorkshire breed, and bred the product closely in-and-in for three generations: of them constitution
-^
the
result with
was
unfavourable,
as
the
he impaired sows, uncle good animal, produced, when paired with her own to be productive with known of other sows (who was breeds), a time a litter of only five weak litter of six, and a second pigs. young He then paired this sow with boar of a small black a breed, which latest which esteemed
a
fertility. One
young of the
were
weak
in
tion, constitu-
he
had
likewise
sows
imported
own
from
England;
this
boar, when
matched
Now,
to nine breed, produced from seven young. was so large breed, which unproductive when paired with her own uncle, yielded to the small black boar, in the first litter twenty-one, and in the second litter eighteen young that in she so one pigs; produced thirty-nine fine young year
with
of his
the
sow
of the
animals
x\s in
the
case
of several
is words
animals
when
no
injury
the
perceptible from
of Mr. Smithfield
yet,
"
to
quote
gold medal
Crosses
pigs), farmer, as you profit get more constitution and quicker growth ; but for me, who sell a great number of pigs for breeding purposes, I find it will not it do, as quires reto get anything like purity of blood many years again.""
answer
of the
Show
best
Avell for
to
the
gregarious, their own must frequently pair daughters, for they expel the young males as well as all intruders,until
as are
Almost
all the
animals
yet mentioned
with
and
the males
23 Ueber s. Rindvieh,' "c., Le who has 78. Col. Couteur, much done for the so agriculture that from of Jersey, writes to me fine breed of a possessing pigs he bred them closely, twice very
'
and pairing brothers sisters, but fits and had nearly all the young died suddenly. -* the on Sidney Pig, p. 36. See also
son
on
note, the
p.
34.
Also
Richardp. 26.
Pig,
1847,
Chap. XVn.
EVIL
FROM
mTEREREEDIKG.
09
to
forced stronger
by old
male.
may
age
and
loss
of
strength
It is therefore
not
animals non-social
have
been
rendered
of close interbreeding, speciesto the evil consequences live in enabled to that be herds without jury inso they may their offspring. Unfortunately we do not to know
an
whether
animal
is not greater
gregarious, would
degree than
as
our as
domesticated
But
the
we
pig
is not,
seen
far
have
that it
pears ap-
eminently liable
Mr.
to
the
case
Huth,
in
the
of the been
"
pig, attributes
cultivated
most
a
(p. 285)
for
these
effects to their
to
having
remember
their
fat," or
have
the selected
we
individuals
having had
it is great and the who
cases,
weak
tution; constiwho
more are
but
must
that
breeders
are
brought
than
forward
the above
men can
far which
familiar
ordinary
with
be, with
causes
likelyto interfere
The difficult discussed Mr. the
the
of their fertility
in the but
many
animals.
case
of
man
is
been
subject,on
by various
''*
which
little. It has
iDointsof view.''^
races
Tylor
most
"
has
shown
that of
with
the
widely different
world, marriages
"
in
distant
even
quarters
between
relations
between There
are,
distant
relations
many
have
been
strictly
to
prohibited.
rule, which
are
exceptions
It is. a
the
Huth."^
curious
problem
how times.
these
Mr.
barous during early and barprohibitions arose them to Tylor is inclined to attribute
marriages
to
having
been
served ob-
and
Dally
he
ingeniously attempts
published
(translated
an
explain some
in
answer
apparent
to
Dr.
'
has
assured,
made in
2"
inquiries
tliat f:ihle.
excellent
article
in
the
United
is
a
States,
mere
the
this the
-'
'
Early
X.
'
chap.
1875.
The The
Mnrringe
evidence I valuable
some
Near
advocates
cause
given
liave than other
by
it to
Kin.' Mr.
been is
on
by
has
would,
more
(hiuk.
it
Du des (Devay, Danger Mariages,' "c., 1S62, p. 141) that the of cousins have marriages been the prohibited ture legislaby
this
he works
and had
points,
had
if
the
sided re-
referred of
in
men
solely
who
long
of
Ohio;
but
have
been
to,
and
each who
country
showed
100
anomalies relations that other
may
on
GOOD
FROM
CHOSSma.
Chap.
XVII.
in
the
prohibition
and
as
not
extending equally
side. He of
to
the
the male
causes,
female
the Mr.
such
into
extension W.
have
come
play.
Adam,
are
concludes with
in
that
related
from
marriages
and
prohibited and
which other these would still
more
repugnance,
thus
the
descent
of property, But
I
cannot
reasons.
accept
incest
is held
in abhorrence
by
savages
such
no
those
to not
of Australia
and
or
South
who America,"**
to
have
property who
are
bequeath,
fine moral
on
feelings
confuse, and
their
progeny.
reflect
distant
evils to
Huth
as
indirect
practice ceased strictly confined to the dogamous, so that marriages were mer tribe, and it is not unlikely that a vestige of the forsame still be retained, so that closely-related practice would self itmarriages would be prohibited. With respect to exogamy from Mr. MacLennan believes that it arose a scarcity of owing to female infanticide, aided perhaps by other women,
when
causes.
It has instinctive
been
clearly shown
man
feeling in
animals.
that
any
more
there
is
no
than
any
in
gregarious
or
We
rise to
know
readily
shown
dice prejuin
seems
feeling may
to
no
abhorrence,
defilement.
by Hindus
there
regard
to
objects causing
strong inherited
men
Although
times
be
seems
it
possible that
more
against incest,
may
have with
been whom
to
excited
by
strange
; in
than
manner
by those
as
according
towards
male Cupples,"^
inclined
prefer dogs with whom If any such feeling formerly existed they have associated. have led to a preference for marriages in man, this would kin, and might have been strengthened beyond the nearest
strange
possessed
See
'
females, while
Jiidgnient
Mr.
and
' '
also
W.
Adam,
caution. On Conthe p.
in in Marriage sanguinity 1865, Review,' Fortnightly iHof acker, Also Ueber 710. "c., 1828. Eigenschaften,'
'
die
of Journal Grey's into vol. Expeditions Australia,' ii. p. 243; and On Dobrizhoffer, the of South America.' Abipones =9 Descent of edit. 2nd Man,'
' ' '
**
Sir.
G.
p.
524.
Chap.XVII.
evil
from
INTERBREEDING.
lOJ
in greater
bers, num-
marriages surviving
us
analogy
would
lead
to believe
would
have
occurred.
consanguineous marriages, such as are permitted in civilised nations, and which would be considered not as
close
cause census
Whether
case
of
our
domesticated with
be
known
with what
this
object in view.
possible at present by a statistical and he has come to the conclusion, from his investigation,^" researches and those of Dr. Mitchell, that the evidence own is conflicting, evil thus caused but on the whole to any as points to the evil being very small.
Darwin,
has
done
is
"
In
the
case
of
he
the
made
Fowl
whole
array
of
Sir
authorities J.
given against
that
too
close
interbreeding.
many the
Sebright
his
positivelyasserts
breeders.^^
trials, and
that
in
fowls,
long body, and the famous Bantams bad produced Sebright by and by breeding in-and-in; and since his time complicated crosses, much close interbreeding with there has been these animals; and bad I breeders. have seen Silver Bantams, they are now notoriously from his stock, which had become almost as directly descended chicken not barren for had been that as a hybrids; single year
treated,
He the hatched these male
even
became
in
legs,small
from
Bantams in
two
the closest he
sterilityof the
with have from
that
rare
the
loss
as
of
a
certain
in
secondary
the tail of
characters: the
male
adds,
"I
noticed,
feminine
slightest deviation
" "
character
Sebright say the elongation by only half an inch of the it improved principal tail feathers brings with probability of increased fertility." Mr. Wright states that Mr. Clark, whose fighting cocks were
two
^^ ^^
"
the
so
notorious,
continued
to
breed
from
to
his be in
own
kind up
as
lost those
cross
their any
disposition to
resistance, and
fight,but
were so
stood reduced
cut
without
making
size
to
weights required for the best prizes; but on obtaining a from Mr. Leighton, they again resumed their former courage weight." It should be borne in mind that game-cocks before
30
'
and
they
Journal
of
p.
Statistical
'
Soc'
June,
'
1875,
nightly Review,'
3^ The Art of the Improving Breed,' p. 13. 32 rp}^^ Poultry Book,' by W. B. Tegetmeier, 1866, p. 24.5.' 3' Journal Agricult. Royal Soc.,' 1846, vol. vii. p. 205; see also Ferguson the on Fowl, pp.
' '
also 'The 317: see Poultry 18GC, Book,' Tegetraeier, p. by extent to to the 135, with respect found that which cock-tighters
83,
they
and-in,
with
were
could
her
venture
to
"
breed
a
inhen
viz.,
own
occasionally
son;
but
they
the
to
repeat
102
fought
not
seem
c^ooD
FPtOM
cuossma.
Chap. xvn.
were
always weighed,
to
so
or
about
any have
left to the imaginothing was nation Mr. Clark of weight. increase does that
and
brothers
he in
sisters,which
after in
a
is the
most
injurious kind
tliere
was
a
found,
than
weight
from
young
from with
daughter, thologist, orniEyton, of Eyton, the well-known of Grey Dorkings, informs who is a large breeder that me in and become less diminish unless size, a they certainly prolific, is another strain obtained. So it is with with cross occasionally Malaj^s, according to INIr. Hewitt, as far as size is concerned.^* remarks An that the same as amateur, experienced writer maintains his the is well known, seldom birds; long superiority of is due and to all his stock this, he adds, undoubtedly being hence of the same it is indispensable that he should blood; sionally occason.
father
paired
mother
her
I may
add
that
Mr.
^^
"
"
with
bird
a
strain.
at for any
But
this is not
keep
who
different
Mr.
won
has
thirty
other
and in
has
prizes with
these
birds
fancier
England,
tion deteriora-
says
;
that
"
has
two
been
does not breeding in-and-in necessarily cause but all depends this is managed. how upon to keep about five or six distinct runs, and to
or
My
rear
plan
about
hundred
birds to
hundred
run
chickens
each
I
year,
and
secure
select
the
best We
from
for
crossing.
^^
thus
sufficient
crossing
prevent
see
deterioration." there
when is
thus
almost
are
poultry-breeders that,
fowls
quickly
would it is
a
follows
interbreeding carried
in
to
an
extent
which
disregarded chickens the are generally received opinion that cross-bred INIr. Tegetmeier, who has careand hardiest most fully easily reared.^' to poultry of all breeds, says"* that attended Dorking hens, Houdan with Crevecceur allowed to or run cocks, produce in that for size, hardihood, early maturity, the early spring chickens
case
"
be
the
of
most
quadrupeds.
Moreover,
and
we
fitness have
ever
for
the
market,
raised."
those
of it
as
any
a
pure
He
breed
gives
from
general
and
rule fowl
"
fowls, remark
that
crossing the
that
increases
their the
size.
makes
are .pheasant hybrids stating either from progenitor: so again, hybrids considerably larger than female of the male common are pheasant golden pheasant and either To this of the far larger size than parent-bird." subject increased size of hybrids I shall presently return. With unanimous, are Piffcotifi,breeders as previously stated, it is absolutely indispensable, notwithstanding the trouble that
after
^^
34
ponltrv
Book,'
18fi6, p.
B.
Tesetmeier,
35
'
bv 79.
W.
"
'
i. p.
^s
"
Poultry
i. p.
Chronicle,'
Book,'
p.
Poultry
Chronicle,' Book,'
vol.
p.
Poultry
1866,
'
1854,
3"
.
4.3.
210.
Poultry
by
W.
^^
B.
Tegetmeier,
1866,
79.
try
Ibid.
Chap. XVri.
EVIL
FROM
INTERBREEDING.
io3
their thus caused, occasionally to cross much-prized expense but of another individuals birds with strain, belonging,of course, notice size is one to the that, when same of variety. It deserves
and
the such
desired
characters,
are
as
with
sooner
interbreeding
as
much
dose
birds,
short-faced
valued.
these
are
The tumblers
delicacy improved
diseases,
their
eggs
often
die
in
the
egg
or
under generally to be hatched Although have these highly-prized birds invariably been subjected to much close interbreeding,yet their extreme not candelicacy of constitution Yarrell Mr. be informed thus me fully explained. perhaps Sir owlJ. Sebright continued that closely interbreeding some he as nearly as possible sterility pigeons, until from their extreme to Mr. Brent tried raise a breed of trumlost the whole peters, family. pigeon, and recrossing the daughter, by crossing a common ter, granddaughter, great-granddaughter, and great-great-granddaugh"
with of
experiment failed, for If close breeding so stopped reproduction." The experienced Neudovecotes also asserts that the offspring from and various meister^fertile and birds: other breeds are so hardy generally very again, MM. Boitard and after Corbie,*^ mend forty-five years' experience, recomfor amusement; their breeds to cross for, if they fail persons under will succeed to make economical birds, an interesting they of is found it that mongrels are as fertile than view, more point pigeons of pure race." I will refer only to one other animal, namely, the Hive-bee, because a this as a case of distinguished entomologist has advanced inevitable close interbreeding. As the hive is tenanted a single by female, it might have been thought that her male and female ofi'spring would always have bred together, more especiallyas bees of hostile to each other; a strange worker different hives are most being alattacked when another to enter hive. But Mr. always trying that tliis instinct does not apply to drones, Tegetmeier has shown which are permitted to enter any hive; so that there is no a priori of a queen The fact of the improbability receiving a foreign drone. union invariably and necessarilytaking place on the Aving,during the queen's nuptial flight, to be a special provision against seems continued this be, experience has interbreeding. However may of the yellow-banded Ligurian race shown, since the introduction into Germany and that bees Mr. Woodbury, England, freely cross: who introduced during a Ligurian bees into Devonshire, found of from that to two three single season one stocks, at distances
"
male
he
obtained
bird
with
''
"
"
**
Treatise on PigFancy eons,' by J. M. Eaton, p. 56. "'The 46. Pigeon Book,' p. ' " Das Ganze der Tauben-
40
"
"
'
Les Proc.
Pigeons/ Entomolog.
p. 126.
1824,
page
35.
**
'
Soc.,'Aug.
6th, 1860,
"uoht,' 1837, 41
s.
18.
104
GOOD
PROM
CROSSING.
Chap.
XVII.
miles
several black
one
from
his drones
hives,
must
were
crossed
flown
by
over
his
drones.
In
one
case
the
over
Ligurian
have hives.
the
city
of
Exeter,
several distance
and
common
intermediate
On
another
occasion
to
queens three
were
crossed
a
by Ligurian
drones
at
of from
and
half
miles.**
Plants.
When
a
single plant
of
new
species
is introduced
into
any
individuals will soon be country, if propagated by seed, many that if the insects be there will be raised, so crossing. present proper With
seed
an
newly-introduced
we are
not
here
almost
universal
means
seed, by which
conditions diminishes
introduced
propagated by plants it is to make practice occasionally exchanges of individuals which have been exposed to different
trees
or
other With
plants
not
concerned.
old-established
of
life, and
"
this,
as
we
have
"
seen
with
animals,
the
into
evil each
to
from
close
interbreeding,
will
occasionallybe
sub-variety,
of all other
district.
individuals and
With
respect
accuracy observers, states ^^ that he has many this step, especially with exotic from
is somewhat also
Ciirtner, whose
same
that
observed
good
the
effects
of which
I
fertility
bert Her-
impaired, says,*^ I am
"
such
as
inclined the
that from
have
I
vantage adto
same
impregnating
with
flower another
which than
pollen
from
individual
variety, that crossed Again, Professor Lecoq ascertained vigorous and robust than their parents.^
at
least from
another
flower, rather
with
its own."
more
offspring are
can
General
trusted:
statements I therefore
of this
kind, however,
seldom
be
fully
experiments, will I think for about ten years, which conclusively show the good distinct effects of crossing two plants of the same variety, and the evil effects of long-continued self-fertilisation. A clear light will thus such be thrown on questions, as why flowers are almost to permit, or so as favour, or necessitate invariably constructed shall the union of two individuals. We why clearly understand monrecious and dioecious, why dichogamous, dimorphic and triI intend other such cases. to soon morphic plants exist, and many of these here give only publish an account experiments, and I can in illustration. few I followed The to grow cases a was plan which in in of the the same same size,or close together pot, or pots plants in the open tilise insects; and then to ferground; carefully to exclude flowers with of the from and the some same flower, pollen the same others on plant with pollen from a distinct but adjoining of these experiments, the crossed plant. In many plants yielded
a
"
began
long
series
of
continued
*^
Journal
pp.
'
of
Horticulture,'
p.
1861,
39, 77, ir)8; 1804, " Kenntniss Beitriige zur Befruehtung,' 1844, s. 366.
206.
der
"
'
106
GOOD
FROM
CROSSING.
Chap.
XVII.
plants
half
were
only
not
an
inch
the
high.
three
But
this
were
crossed
were
plants
tained they regrowth was complete. far more The crossed vigorous than the uncrossed, plants looked flowered before and them; they produced also a far greater number the of capsules. As in the former experiment was case, repeated Had I not these watched several succeeding generations. during I their whole and could growth, Ipomoia during plants of Mimulus that a difference it possible, have believed not apparently so slight from the same that of the pollen being taken flower, or from a as in the same so distinct plant growing derful wonpot, could have made difl'erence in the growth and vigour of the plants thus proa duced.
high,
the
self-fertilised
dill'erence
inches, and
same
relative
till their
This, under
is
most
able remark-
phenomenon.
from respect to the benefit derived crossing distinct has been varieties, plenty of evidence peatedly republished. Sageret in terms of the of melons raised speaks strong vigour by adds that more ciossing difl'erent varieties, and easily they are fertilised than common melons, and produce numerous good seed. follows the evidence of an "1 Hei'e have English gardener :
*^ ^"
With
this
in
an
summer
met
with
better
success
in my
cultivation
of melons,
unprotected state, from the seeds of hj^brids (i. e. mongrels) obtained The ofi'impregnation, than with old varieties. by cross of spring of three different hybridisations (one more especially, which the two the most dissimilar I varieties were could parents select) each ample and finer produce than any one yielded more of between varieties." twenty and thirty established his Andrew believed that Knight rieties seedlings from crossed vaof the increased apple exhibited vigour and luxuriance; alludes and to M. Chevreul the extreme of the vigour of some fruit-trees raised by Sageret. crossed By crossing reciprocally the tallest and shortest peas, Knight "I in this had of the experiment a striking instance says: stimulative effects of crossing the breeds; for the smallest riety, vatwo whose increased to six height rarely exceeded feet, was the height of the large and luxuriant kind feet; whilst was very Mr. diminished." Laxton little me seed-peas produced from gave
^^ ^"
crosses were
between
four
distinct
kinds;
and
in
the each
plants
thus close
raised
one
two
case extraordinarily vigorous, being the parent-forms growing three feet taller than or
from
to
side alongof
3rd
them.
Wiegmann
*^
'
^*
made
les
many
Cucurbita-
crosses
between
^'
several
varieties
Memoire
pp.
siir
Annal.
des torn.
cees.'
so
36,
p.
London's
'
viii., 1832,
"1
Transact.
28,
'
series,
Bot.,
p.
Mag.,' Soc.,'
vol.
v.
^^^
"
pjjjjQgQpijipal Transactions,'
'
1799,
i.
^*
200. Ueber
die
s.
Bastarderzeu-
p.
25.
gung,'
1828,
32, 33.
For
Mr.
Chap.
XVII.
EVIL
FROM
INTERBREEDING.
107
he of astonishment the cabbage; and speaks with vigour and the of the which excited of all the amazement height mongrels^ beheld Mr. them. Chaiindy raised a great number gardeners who of mongrels by planting together six distinct varieties of cabbage. These mongrels displayed an infinite diversityof character ; But
"
the
most
remarkable
and
circumstance in
were
was,
that, M'hile
were
all
the
other
cabbages
when Mr. and
"
borecoles
the
nursery to be
winter, these
there Maund
was
hybrids
no
little
injured, and
had." the
other
cabbage
before
exhibited
states
specimens of crossed
the editor with united that
wheat,
that
together with
parent
in
varieties;
they
were
intermediate
character,
greater vigour
of
growth, which
world, is the result vegetable as in the animal varieties of wheat,^''and also several crossed Knight
the in the in the
he
"
says of
that
corn
years island
1795
and
1796, when
almost
the
whole
in
crop
obtained, and
sown
several
situations."
case:
syJresand pediinculata, Alnus "ihitinigricans, Quercns and the and crosscampcstris cffiisa; and incana, TJlmus nosa well seeds of the fertilised seeds, as as parent-trees, were pure
tris and
rohnr
remarkable
M.
Clotzsch
"
crossed
Pinus
all
was,
sown
at
the
an
same
time
and
in
the
same
place. The
result
one-
that
after than
of
eight years,
the
hybrids
were
third
taller
trees!
The the
trees
as
facts
above
given refer
to
undoubted
varieties, excepting
ranked nists crossed are by various botaby Clotzsch, which true or species. That strongly-marked races, sub-species, in lose distinct species,though they hybrids raised from entirely constitutional often vigour, is certain. gain in size and fertility, be superfluous to quote any It would facts; for all experimenters, have Naudin, Kolreuter, Gartner, Herbert, Sageret, Lecoq, and the wonderful with been struck vigour, height, size, tenacity of ner hardiness of their and life,precocitj^ hybrid productions. Gart^*
sums
^"
up
his his
conviction
numerous
on
this
head
in
the with
strongest
of the
terms.
Kolreuter and of
"
gives
precise
in his
measurements
Aveight
of their of
both
measurements altitudo
case
stritura
their
anihifus
to
^s
nc
ralde
exceptions
London's
the
Chaundy's
Gard. 696.
"
' '
Partner.
'Bnstarderzou.irung,'
526,
et srq.
Mag.'
Gardener's
vol.
vii.
1831,
p.
s.
'
250,
5"
'
518,
Forfsetzunsr.'
1763,
s.
s.
20;
06:
Chron.,'
1846, p. 1799,
See.
Dritte
Act.
Fortsetzung,'
Acad. St.
44.
601.
""'
'
Petersburg,*
251:
Philosoph. Quoted
vol. in
'
Transact.,'
Bull. p.
p.
201.
""'
1782, Acta,
part 1793.
ii.,
pp.
p.
301.
304;
'Nova Nova
'
France,'
ii.,1855,
Bot. 327.
Acta,'
1795, pp.
316, 323.
108
GOOD
FROM
CROSSING.
Chap.
XVIL
hybrids have, however, been noticed the most striking exceptions are that found were Wichura,*" who hybrid willows
very
sterile
Herbert;
in
but
by Gartner given by
generally
size
of
constitution, dwarf,
Kolreuter
and
short-lived.
vast
explains
the
increase result
in
of
as a
the
sort
of
the
roots,
mals aniat
stems,
due
the
same
compensation
seems
many
This
first
thors; au-
has well
been remarked
accepted by
that
but
Gartner"
has
there
much
in fully admitting it; for with difficulty hybrids there is no many the degree of their sterility and their increased parallelism between size and of luxuriant striking instances vigour. The most growth have observed with been not sterile in any were hybrids which extreme Mirabilis, certain usually undegree. In the genus hybrids are their extraordinary luxuriance of growth, together fertile,and with progeny. of their The
enormous
been
transmitted
in
to
their the
result
in and
saving
nutriment
probably part vital force through the sexual at all, but more especially to
from animals
a cross.
is
due
to
derived
For
that
mongrel
and
sterile that
their
is fertility It
size, hardiness,
size thus
augmented, and
markable re-
little
accession
of
vigour
of
and
arise
increased
^*
diminished
fertility.
It is
a
fact
not
that
hybrids invariably
with
a
breed
with
more even
parent,
with
and
rarely
distinct is inclined
cies, speto
one
another.
Herbert
from but a advantage derived explain cross; for it the of the accounts Gartner more by pollen hybrid, justly and degree vitiated, whereas probably its ovules, being in some ovules of both the pollen and parents and of any third species pure
by
the
are
sound.
are
some
well-ascertained
see,
or
and that
markable rea
shall
to
presently
increase crossed the
show
cross
re-establish of
the
'
offspring both
holds
as as
rieties va-
and
species are
striking
Mr.
larger
parent-forms,
animals
good
with
1
,
in the
most
manner
with
hybrid
had
*2
well
mongrels.
"0
'
Bartlett, who
such
"
Die
s.
Bastardbefruchtung,'
31. 41, Wichura
(' does 42.
Bastarderzeugung,'
'
394,
"c.,
"'
18G.5,
Max
526.
"^
528.
this
s.
view
Kolreuter,
p.
Nova
Acta,'
;
1795,
"*
316.
'
43),
as
Rev.
M.
in
of
J. Hort.
Gartner,
Bastarderzeugung,'
s.
430.
Chap.
XVII.
EVIL
FROM
INTERBREEDING.
109
"
Among
all
hybrids
He
of then
vertebrated
enumerates
animals
there
is with
marked
increase
of size."
including monkeys,
On certain
and
with
various
mammals,
birds."*
or
Hermaphrodite Plants which, either normally tinct abnormally, require to he fertilised hy pollen from a disindividual or species.
The
facts
now
to not
is self-sterility
given differ from the foregoing, as here the result of long-continued close
be
with interbreeding. These facts are, however, connected our with a distinct individual is present subject, because a cross shown advantageous. to be either necessary or Dimorphic
trimorphic plants,though they are hermaphrodites, must crossed, one set of forms by the other, in order be reciprocally and in some to be fertile in any gree. decases to be fully fertile, But I should not have noticed these plants,had it not given by Dr. Hildebrand been for the following cases ;
and
^^
"
sinensis
is
brand Hilde-
fertilised
twenty-eight
and
of both
full
form,
an
the
average
both
fertility. He form, but taken from a distinct pollen of the same an and all only plant, produced capsules containing on average to our immediate ll).6 seed. more point, Lastly, and here we come of both forms with he fertilised forty-eight flowers pollen of the
and
forms
normal with
same
form
and
taken
from
the
same
flower, and
now
he
obtained
18.6 on an capsules, and these contained average in than the former So case. that, capsule per with these illegitimate unions, the act of impregnation is less ovules the pollen and assured, and the fertility slightlyless,when when to two distinct than to the same flower, belonging belong has Dr. of the same Hildebrand individuals form. recently made of Oxalis rosea, analogous experiments on the long-styled form
seed,
or
one
less
with
the
same
result."^
It has
recently been
in
discovered country
plants,whilst
conditions,
growing
cannot
are
their
native
natural
be fertilised with
so
sometimes
"'
plant. They pollen from the same that, though they can utterly self-impotent,
"
'
'
Proc.
"
Dr. in bv Quoted Murie, Zoolog. 'Soc.,' 1870, p. 40. Jan. Botanische Zeitung,'
'
Monatsberioht
Akiulemie
Wissenschaft,'
372.
Berliu,
1SG6,
s.
1864,
s.
3.
110
GOOD
FROM
CROSSING.
Chap.
XVIL
distinct
distinct
a
genus,
yet, wonderful
as
is the
or
produce
moreover,
pollen. In some single seed by their own the plant's own pollen and stigma mutually
in
a
cases,
on
each
other
deleterious
manner.
Most will
commence
given relate
to
a
orchids, but
plant
belonging
to
widely
different
family.
were
of
Sixty-three flowers of Corydalis cava, borne on distinct plants, with fertilised by Dr. Hildebrand other pollen from plants the same ing obtained, includspecies; and fifty-eight capsules were
"^^
on
an
average
4.5
seed
in
each.
He
then
fertilised
sixteen
with tained one another, but obproduced by the same raceme, of which alone contained only three capsules, one any good seeds, namely, two in number. Lastly, he fertilised twentyits o^^"n seven flowers, each with pollen; he left also fifty-seven
flowers
to ensued
be
this the
would anthers
seen stigma, but by Dr. Hildebrand nevertheless these it; penetrate eighty-four flowers did not This whole is highly instructive, case produce a single seed-capsule! it shows how as widely dilTerent the action of the same pollen is,according as it is placed on the stigma of the same flower, or on
the
been
for
not
certainly only
that
of
another
flower Orchids
on
the
same
raceme,
or
on
that been
of
plant.
exotic several
analogous
cases
have
served, ob-
Scott."^ Oncidium has sphacclatum chiefly by Mr. John pollen, for Mr. Scott fertilised two distinct species with it; the ovules are likewise capable of impregnation, for they were tween readily fertilised by the pollen of 0. divaricatnm; nevertheless, beand two hundred flowers fertilised by their own one pollen did not produce a single capsule, though the stigmas were trated peneof the Royal Munro, by the pollen-tubes. INIr. Robertson Rotanic hundred Gardens
and
of
Edinburgh,
flowers of
also this
informs
me
(18G4)
that
same twenty species were by him with their own pollen, and did not produce a capsule, but eight flowers, fertilised by the pollen of O. divaricafum, produced four fine capsules: again, between two and three hundred flowers of 0. divaricatnm, fertilised by their own pollen, did not set a flowers fertilised by 0. flexiio^Km produced capsule, but twelve potent have three eight fine capsules: so that here we utterly self-imspecies,with their male and female organs perfect,as shown In fertilisation. these fertilisation cases was by their mutual shall effected the aid of distinct a only by species. But, as we
fertilised
^'
International
gress,
69
'
London,
Proc.
burgh,'
May,
tions others of
are are
given
aflcled, of
Linn. p.
in
in
Proc.
Bot.,
1864,
102.
Chap.
XVII.
SELF-IMPOTENT
PLANTS.
HI
of
presently see,
snm, and
distinct
plants, raised
from
seed,
Onciditon
have been probably of the other species, would each other, for this is the natural capable of fertilising that the pollen of a plant Again, Mr. Scott found
was
mk-rochilum he
for eli'ective,
with for
it he
fertilised could be
two
distinct
species; they good, by of these the pollen of one tinct species, and by the pollen of a disthey could not be fertilised by plant of O. microchilvm ; but the of tlie same pollen-tubes penetrated the pollen plant, though has recorded been stigma. An analogous case by M. Riviere," two both selfwith were plants of 0. cavcniVisliianum, which each other. but fertilised x411 these cases refer sterile, reciprocally
its ovules fertilised
to
found
the
genus
"
Oncidium,
but
Mr.
Scott
found
that
Ma.rillarid
atro-
ruhens
was
totally insusceptible
fertilised, and
was
of
fertilisation
with
its
own
pollen," but
species,viz.
As
fertilised
under
by,
widely
distinct
in tliis
M.
scjiiatcns.
had Miiller
one
these
But
orchids
I Fritz
been
hot-houses,
cause.
unnatural
was
conditions
due in
to
self-sterilitv
that of at
Desterro,
the with
all
Brazil,
he and
fertilised
hundred
from
flowers
Oncidium with
Pcxiiosnm,
that those
which
is there
endemic,
pollen,
were plants: other plant of by pollen from any the same fertile. species were During the first three days there of pollen: that in kinds difl'erence the action of the two was no placed on stigma of the same plant separated in the usual manner which into grains, and emitted tubes penetrated the column, and the stigmatic chamber shut itself; but only those liowers which from distinct plant produced had been fertilised by pollen taken a these occasion experiments were seed-capsules. On a subsequent Fritz result. ]\Iiillerfound repeated on a large scale with the same like manner in of Oncidium that four endemic other were species from with that pollen, but fertile utterly sterile with their own likewise of them other produced seed-capsules plant: some any such distinct as of when with widely pollen impregnated genera, fers difcrispum, however, Cyrtopodium, and Rodriguezia. Oncidium in its self-sterility; from the foregoing species in varying much ing pollen, others failsome plants producing fine pods with their own
distinct
former
sterile, whilst
fertilised
to
do
so
in
two
or
three
instances, Fritz
taken
from
a
Miiller distinct
observed flower
on
that
tlie pods produced by pollen flower's own same plant, were larger than those produced by the to orchid In belonging an cinnabarinum, Epidcndrum pollen. the fine of the another division produced by pods were family, half plant's own by weight only about pollen, but they contained fertilised by pollen had been seed much the capsules which as as distinct species; from instance from in one a distinct plant, and a cases nearly all the a moreover, large proportion,and in some very of an destitute seeds were pollen, produced by the plant's own the
^0
Professor
Lecoq,
'
De
la
Fecondation,'
2nd
112
GOOD
FROM
CROSSING.
Chap.
XVII.
embryo.
similar
Another
Some
state.
self-fertilised
made
capsules by
the Fritz
of
Maxillaria
were
in able, remark-
observation that
to
Miiller the
but
on flower, impregnate in an This is injurious or poisonous manner. of the stigma in contact with the pollen, and shown by the surface three to five days dark by the pollen itself, becoming in from and then not brown, and decay are decaying. The discoloration observed caused which Fritz were parasitic cryptograms, by by in only a single instance. Miiller These well shown changes are time, the plant'sown stigma, at the same by placing on the same of and that from distinct the same a other plant species,or of anpollen of another and remote Thus, widely species,or even genus. the stigma of Oncidium on ftexuosum, the plant's own pollen and that from distinct a placed side by side, and in five plant were days' time the latter was perfectly fresh, whilst the plant's own the pollen of a disbrown. On the other tinct hand, when pollen was the Oncidium and of of the fleanosum Epidendrum plant zebra were (nov. spec?) placed together on the same stigma, they in exactly the same behaved the grains separating, emitting manner, and the that the two tubes, penetrating stigma, so pollenafter an interval of eleven days, could not be distinguished masses, of their caudicles, which, of course, dergo unexcept by the difference Fritz Miiller has, moreover, made no a ber large numchange. of crosses between orchids belonging to distinct species and
not
with
various
orchids
the
pollen stigma,
and
on^
in
all until
and
cases
when to
the
flowers
and
are
not
first
begin
the in
wither;
the
ing witheran
of
one
or
two
weekSj
even
fall
of
off, after
between
most in
weeks;
but and
in
this
latter in
and
the
pollen
however, surface,
the
case
appearance the
fresh.
on
brownish,
with
generally
external
and
stigma,
is of
in
as
is invariably
when observed in
two
the the
Fritz
Miiller the
and
pollen
action Also these
as
applied.
the
plant's own
0.
pollen
pnhes
fourth
in
above-mentioned
two of
same
fiexuosum,
two
unicorne,
{?),
genus
was
unnamed
species.
in
one
species
and
of
of
a
Rodriguezia,
last, it
in in
Notylia,
of all
were,
Burlingtonia,
cases,
the
been might have distinct a expected, fertile with pollen from plant of the same of one flowers of fertilised species. Numerous species Notylia were with from the same in two pollen days' time they all raceme; withered, the germens began to shrink, the pollen-masses became
proved
that
In
except
the
dark in
more on
brown,
orchid
not
one
pollen-grain emitted
action
of
tube.
own
So
that is
this the
injurious
with
were
the
rapid
same
Oncidium
flexnosum.
with
plant's Eight
pollen
a
other
flowers distinct
fertilised
pollen
from
114
GOOD
FROM
CROSSING.
Chap.
XVII.
is exactly the reverse of what by their own, with all ordinary species. Fof in the latter the two occurs sexual elements individual of the same plant are of course capable of freely acting on each other ; but are so constituted that they are less impotent when more or brought into union with of a distinct species,and produce the sexual elements less sterile hybrids. or more
species than
Gartner from he
were same
on
two
plants
"^
of Lobelia
fulgens, brought
was
found
that and
their
pollen
good, for
ovules of
fertilised likewise
two
cardiualis
syphilitica ; their
fertilised
these
perfect
Tcrhasciim
ease
this
these by the pollen plants of L. fulgens could not be pollen, as can generally be effected with species. Again, the pollen of a plant of in a pot was found by Gartner" capable
were
they
fertilised
two
F.
austriacnm
; the
ovules
could
be
by the pollen of F. tliapsus; but the flowers could not by their own pollen. Kolreuter, also,'*gives the case of three garden plants of Terbascinn bore during phopniceiun, which two the flowers; these he fertilised successfully with years many of less than four distinct but no not they pollen species, produced seed their with a own apparently good pollen; subsequently these raised from same plants, and others seed, assumed a strangely the male fluctuating condition, being temporarily sterile on or
fertilised female but
summer.
side, or
tAA'o of
on
both
sides, and
were
sometimes
fertile fertile
on
both
sides;
the
the
plants
odorata
own
perfectly
have
and
throughout
individuals the
With sterile
Reseda
Reseda with
Ivtea.
found
so
certain it is with
their The
pollen,
self-sterile
quite indigenous
of
to
plants of both species were fectly perwith other fertile when crossed individual pollen from any observations will hereafter the be pubsame species. These lished
in
another which
work,
Miiller
were
in which
I shall
also
show
that
seeds
sent
caliproduced by plants of Eschsclioltzia quite self-sterile in Brazil, yielded in this were plants which only slightly self-sterile. It appears flowers certain that certain on plants of Liliuin candidum be fertilised more can freely by pollen from a distinct the varieties individual of than So, again, with by their own.
me
by Fritz
fornica country
^^
"'-
'
Bastarderzeugung,'
s.
64,
357. 357. s. Zweite s. Fortsetzung,' 40. Mr. Dritte Forts..' 10; s. fertilised Scott likewise fifty-four flowers of Ycrbascum phoeniccum, two with including varieties, and not their a own pollen,
"
Ibid.,
'
''*
'
single
capsule
was
produced.
of the pollen grains their but tubes, only a them the penetrated stighowever some slight effect mas; of the was as produced, many became somewhat ovaries develAsiatic Soc. Journal Benoped: gal,' 1(57, p. 150. " GiirtDuvernoy, quoted by 334. s. Bastarderzeugung,' ner,
Many
emitted of few
'
'
Chap.
XVII.
SELF-IMPOTENT
PLANTS.
II5
with
"
potato.
that
seed
Tinzmann/^
and I have
^vho
found
pollen from
from
another
made
this
a
plant,
exerts
influence,
potatoes whicli
pollen of their own flowers would bear it with other pollen." It does not, to have been however, appear proved that the pollen which failed to act the flower's in itself good. on own stigma was In the genus Passiflora it has that several long been known not do unless fertilised produce fruit, species by pollen taken from " distinct species found that he could : thus, Mr. not Mowbray get fruit from P. alata and racemosa except by reciprocally fertilising them with each other's similar facts have been served obpollen; and
in P.
the
Germany
and
never
France.''* fertilised
case
I have
received from
P.
two
own
accounts
of
of P.
quadrangiilaris
so
producing
in
fruit
one
its
doing
other
to
freely w^hen
in
case
with
the
ccerulea, and
cases
another writer
former to in
with
that
of
ediilis. the
tliree
own
species fruited
one
freely when
case
fertilised
its
to
pollen; and
the Fahr. above With has with the their
attributed
favourable
result
10"
temperature
of the
having been raised from .5" were temperature, after the flowers
house laiiri folia,
*"
ised." fertil-
respect
P.
cultivator flowers
"
of must
much be
ence experifertilised
recently remarked
that
the
other common kind, as pollen of P. cacrnlea, or of some But the fullest details on pollen will not fertilise them." this subject have been Scott and Robertson given by Messrs. *^ Munro: and alata ered flowC(]crulea, plants of Passlftora racemosa, in the Botanic Gardens of profusely during many years Edinburgh, and, though repeatedly fertilised with their own pollen, at once all three never with produced any seed; yet this occurred crossed In the together in various ways. specieswhen they were in the Botanic of P. coenilea three plants, two of which case grew all rendered Gardens, were fertile, merely by impregnating each with pollen of one in of the others. The result was attained same the same with P. alata, but manner only with one plant out of been three. As self-sterile of Passiflora have so species many
own
be
as
stated thus
that sixteen
the their
flowers
own
of
the
as
annual
P. that
fertile with
pollen
an
with
21.3 seed.
distinct
fertilised
flowers
on
spontaneously
average 24.1
self-
containing
flowers
seed,
crossed Munro.
been
contained
Returning
alata, I have
received Three
England,
""
'
have
already
mentioned
s"
'
Gardener's
Transact.
p.
Chronicle,'
Hort.
1846,
p. vol.
p.
183.
"
'
Soc.,'
'
1SGG,
of
'
Linn,
vii., 1830,
''^
95.
Soc.,' vol.
Robertson
viii., 1864.
Professor
condation,
'
Bastarderzeugung,'
"
"
64.
Munro. of Edinburgh,
vol.
ix.
Card.
Chron..'
1868, p. 1341.
lie
GOOD
FROM
CROSSING.
Chap.
XVIl.
which, in the found repeated trials during many years, other places, however, this species same predicament. At some its own fertilised with fruits readily when pollen. At Taymouth Castle there is a plant which was formerly grafted by Mr. 13onaldand since the distinct unknown, ever son on a species, name fruit in abundance its has own it by pollen; produced operation that this small and unnatural change in the state of this plant so of the its self- fertility! Some the has restored seedlings from to not found be sterile with Castle were only plant Taymouth their own pollen,but with each other's pollen, and with the pollen the Taymouth from tilise of distinct species. Pollen plant failed to fersuccessful but certain plants of the same was on one species, Gardens. raised Seedlings were plant in the Edinburgh Botanic of their flowers were fertilised by this latter union, and from some found to be as their but with Mr. Munro own pollen; they were self-impotent as the mother-plant had always proved, except when shall fertilised by the grafted Taymouth plant, and except, as we her For Mr. Munro ised fertilwhen fertilised by own seedlings. see, mother-plant with pollen eighteen flowers on the self-impotent able her these from own self-impotent seedlings,and obtained, remarkexcellent fine seed! full of the fact is, eighteen capsules as in regard to plants which shows well with met I have so no case
and self-sterile, after Munro
me
Mr.
informs
of
several
others
have
been
as
this
of
P.
(data,
or fertility
what
small
and
causes
plete com-
The
facts
hitherto
given relate
to
the
much-lessened
or
of pure nated impregcompletely destroyed fertility species when ity with their own pollen,in comparison with their fertildistinct when or impregnated by distinct individuals species; but closelyanalogous facts have been observed with
hybrids.
Herbert states
*-
that
of
time
from
nine
eral sev-
that
cross
almost
from
were
another touched
produced
their he
of
own
flower
touched and
with those
In
with
pollen
size, with
"
either fewer
failed seeds." of
entirely,
the the
to to
formed
slowly
pod
'
Horticultural of another
to
Journal
that
the
admission
len polthe in
cross-bred
one
Hippeastrum
number,
In
a
(however
is almost letter
complicated
sure
cross)
the
flower of the
check
me
others."
written
1839,
Herbert the
during
them,
82
'
had
invariable
years, result.
'
and
thus
led
to
make
1837, p. 371;
Journal
Horticultural
Soc.,' vol.
Chap.
XVII.
SELF-IMPOTENT
PLANTS.
II7
an
analogous trial
which he
four
aulicum,
pollen,and
hulbulosum,
ovaries few
of
the Hippeastrum pure species,namely, on lately imported from Brazil: this bulb produced of which fertilised by their own flowers, three were the fourth between by the pollen of a triple cross H.
on a
had
regince,
three
and
vittatum;
soon
the
result
to
was,
that
and
"
the
a
the
first flowers
ceased
grow,
after
the pod impregnated by the days perished entirely: whereas made and to maturity, and hybrid vigorous rapid progress bore This is, indeed, as Herbert vegetated freely." good seed, which remarks, a strange truth," but not so strange a^ it then appeared.
"
As
confirmation
of
these
statements,
I may
add
that
Mr.
M.
Mayes,^^ after much experience in crossing the species of Amaryllis the species nor the hybrids will, we (Hippeastrum), says "neither seed well so are produce abundantly from their own aware, pollen of others." from that So, again, Mr. Bidwell, in New as South
Wales,^*
when
asserts
that
Amaryllis
or
belladonna
bears when of
a
many
more
seeds of
some
fertilised Mr.
by the
Beaton
pollen of Brunswigia
of B.
{Amaryllis
authors)
own
josephime
multiilora, than
four the
and
fertilised
by its
with
their
dusted with
Cyrtanthus
their These before of
four
pollen of
Vallota
{Aniaryllis)
own
purpurea;
the crossed
day
the
"those Vallota
received on."
^^
pollen
which
cases,
slackened
were
growth,
uncrossed
ultimately
perished; those
latter
however,
relate the
species,like
are
given
to
with
respect
because
to
referred
only
plants belong
the
two
to
the
Amarylhad
more
three their
kinds
own
alone
had
been
efficient nuitual
than
from
pollen,it might
parentage, explanation
whichever had
a
have closer
argued affinitythan
for the trials difTerent
these,
the
were
their
mixed this
others; but
made and
a
is inadmissible,
backwards reciprocally
and
forwards
taken, cross, hybrids; way add I can gous a striking and analoalways proved highly beneficial. Rev. of the A. made Rawson, from case by experiments of Gladiolus. This with some complex hybrids Bromley Common,
on
nine
skilful horticulturist
ing from
descended descended Mr.
*^
each
from
other G.
size of the
G.
varieties,diff'erflowers, all
to
Gandavensis,
natalensis
well-known
hybrid, said
of the
be
from
by the
trials,found
pollen of
none
oppositiflorus.^'^
varieties
Rawson,
Loudon's
'
after
'
repeated
Gardener's Magaxi., 183.".,p. 260. "* Gardener's Chronicle,' 18.50, p. 470. *'5 Hort. Journal Soc.,' vol. v. raised The seedlincrs thus p. 135.
zine.' vol.
'
were
given
on
to
the
Hort.
find,
inquiry,
died
fortunately
winter.
that the
Soc; they
but
un-
following
^^ Mr. in ' Journal D. Beaton, of 4.'53. Lecoq. Hort.,' 1861, p. la however Fecond.,' 1862. (' De is that this hybrid p. 369), states and from O. psittacinus descended is opposed cardinnlis to this ; but who found Herbert's experience, former the that not species could be crossed,
118
GOOD
PROM
CriOSSma.
Chap. XVII.
set seed with would their own pollen,although taken from distinct been plants of the same variety (which had, of course, propagated but all with seeded that by bulbs), freely they pollen from any To did other not examples: Ophir variety. give two produce a its own fertilised with of that pollen, but when capsule with and Linne, it produced ten fine Janire, Brenchleyensis, Vulcain Linne good, for when was capsules; but the pollen of Ophir was This fertilised by it seven latter variety, capsules were produced. its own with the other hand, was utterly barren on pollen, which have was seen we perfectly efficient on Ophir. Altogther, Mr. E,awson, in the year 1801, fertilised twenty-six flowers borne by from other with four varieties varieties, and pollen taken every fifty-two flowers single flower produced a fine seed-capsule; whereas the the fertilised at time with their own same same on plants, Mr. did Rawson not yield a single seed-capsule. fertilised, pollen,
in
some one
cases,
the
flowers, and
own
in
other
cases
all
down
spike, with
remaining plants their curious the capsules were nearly mature, and arrangement to the mind that at immense an once brought full conviction from derived been crossing these hybrids. advantage had from Dr. E. Bornet, of Antibes, who has Lastly, I have heard made numerous experiments in crossing the species of Cistus, but has not yet published the results, that, v.dien any of these hybrids in be said to to are function, dioecious; fertile, be, regard they may for the flowers sterile when the is fertilised are always pistil by flower from from the the flowers same or on same pollen taken often fertile if pollen be employed from a they are plant. But distinct individual of the same from a hybrid nature, or hybrid made by a reciprocal cross."
"
varieties, and
these
"
That
plants should
are
be
self-sterile, although
elements
in
fit state
first
sight opposed
to
though in this state, alspecies, all the individuals of which are their natural living under conditions, we clude conmay that their self-sterility has been acquired for the sake is closeof effectuallypreventing self -fertilisation. The case ly antilogous with tliat of dimorphic and trimorphic or heterothe
styled plants,which
to
a
longing fully fertilised only by plants bedifferent form, and not, as in the foregoing cases,
can
be
indifferentlyby
these taken
any
other
individual
of the species.
Some
of
which
heterostyled plants are completely sterile with pollen the same from With form. spect replant or from the same under their natural to species living conditions, of : only certain individuals are self-sterile (as with Reseda
'
Chap. XVII.
CONCLUSION.
119
self-sterile uals individ-
occasional remained
other
have the
the
propagation of
with that of plants to be parallel species. The case seems Miiller has discovered, which produce, as Hermann forms two bearing more one conspicuous flowers with their structure adapted for cross-fertilisation by insects,and the other form with less conspicuous flowers adapted for self-fertilisation. The self-sterility, of the foregoing plants however, of some is incidental on the conditions to which jected, they have been sub"
as
with
Y erhascum
of w^hich varied according to (the sterility recovered with the Passiflora alata, which when grafted on a different stock.
It is
self-fertility
cases
interesting
to
observe
in the
above
several
the
fertilised by their graduated series from plants which, when of seeds, but with the pollen,yield the full number own in stature to plants which when seedlings a little dwarfed self-fertilised yield few seeds to those which yield none, but have their ovaria somewhat developed and, lastly,to the plant's own those in which pollen and stigma mutually another like poison. It is also interesting to act on one of the pollen observe on how slighta difference in the nature ity of the ovules complete self-sterility complete self-fertilor or ual of the above cases. must Every individdepend in some of the self-sterile species appears to be capable of producing fertilised by the the full complement of seed when pollenof any other individual (though judging from the facts
" " "
given with
;
respect
not
one
to
Abutilon individual
the nearest
can
kin
must
be
cepted) exown
but
be fertilised by its
some
pollen. As
every
every
organism differs
of the
same
in
other
individual
species,so
doubt
it
we pollen and ovules; and in the above case and must believe that complete self-sterility complete selffertility depend on such slight differences in the ovules and and not their having been differentiated in some pollen, cial spein relation to one another; for it is impossible manner
is with
their
of
many
thousand
to
should
specialisedin relation
every
as
individual.
la some,
however, of
4a
the above
cases,
certain
Passi-
1^0 floras,an
ovules
amount
GOOD
FROM
CROSSING.
Chap.
XVII.
of differentiation
pollen from a distinct species; but this is probably the result rendered somewhat sterile from of such plants having been the unnatural to which conditions they have been exposed.
Exotic animals confined
state
as
in
menageries
are
sometimes
in
self-impotent shall see in the following chapter, certain we the and monkeys, larger carnivora, several finches, geese, together, quite as freely as, or even more pheasants, cross freely than the individuals of the same speciesbreed together. Cases will, also, be given of sexual incompatibility between
certain male
are
the
above-described
and
female
animals, which,
any
theless, never-
other
individual
of the In
same
the
was
shown
that
the
crossing of individuals
same
belonging
races
or
to
distinct
families
of the
race,
or
to different
and
case
constitutional of crossed
vigour
to
evidence fertility. The the universal testimony of breeders rests on (for it should be observed that I am here speaking of the evil results of not is practically exemplified in the close interbreeding), and
species, increased
higher value
The
with
of cross-bred
animals
tion. consump-
good
some
results
of
crossing have
and
with
strated demon-
animals
numerous
plants, by
actual blood
weight and measurement. Although animals of pure will obviously be deteriorated by crossing, as far as
their characteristic
to be qualities are concerned, there seems no exception to the rule that advantages of the kind just mentioned thus when there has not been any gained, even are previous close interbreeding; and the rule applies to such
animals
and-in
as
cattle and
sheep, which
can
between the
case
blood-relations.
In
and
in
a
hardiness greater
can or
hardly be attributed to the principle of the compensation; for there is no close parallelism between increased size and vigour of hybrid offspring and their sterilabove
respects
1^^
GOOD
t^UOM
CROSSma.
Chap.
XVII.
vigour,
size, and
in the
fertility; general
have
seen
but
there of
the
is
no ^r
necessary
rioration dete-
form that
body, pigs
in
other
good
qualities.
have
We
with
first-rate close
animals
been
produced they
had
near never
after
become
long-continued extremely
The
be
so
interbreeding,
when
though
with
occurs,
infertile of but
paired
when it
to
tain cer-
their
seems
relations.
to
loss
fertility, only
absolute,
that of
own
relative
to
a
animals
extent cannot
of
the
same
blood;
with
this
sterility is
analogous
fertilised
that
self-impotent pollen,
but
plants
are same
which
be with
by
any
their
perfectly species.
one
pollen of
of of does
other this
individual
of the
nature
fact results
infertility of long-continued
not
peculiar
being
that
of
interbreeding,
by
common
breeding inter-
act
merely
combining
to at
ing augmentfor
various animals
can
morbid
such
tendencies
parents;
with
tendencies,
their
if not kind.
the
actually offspring
ill,
scended de-
generally
from
propagate
the in
nearest
Although
are
blood-relations yet
some
not
necessarily
that is
powers not
deteriorated
are
structure, liable
to
they
probable, imacts
eminently
as
malformations;
which of lessens this and the follows close
very
everything
Instances of
in
in
this the
manner. case
kind
some
have
been
recorded
pigs, bloodhounds,
we
other facts
animals.
now
Finally,
which
when show
evil
consider that
various from
given
and less when
plainly
that
in
good
from with
crossing,
plainly
we
interbreeding,
organisms
union of
nature
and
bear
many
provisions
individuals,
made
for of
a
the
great
proved;
which
or even are
namely,
not
crossing
to
animals is
plants
closely related
and is that
each
highly
beneficial
necessary,
interbreeding
prolonged
during
many
generations
injurious.
Chap.
XVIII.
GOOD
FROM
CHANGED
CONDITIONS.
123
CHAPTER
ON THE ADVANTAGES OF life: AND DISADVANTAGES
XVIII.
OF VARIOUS
CHANGED CAUSES.
TIONS CONDI-
STERILITY
FROM
On
the
from of life Sterility good derived slight changes in the conditions from changed conditions, in animals, in their native country and in menageries Loss of secondary sexMammals, birds, and insects ual characters and of instincts Causes of sterility Sterility of domesticate animals from conditions Sexual changed incompatibility of individual animals of Sterility of plants from changed conditions
"
" " "
"
"
"
life
"
"
the anthers Monstrosities of sterility a as cause Seedless fruit excessive from the Sterility of vegetation From long-continued propaorgans gation
" "
"
cause
of double
ers flow-
and
seedless
fruit.
On
the
Good
"
derived In
from
slight Changes
in the
tions Condi-
known whether facts were considering' any which might throw light on the conclusion arrived at in the last chapter, namely, that benefits ensue from crossing, and that it is
a
of Life.
law
cross,
of nature
it
that
to
casionally oc-
appeared
probable
conditions
serve
that
derived
from
an
slight changes
in
the
the
being
No
two
constitution
and
germ
of
one
of another, similar
ner man-
may
believe
as an
in
individual
every
exposed
must
to
slightlychanged
the
tions. condi-
Now,
influence medical who
on
have
a
observed
remarkable
no
of truth
change
man
of this fact.
that
farmers
are
convinced
In the case of plants, change of pasture. the evidence is strong that a great advantage is derived from exchanging seeds, tubers, bulbs, and cuttings from one soil or
place to another
The belief has that been
as
different
as
possible.
benefited, whether
from the time of
or
plants
are
thus
not
well
founded,
firmly maintained
Columella,
124
ON
THE
GOOD
DERIVED
Chap.
XVIII.
who it
now
wrote
shortly
after
the
Christian
era,
to
the
England, When observer, Bradley, writing in 1 724,^ says, should at of Seed, we of a good Sort Masters
"
prevailsin
France,
and
Germany.^
we
sagacious
become
least
put
are
it into
as
Two
or as
Three
Hands,
where every
the Year
Soils the
For
and
Situations should
of
ferent dif-
possible;and
by
which for in
Parties
Want
change
the Seed Use
A
with
will
one
another;
maintained have
Means,
their
I find
the and
be then
several
Years.
this
many
He modern
Farmers writer
'
failed
own
"
Crops
be
more
great
head.
Losers."
gives
his
practicalexperience on
can
in agriclearly established culture Nothing asserts, of continual one than that the growth variety in the any either in quality or it liable to deterioration district makes same sowed that he close together in writer states Another quantity." the lots of wheat-seed, the field two product of the same same land had been the same and which on of one stock, original grown
the
other the
at
distance, and
seed it his
was
the
to in finds for
difference
A
in
favour
of in
the
from
has who
latter
made
gentleman
to
Surrey
crop who
long
has
wheat market
sell for
seed, and
constantly
me
others,
assures
that
he keeps two farms change purpose in and elevation. much soil difl'ering V/ith respect to the tubers of the potato, I find that at the everywhere present day the practice of exchanging sets is almost of potatoes in Lancashire followed. The great growers formerly from used to get tubers that Scotland, but they found a change vice versa, from the moss-lands, and In sufficient." was generally in France of potatoes in tlie Vosges former times the crop had in in the course become reduced of fifty or the sixty years portion prohis
seed; and
"
120-150
to
30-40
bushels;
which he Mr.
and
the
famous
in
Oberlin
to
surprising good
sets.*
effected
large part
changing
A
well-known he of the
same
practical gardener,
witnessed
Robson,"
that
bulbs
himself
decided
advantage
obtaining
the
^
various onion, tubers of the potato, and seeds, all of from different soils and distant kind, parts of England.
of Essay Highland Agriii. p. 200. Also Soc.,' vol. Marshall's Minutes of ture.' Agricul1775. November,
cult.
' '
below. For see England, Getreidesee Metzger. For arten.' 63. s. 1841, France, Loiseleur-Doslongchamps (' Conski, los Cereales,' snr 184.3, p. 200) references tliis gives numerous on For Southern France. subject. Florula sfe Godron, Juvenalis,' 1854, p. 28.
For
Prize
Germany,
'
"*
Oberlin's
p.
'
Memoirs.'
For
* Review 295.
Eng.
of ports,' Rep.
translat.,
see
73.
p.
Lancashire,
Marshall's
5
'
'
1808, Cottage
For
Gardener.'
Mr. Robson's
see
'
1850.
quent subse-
'
'
bandry,' Husand
186.
statements,
Journal
of
p.
Horticulture.'
121.
on
Feb. Mr..
18,
1866,
Agricnlt.
and for
Gazette,'
the second
1858,
247; statement,
p. this
same
For
Ibid.,
Walker's
Chap.
XVIII.
FROM
CHANGED
CONDITIONS.
125
He with
have
further the
been
states
that from
to
so
with and
plants propagated
by cuttings, as
manifest vantage ad-
Pehirgonium,
is derived cultivated
especiallythe
"
Dahlia,
the
getting plants of the same variety,which in another where the extent place ; or, of from take one cuttings descriptionof soil to the change that seems to afford as so sary necesthe this it
of
the
an
well-being of
be
plants."
nature
or
He
"
maintains forced
on
after been
tings cut-
time
whether made
he
exchange prepared
same
"
of
is Mr.
grower,
for
not."
Similar
remarks
by
of
another the
excellent
gardener,
Fisli, namely,
variety
in
own
neighbour,
were
showed his
that this
worn
treated
he obtained Calceolaria, which from of his own some greater vigour than manner," and he attributed exactly the same much
solely to
out
or
plants having
of their
become
"
to
certain of this
extent
tired in
quarters." Something
and
kind
apparently
to
occurs
Mr.
a
Abbey,
distinct than be
on facility
species,or
from this
on
stock the be
ously previ-
grafted,
which soil and varieties take
more
stocks
and
raised believes
It
seeds
cannot
of
variety
is to
grafted;
the stocks of the
or
he
explained by
in
question being
better
climate
place.
on
grafted
budded
sliould, however, be added, that very distinct kinds, though they may
at
readily and
studied M. the
grow Tessier's
common
first
more
vigorously
often become elaborate
than
when
grafted on
I have
m.ade to
unhealthy. experiments,"
from may whether
a
that
good
that
is derived
same
change
with
on care
of
seed; and
be cultivated the
same
he
on
ceitainly
the
same
the
not
seed
(it is
stated
exactly
Another
same
excellent
conclusion;
"
without loss. soil) for ten consecutive years to the Le Couteur,^ has come observer. Colonel seed be but then he expressly adds, if the same is grown for land land and
on
used,
year becomes with
that
seed
which
seed
land with
But
manured with
from
the
mixen
one
becomes
prepored
on." limits
lime, and
for farm.
a
that land
again
dressed
for
manure,
dressed
so
ashes, then
of the
same
mixed
this in effect is
systematic
exchange
On
of seed, within
the
the whole
has
many
that good follow^s from exchanging seed, tubers, cultivators, ble It seems to be fairly well founded. hardly credi"c., seems be due to the seeds, that the advantage thus derived can soil some small obtaining in one especially if very ones, chemical
to
element influence
once
and
in sufficient quantity
plants after
"
'
M^m.
de
I'Acad.
On
the
Varieties
of
Wheat,'
52,
126
STERILITY
FROM
Chap.
XVIIL
anticipated that they would show the good effects of a change more tinually phiinly than do animals which conLife wander about ; and this apparently is the case. play of the depending on, or consisting in, an incessant that their action is most complex forces, it would appear in some stances stimulated by slight changes in the circumway each which to organism is exposed. All forces might have
been
throughout
towards
an
nature,
as
Mr.
Spencer**remarks,
life of each be checked. should
tend
equilibrium, and
organism
These
germ
and
germ
same
the foregoing facts probably throw light,on hand, on the good effects of crossing the breed, for the modified will be thus slightly acted on by new forces ; or the evil effects of close interbreedthe other hand, on ing on the generations, during which prolonged during many will be acted on by a male having almost identically the constitution.
Sterilityfrom Changed
^
Conditions
of Life.
and
will
now
attempt
their
to show
that animals
plants,when
removed
some even
from
natural
or
degree infertile
when
in conditions, are often rendered completely barren; and this occurs have
not
the
conditions
is not
been
greatly changed.
to
This
we
conclusion have
are
necessarily opposed
lesser
that
at
which other
changes
of
kinds
ject advantageous to organic beings. Our present subis of some having an intimate importance, from nection conwith the causes of variability. Indirectly it perhaps
on
bears
one
to
of species when crossed : for as, on the sterility able hand, slight changes in the conditions of life are favourto plants and animals, and the crossing of varieties adds the size,vigour, and fertility of their offspring; so, on the
the
other
cause
hand,
certain
other
as
changes
in the
ensues
conditions from
of life
and sterility;
this
likewise
crossing
ably
Mr. has Spencer fully and discussed this whole subject in his of 'Principles Biology,' ii. ch. In first 186)4, vol. the x.
of p. from my
"
edition
1859,
effects
267,
of
'
evil and of the effects breeding, from condiin the fjreat changes and tions from crossing widely distinct series of forms, as a facts connected by together
"
some
common
but
unknown
bond,
to
which
is
essentially
of life."
related
the
conditions
life
and
from
cross-
principle
Chap.
XVIII.
CHANGED
CONDITIONS.
127
a
much
modified
forms
or
series of each
facts, which
close relation
to
other. that many animals, though perfectlytamed, in captivity. Isidore Geoffroy St.-IIilaire* drawn
a
It is notorious
refuse
to
breed
has
consequently
animals which
broad
distinction
between
tamed
mesticat captivity,and truly doanimals which breed freely generally more ly, freein the sixteenth shown chapter, than in a state of naas ture. It is possibleand generally easy to tame animals ; most that it is difficult to get them but experience has shown to breed regularly,or even this subject at all. I shall discuss in detail; but will give only those cases which most seem
"
will not
breed
under
illustrative.
My
materials
are
derived
from
notices
scattered
through
especiallyfrom a Report, kindly for me drawn by the officers of the Zoological Society of up London, which has especial value, as it records all the cases,
various
works, and
during
seen cases
nine
years
from
1838-46,
in
which
the
animals
were
MS.
couple but produced no offspring, as well as the in which far as known, coupled. This as they never, quently Report I have corrected by the annual Reports subse1865." facts are published up to the year Many
to
on
*
given work,
Dr.
the
breeding
of
the
animals
in
that
magnificent
Gleanings from the Menageries of Knowsley Hall,'by Gray. I made, also, particular inquiries from the experienced in of the the old birds dens. keeper Surrey Zoological GarI should ment premise that a slight change in the treatof animals sometimes makes
a
great
difference
in their
and it is probable that the results observed in fertility; in different menageries would differ. Indeed, some animals have become Zoological Gardens our more productive since It is,also,manifest from F. Cuvier's account the year 1846.
of the
9
'
Jardin
des
Plantes," that
the
animals
formerly
bred
de GeneZoologie p. 256. 1" Since of the the appearance first edition Mr. of this work, Sclater has (' Proc. published
Essais
kept, and
rale,' 1841,
Zoolog.
of
Soc'
1868,
p.
62.3)
list
the species of mammals which have in the from bred gardens 1848 to 1867 inclusive. Of the been Artiodactyla 85 species have
1 species in 1.9 of these least bred at during have once 1 of 28 Marsupialia, 20 years the in 2.5 have bred; of 74 Carnivora, Ko52 1 in have bred: of 3.0 and of 1 in 4.7 have bred; dentia, been 75 species have Quadrumana bred. 1 in 6.2 have kept, and 11 du Annales seum,' MuDu Rut, 1807, torn, ix. p. 120.
'
128
STERILITY
FROM
Chap.
XVIII.
freely there than with us; for instance, in the Duck only one species had at tribe, which is highly prolific, that period produced young.
much less
by animals country, which, though perfectly tamed, quite kept in their allowed freedom, are some absolutely incapable of healthy, and in attended who to particularly Paraguay breeding. Rengger,^in this and six quadrupeds he this subject, specifies condition; most Mr. Bates, three others which two mentions or rarely breed. the Amazons, in his admirable work on strongly insists on similar
The
most
remarkable
cases,
however,
are
afforded
native
cases;
"
and
and
he
remarks,
not
that
the
fact
of
thoroughly
tamed
native
mammals
birds
wholly accounted fowd the turkey and for instance, in the interior of In almost part of the world every of the and several in Polj'nesian islands" the natives are Afi-ica, extremely fond of taming the indigenous quadrupeds and birds; in getting them succeed to breed. but they rarely or never of an animal not notorious The most case breeding in captivity is that of the elephant. Elephants are in kept in large numbers Indian their native home, live to old age, and are vigorous enough for the severest labour; yet, with a very few exceptions, they have known both to couple, though been males and females even never their proper have seasons. If, however, we periodical proceed a
be
"
kept by the Indians, cannot breeding when for by their negligence or indifference, for remote tribes. are kept and bred by various
little eastward
"
to
Ava,
female
and must
we
hear
from
or
Mr.
at
Crawfurd in the
"
that
their
breeding in the
in which
occurrence;
state,
Crawfurd
least
half-domestic he believes
state
the
"
elephants
are
dav that
that the
of
the
difference
to
roam
solely to
degree
seems
females freedom.
being
The
allowed
account
the
on
captive rhinoceros,
^^
other
hand,
more
from than
Bishop
the
Ileber's
elephant. readily species of the horse genus have bred in Europe, though here exposed to a great change in their natural habits of life; but the species have been crossed with another. Most one generally of the members of the pig family breed readily in our menageries; the Red River the even hog (Potamocha'rus peniclUatufi), from of West has in the bred twice Africa, sweltering plains Zoological Gardens. Here also the Peccary has bred [Dicotylcs torquatus) several D. the times; but another dered labiatus, species, though rentame to is be said to breed so as so half-domesticated, rarely in its native country of Paraguay, that according to Rengger the fact requires confirmation. Mr. Bates remarks that the tapir,
Four wild
^^ ^'^ von Saugethiere Paraguay,' 1880, s. 49. 106, 118, 124, 201, 208, 249, 26.5. 327.
'
to
breed
in
i*
'
Embassy
vol.
Ava,'
is
'
i. p.
Journal,'
Court i. 327.
of page
13
"
The
on
the
Ama-
213.
"
'
Saugethiere,'
s.
130
STERILITY
FROM
Chap.
XVIII.
(Ca?iis argentatus),
Gardens.
how
however,
the
has has
bred bred
ferret
several there.
times
in
one
the
shut
logical Zoo-
Even
otter
Every
knows up
in
the
semi-domesticated
other
breeds, though
breed and
The
bred
The
both
here
the
Jardin
des
Herpestes produced hybrids. the H. that 1 was were grisens, though many formerly assured bred. in the never Gardens, kept much less under confinement breed The Plantigrade Carnivora be assigned reason can Carnivora, although no freely than other that the bears for this fact. In the nine-year Report it is stated to Gardens in the been had couple freely,but preseen Zoological viously In the Reports pubmost had to 1848 lished rarely conceived. three specieshave since this date produced young (hybrids
in
in in
one
fasciatus has
likewise
case), and,
wonderful The
to
produced young.
the
badger
I have
Polar has bear relate, the white {Meles taxus) has bred several times
Gardens;
but
not
heard
of this
occurring
elsewhere
for an be very instance in must rare, England, and the event In worth the been has recording.^* Paraguay thought Germany and native Nasua, though kept in pairs during many years fectly perbeen known, according to Rengger, to breed tamed, has never show Mr. sexual Bates, does or passion; nor, as I hear from any the in Amazonia. Two other this animal, or Cercoleptes, breed in plantigrade genera, Procyon and Gulo, though often kept tame In the Gardens breed there. Zoological Paraguay, never speciesof Nasua and to couple; but they did not Procyon have been seen produce young.
As
domesticated
white
mice
breed
under various so climates, it abundantly when closely confined of the Rodent other members might have been thought that most order would have bred in captivity, but this is not the case. It deserves the capacity to breed sometimes notice, as showing how rodent native of Paraguay, which by affinity,that the one goes there breeds and has freely yielded successive generations, is the Cavia this animal is so closely allied to the guinea-pig aperen ; and that it has been In erroneously thought to be the parent form.^" the Zoological Gardens, some rodents have have but never coupled, have neither some produced young; bred; but a few coupled nor have
bred,
as
the
porcupine
more
than
once,
the
Barbary
several
mouse,
lemming,
chinchilla,and
'
agouti {Dasgprocta
fiir
to
a
agnti)
distinct
the
times.
genus
on
found
gninea-pig.
"c.,
of the
I from and
s.
276.
On
the
see
'
parentage
also
guihea-pig, St.-Hilaire,
sent to
Hist.
I in
Isid. Nat.
Gooffroy
Gen.' of
the the he
Denny
La
Leeds
collected
Plata,
evidence the and is worth guinea-pig; giving, authors as some erroneously supthe bethat since guinea-pig pose has domesticated become ing sterile when crossed with the
important
aperea
is
not
from
that
they
belong
aperea.
Chap. XVlIt.
CHANGED
CONDITIONS.
131
in
This
latter
were
animal
born
has
also
and
produced
young
Paraguay, though
they
to houses.
common
Mr.
ill-formed; but in Amazonia, according about Bates, it never breeds, though often kept tame the Nor does the paca breed there. {Cceloyenys paca) The confined has, I believe, never hare when bred in Europe;
to
never a
dead
though, according
rabbit.^^
I
recent
statement,
of
a
it has
crossed
with
in
one
tlie
finement. conception, ex-
have
But
heard
the
more
dormouse curious
breeding
case:
no as
with
the has
fourteen
of
8.
palmaruni
this
several
not tame
years. in
cinera
produce
At
has
Zoological Gardens, yet as many were kept together during been to couple, but it did seen when rendered species, extremely
breed."
kept
that
I have
in numbers,
none never ever
known to America, been ever country, North of kinds Derby's menagerie squirrels were many the superintendent, told me but Mr. Thompson, bred of the has which
there,
bred
or
elsewhere
than
as
far in
as
he
knew.
heard
English squirrelbreeding
more once
confinement.
But
the
species which
is the
one
in
the
Gardens
have the
been
least
:
Zoological expected,
duced pro-
namely,
bred
the
flyingsquirrel {Sciuropterus
times than she unite
near
vohicella)
it has, also,
never
several
more
but
to
female in
two
home
birth, whereas
six from the
its
native
three
Monkeys,
are
in the
nine-year Report
most
to
many heard
individuals
only
A
one
one
freely,but 1 have births. were kept, there were only seven American the Ouistiti, breeding in monkey,
to
Europe.^*
more
Macacus,
Macacus
Flourens, bred
has
in
produced
everywhere
young
shows
the especially
rhesus, which
London this
capacity
both in
to
breed and
Hybrids
same
have
been The
Paris
or
genus.
a
Arabian
Cercopithecus have bred in latter species at the Duke of the family of Lemurs Several members of Northumberland's. have It is much produced hybrids in the Zoological Gardens. in breed when confined remarkable that monkeys more very rarely is frequently their native country; thus the Cay {Cehus azarw) and but in Paraguay, completely tamed Rengger ^^ says that it
baboon, Cijnocephalus Jiamadnjas,-^ the Zoological Gardens, and the
and
breeds
so
rarely,that
he
never
saw
more
than
vol.
two
females
p.
'
which
bon Audu-
21 existence of the Although the Leporides, as described by Dr. de Broca (' Journal Phys.,' torn. ii. p. 370), has nied, been positively deDr. ('Annals Pigeaux yet and of Nat. Hist.' vol. xx., Mag. the hare that 18f)7, p. 75) affirms and rabbit have hybrids. produced 22 ica,' Amerof North Quadrupeds and by Audubon Bachman, 1846, p. 268.
'
Hist..'
and
ix.. 1836,
571:
221.
Bachmnn's
Quadrupeds I'lnstinct,'
of
North
2*
America,'
'
p.
"c.,
"
De
Zoolog. Reports 1864 ; 1863, Times 10, Aug. newspaper, De I'lnstinct,' p. 1847; Flourens,
Annual
Soe.,'
'
1855,
'
1858,
'
85.
2"
"
Saugethiere,' "c.,
s.
34, 49,
"*
Loudon's
'
Mag,
ot
Nat.
132
had
STERILITY
FROM
Chap.
XVIII.
produced
to in the
young.
similar
which
are
observation these
in
has
been
made
respect
in
a
monkeys
In
frequently
animals
he
tamed
are so
by the
often the
Brazil."
Amazonia,
Mr. in
Bates
kept
of
never
tame
state, that
thirteen
to
walking
as
through
streets
Para,
counted
species; but,
been
known
breed
captivity.^*
Birds.
Birds from
under We
ofTer
in
some more
their
breeding
have
seen
than respects better evidence quadrupeds, rapidly and being kept in greater numbers.** that most birds. used
in
animals
are
more reverse
fertile holds
as
confinement
than
mammals.
^"
The
as
that
many
een eight-
hawking, and several ^^ in and been Persia others India; kept in their native have been flown country in the finest condition, and during six, ^of nine there is record their no yet eight, or having ever years; As these birds were formerly caught whilst produced young. at great expense, Iceland, Norway, being imported from young, be there little if doubt and can that, Sweden, they would possible, In the Jardin have been propagated. des Plantes, no bird of prey known No owl has has to been ever hawk, or vulture, couple.^^ in in the Zoological Gardens, or the old Surrey produced fertile eggs sion, occaGardens, with the exception,in the former place on one and Yet kite (Milviis niger). several of a condor a species, tinnunleucocephahis, Faico namely, the Aquihi fiisca, Haliwtus to couple in been seen ruUjarls, have culus, F. suhhutco, and Buteo ^* Morris mentions Mr. the Zoological Gardens. as a unique fact in an bred that kestrel one (Falco tinnuncnlus) a aviary. The known has been dens to couple in the Zoological Garkind of owl which the Eagle Owl {Buho niaximus) ; and this species shows was in captivity; for a pair at Arundel to breed a special inclination
Castle, kept
the
27
for
more
nearly
'
in
state its
of nature
^^
"
than
ever
fell to
lot of
Art. 363. 28 The
'
an
animal
deprived of
Cyclop.,'
the zons,' Ama-
their
Brazil,
Penny
on
p.
vol.
'^'"^
list have
which Gardens
."^ive
has
1 in of 178 Passeres, bred; of 94 have bred; Accipitres, of 1 in 47 have 25 Picarife, bred; and of 35 not Herodiones, one has bred. species in either group 30 of Rural Sports,' Encyclop. p. 691. 21 to Sir A. Burnes According
Sclater
Proc.
Soc.,'
edition Of Co-
(' Cabool,'
cies Sinde.
32
"c.,
used
1869,
of
p.
626,
work
since
are
p. for
'
spe-
in Nat. Muvii.-
appeared. been lumbse 51 species have kept, in and 80 species, and of Anseres 1 species in both these families,
the at 2.6 have bred once 20 years. Of Gallinre, 83 species 1 in 2.7 have have been kept, and least in
this
Loudon's
vol. torn.
'
Hist.,'
33
vi., ix.
p.
'
Mag. 1833,
'
110.
du
F.
The
Cuvier,
seum,'
3*
p.
Annal. 128.
Zoologist,'
2648.
vol.
viii., 1849-50.
35
bred; bred;
of
57
Grallje,
in
have
Knox.
in
of
110
Prehensores,
in
22
bles
Ram-
Chap.
XVIII.
CHANGED
CONDITIONS.
133
of this of
a
young.
Mr.
Gurney
has
given another
records
instance the
case
same
second
breeding in captivity.^^
the in
smaller their
graminivorous
native
highest authority on difficult." The that there is no canary-bird shows uncommonly these in birds inherent breeding difficulty freely in confinement;
"
kinds have birds, many been kept lived long; yet, as countries, and have the cage-birds ^^ remarks, their propagation is
and the
more
Audubon breeds
America
ciris
of
North
have
been
a
than
dozen the
which
of
yielded hybrids
the
with
hardly
these, with
Even the kind. reproduced their own has the bred as frequently with canary,
a
though
of birds
belonging
respect
to
seven
to
distinct in
genus,
as
with
its
own
the
skylark
years London
{Alauda
an
arvensis),
assured
I have
never me
livingfor
and
a
aviary, which
their
produced
bird-fancier of
great
an
known
has been one case corded.*" rebreeding; nevertheless In the the Zoological Society, nine-year Report from which had not bred, twenty-four insessorial species are enumerated and of these only four known to have were coupled. Parrots mentions are singularlylong-lived birds; and Humboldt the curious fact of a parrot in South America, which spoke the Indian of extinct this that bird an tribe, so language preserved the sole relic of a lost language. Even in this country there is
reason one
instance
to
believe
*^
that
parrots have
breed
lived
to
the
age
of
nearly
have so yet they rarely, though many has been been kept in Europe, that the event cording rethought worth in the gravest publications.*^ Nevertheless, when Mr. Buxton turned of parrots in Norfolk, three pairs out a large number years; bred this and
success
"
hundred
ten
be
seasons;
and
to than
According
oftener
African
the P. macoa tile species in Germany: occasionally lays fersucceeds in this them; bird, however, rarely hatching eggs, has the instinct of incubation sometimes so strongly developed. but
38
"
Ttip
p.
1849-50,
p.
Zoologist,' vol vii.-viii., 25G6; vol. ix.-x., 1851-2, Naturgesch. 1840, s. 20. Biog.,' vol. v.
is
vol. recordetl
'
3207.
3^^
Beehstein,
der
p.
'
Stubenvogel,'
38'Ornith.
*^
517.
The p.
British Hist. 1. p. 412. " tory,' HisLoudon's of Nat. Mag. vol. xix., 1830. p. 347. d'Hist. ^2'Memoires du Museum of five cases Nat.,' torn. x. p. 314:
40
Yarrell's
'
Birds,'
1839,
vol.
'
case
in
parrots
here Brit.
"
'
breeding
in
France
'
are
Zoologist,'
453.
i-ii., 184.3-45,
For the siskin vol. breeding, 1075. iii.-iv., 1845-46, p. stein, BeehStubenvogel,' s. 139, of bullfinches speaks making nests, but rarely producing young.
'
See
Report
Nat.
Mag.
p.
of
Hist.,'
"
"
1808,
311.
s.
Stubenvogel,'
105, 83.
134
that it will hatch and in the the
STERILITY
FROM
Chap.
XVIIl.
Gardens
have
eggs of fowls or pigeons. In the Zoological few some old Surrey Gardens species have three of of the species parrakeets, exception
a as
bred. from
It is
much
I
am
more
remarkable
fact that
and
in Guiana
are
parrots
often
of two
kinds,
the
so are
informed
by
Sir R.
Schomburgk,
reared
in
large they fly freelyabout the houses, when and called to be fed, like pigeons; yet he has never come dent resiof their breeding." In Jamaica, of a single instance heard a birds more no readily submit naturalist, Mr. R. Hill,*"says, of a b ut instance the than no to human parrot-tribe, dependence has been know^n Mr. life Hill in this tame yet." parrot breeding birds in the West native of other kept tame specifiesa number
taken
nests
by
the
Indians
numbers;
they
tame
that
"
with the a striking contrast pigeon family as parrots: in the nine-year Report thirteen species are recorded two is what to noticeable, w^ere seen more only bred, and, having the result. Since above date annual couple without every any of various two cases pigeons breeding. The Report gives many coronuta and crowned victoria') {Goura pigeon magnificent duced prothan a species more hybrids; nevertheless, of the former informed birds were dozen by Mr. Crawfurd, in a kept, as I am a perfectly well-adapted climate, but never park at Penang, under
offers
once
never
breed
in
this
state.
bred.
The
Columba
migratoria
two
in
its native
country.
North the
America,
never more
invariably lays
than
one.
The of
Derby's menagerie
observed show" is with
C.
leiicocephala*'^
Gallinaceous birds
capacity
case
ten
captivity. particularly the with than our English speciesseldom lays more to from in w'hilst is the confinement; eighteen twenty eggs
for
many under
genera
an
eminent
usual other
number
to
wild
are
With and
the
Gallinaceae,
as
with
all
orders, there
the
marked
of fertility
manv
Although
have
even
been when
made
with
common
partridge, it has
and
rarely bred,
never are
reared
in
large aviaries;
tribe
are
the
hen
or
will
hatch tamed
her
own
eggs.*" The
remarkable
*^
of Guans
*^
Cracidae
Hancock
with
ease,
very
7th
Doctor
Gen. ill. useful birds that indigenous Annals and are 288. 382; pp. Mag. of Nat. to Guiana, are none Hist.,' vol. xii., 1843, p. 453. found tlie Indians: Other to propagate have species of partridge among the fowl Is the common redyet bred; as occasionally reared in abundance throughout legged (P. rubra), when kept in a the eountrv." in nal JourFrance (see large court 40 A at Weeli Port de tom. Royal,' Physique,' xxv. p. in 185.^, p. 7. the dens 294), and Zoological Gar*'' American thology,' Orniin 1856. Atidubon, vol. V. 552, 557, pp. Nat.
merous nu-
of (' Charlesworth's Mag. vol. Hist.' ii., 1838, p. 492), the that, singular amongst
remarks Nat. it is
"
Moubray
on
Poultry,
'
Hist.
des
Pigeons,'
"c.,
1813,
tom.
'
'
'
Chap.
XVIII.
CHANGED
CONDITIONS.
135
various
in this
to
country;
in
a
^"
but
with
care
species were
Birds of this native have have guish lan-
breed
rather
freely in they
their
never
often the
kept
that
tamed perfectly
in their
country
by expected
in and
Indians, but
grouse
might
not to
soon
from
habits
of life would
are
more captivity,
especially as
many
cases are
they
said
of
die.^^
But
recorded
their
breeding:
capercailzie{Tetrao urogaUus) has bred in the Zoological dens; Garit breeds without much when confined in Norway, difficulty and in Russia five successive generations have been reared: Tetrao tetrix has likewise bred in Norway; T. scoticiis in Ireland; T. umhellus at Lord and T. in North America. cupido Derby's; It is scarcely possible to imagine a greater change in habits
than when after forests the that which the in members small
over
ostrich
under
a
family
enclosures desert
must
tropical plains
even
entangled
young in
yet almost
New
frequentlyproduced
the mooruk
{Casuarius ostrich, though perfectly of France, never healthy and living long in the South lays more from to fifteen eggs, though in its native than twelve country it hetinetii)from
African
various
European
menageries,
lays from twenty-five to thirty.^* Here of fertility impaired, but not lost, under flying squirrel,the hen-pheasant, and
we
have
another
as
confinement,
two
species
E.
them
of
pigeons.
Most
me,
Waders
can
be
tamed,
their
more
as
the
Rev.
of
S. Dixon
are
with
remarkable
so
facility;but
that breed
several
short-lived
is not
prising. sur-
under
confinement,
The
cranes
this
state
other
genera:
Gi'us
in Paris and in the Zoological montigresia has bred several times cutta. and G.ant'Kjone at Calat the latter place, Gardens, as has G.cinerea of this great order, Tetrapterii.r panulhea Of other members
has birds
bred
at
Knowsley,
to
chloropus Jamaica;
Guiana
50
in the
and
Porphyrio ZoologicalGardens.
a
in On
Sicily,and
the other
the
GalUnnla
belonging
about
E.
this order
"
breed often
or
the
Psophia, though
Dixon.
'
kept by
never
of
^^
their houses,
S.
known
For T.
Rev.
1850,
ton p.
p.
49.
1851, pp. 24.3-2.52. ' 51 Nat. Gen. Hist. Temminck, des Pigeons.' "c., torn. ii. pp. 456, iii. pp. 458: torn. 2, 13. 47. ' " The Naturalist on Bates, the vol. i. p. 193; vol. Amnzons,' ii. p. 112. 53 'Hist. Nat. Gen.,' Temminck, Tetrao ii. p. 125. "c., tom. For ' L. Field urogaUus, sre Lloyd, of North of Sports Europe.' vol. i. ' Bull, de la Soc. 287, 314; and pp. Dovecote,'
d'Acelimat.,'
600. For T.
tom. vii., 1860, p. scoticus, Thompson, of Ireland,' vol. ii.
.Journal 199.
5*
of de
Nat.
Marcel
Serres,
Annales
des
tom.
"
series, Zoolog.,
In
'
Charlesvol. ii.,1838, p. 491: R. Hill, ' A Week ' Guide to Port at Royal,' p. 8; the Gardens,' by P. L. Zoological 'The 12: 1859. n, Sclater, pp. Dr. Knowslev Menagerie,' by
Hancock,
of
worth's
Mag.
Nat.
Hist.,'
Grav,
'
1846, 1855.
pi. xiv.;
Soc.
E.
Blyth,
Report
Asiatic
of
Bengal,'
"Nat.
Hist,
May,
4a
136
STERILITY
FROM
Chap.
XVIII.
The their
could two
members
as
of the
great Duck
family breed
and
as
do have
the
Columbae
aquatic and
not
dozen
nature time
of
their ago
food,
above
some
Selys-Longchamps forty-fourdifferent
Xewton
lias
"
and M. Zoological Gardens; has the recorded production of hybrids from of the family; and to these Professor members
a
added
few
more a
cases.^*^
"
There
is not of
Dixon,''
of the
in the but
word
wide
which
in the
Mr.
sense finement; con-
breeding
bold.
same
this
statement
is
prr^bably
of
too the
The
to
breed
sometimes
varies
in individuals
than wild geese eight years some {Anser kept for more but not mate; other of whilst individuals they would the same second I the know during species produced young year. in the whole of but lutely absoinstance one family of a species which in breed refuses to captivity, namely, the Dendrocijijna ridiiafa, although, according to Sir R. Schomburgk,"^ it is easily of Guiana. tamed, and is frequently kept by the Indians Lastly, have been kept in the Zoological with respect to Gulls, though many and in the old Surrey Gardens, no instance fore Gardens was knowi^ beof their coupling or 1848 the year breeding; but since that times period the herring gull (Lanis argentatus) has bred many and at Knowsley. in the Zoological Gardens There is reason that insects are affected to believe ment by confinelike the higher animals. It is well known that the Sphingidse treated. An thus in Paris rarely breed when entomologist"" kept in succeed twenty-five specimens of Satuniia pyri, but did not fertile A number of females of Orthosia getting a single eg,g. Audubon''*
cinKuIoisis),
mnnda
and to
of
Momestra
suasa
reared
in
confinement
a
were
tractive unat-
the
males." due
in
Mr,
to
Newport
habit
kept nearly
not
one
hundred
viduals indi-
of two
might
Mr.
have
Atkinson
paired; this, however, the wing.^^ coupling on in India in making the Tarroo
of It appears that
in
a
silk-moth
breed
confinement."^
number
autumn
of
out
case
hatched especiallythe Sphingidse, when of their proper are season, completely barren; in some is still involved obscurit5\"*
moths,
the
this
but
latter
animals Independently of the fact of many under ment confinenot coupling, or, if they couple, not producing young, there
""
is evidence
Newton,
p.
of another
in 330.
and
'
kind
functions
1832,
page
Prof.
'
Proc.
Zo-
History,'
'
vol.
v.,
153.
Tlie
Dovecote
Aviary,' 48,
"i
p. vol.
428.
58
'
p.
"2
'
Zoologist,' 3660.'
Transact.
vols,
v.-vi., 1847Soc.,'
Ornithological
9.
Biography,'
vol.
Entomolog.
60. Linn.
iii. p.
"
iv., 184.5. p.
.
"^
Geograph.
"
Journal,' Mag.
of
vol. Nat-
""
vii.
"*
p.
Loudon's
Soc.,' vol.
paper
by
138
under
to
come a
STERILITY
FROM
Chap. XVIII.
confinement failure
into in
has been
sometimes instincts:
their sexual
play, but there is no obvious reason should be especially liable to be affected with fectly pertamed animals, except, indeed, indirectly through the ous Moreover, numerreproductive system itself being disturbed. animals which have been given of various couple cases but conceive if under never ceive confinement, they confreely ; or, fewer these in number than is and produce young, are natural to the species. In the vegetable kingdom instinct of shall presently see that play no part; and we course can from their natural removed fected afconditions are plants when animals. in nearly the same manner as Change of of the loss of fertility, be the cause climate cannot for, whilst animals imported into Europe from extremely different many in their breed freely, many others when confined climates native land are completely sterile. Change of food cannot be
the chief which breed
cause
many
other animals,
in
must
have
undergone
great
change
confined
this respect,
are
freely. Carnivorous
most
are
birds when
sterile, whilst
be the
to
carnivorous
mammals,
ISTor
can
moderately fertile.
for
a
the
amount
cause;
sufficient and
be
valuable
more
animals;
food would
there
to
suppose to
our
that choice
much
given
case
to
them
than
domestic
we
productions which
infer and from of
many
retain
may
the
their full
hawks,
an
animals
allowed
want
to
lead
almost
the
land, that
in
of exercise
is not It
would
appear
that
may
any
change
the
habits
of
to
life,
affect
whatever in
an
these
habits
of reproduction. The the powers inexplicablemanner the constitution of the species than results depends more on the nature of the change; for certain whole are on groups than others; but exceptions always occur, for affected more fertile groups refuse to breed, and some species in the most sterile groups in the most breed freely. Those animals some which usually breed freely under confinement, rarely breed, I was assured, in the Zoological Gardens, within a year or as
Chap.
XVIII.
CHANGED
CONDITIONS.
139
animal
to
two
importation.
confinement
not
When
an
which
is
sterile under
happens
this and
power:
breed, the
had
are
inherit
for
case,
various
quadrupeds
have animals
birds, which
common.
exhibition,would
"
become
in
affirms
that
many
Plantes,
successive genhaving produced young or erations, become be the result of too sterile;but this may close interbreeding. It is a remarkable circumstance that and birds have mammals produced hybrids under many confinement more quite as readily as, or even readily than, their have kind. Of this fact many they own procreated have instances and been thus reminded given ; we are of those plants which cultivated when refuse to be fertilised pollen, but can by their own easily be fertilised by that of a distinct species. Finally, we ited must conclude, limthe conclusion of life as is, that changed conditions have of acting injuriously on the reproan especial power ductive The whole is quite peculiar,for these case system. thus rendered though not diseased, are incapable organs, of performing their proper them perfectl imfunctions, or perform
^^
after
for three
Sterility of Domesticated
With
Animals
of orders degree of change. Those the wild speciesbreed most quadrupeds and birds, of which readily in our of domesticated menageries, have afforded us the greatest number productions. Savages in most parts of the world are fond of taming animals; and if any of these regularlj^ produced young,
**
to
domesticated the
to
"
accident
breeding freelyunder
reproductive system
expect
tivity, capwould
moderate
and
were
at
the
same
time
be other
of
young
at
once
cated. domesti-
If, when
""
their
masters
migrated
and
into
countries, they
taming animals,
was
Journal de Physiologie,' tom. 347. " additional evidence For on this in F. see Cuvier, subject, tom. Annales du xil. Museum,' p. 119. " Numerous Instances could be els,' Thus given. Livingstone (' Travthat the King p. 217) states of tribe the inland Barotse, an which had tion communicanever any with white was exmen, i. p.
'
fond
every
tremely
antelope
forms InMr. him. Galton Daniaras that the are me of likewise fond pets. keeping America Indians of South The habit. follow the Capt. same that states the Wilkes sians PolyneSamoan Islands the of ZeaNew the tamed pigeons; and Mantell informs Mr. as landors, of birds. kinds kept various me,
brought
to
140
were
STERILITY
FROM
Chap. XVIII.
in addition found capable of withstanding various climates, valuable; and it appears that the animals they would be stillmore withstand different which breed readilyin captivitycan generally reindeer and such the as climates. Some few domesticated animals, domesticated of rule. our Many camel, offer an exception to this the most unnatural bear with undiminished animals can fertility and ferrets breed in conditions; for instance, rabbits,guinea-pigs, kind of Few European dogs any miserably confined hutches. but without as the climate of India withstand degenerating, long as they survive, they retain, as I hear from Dr. Falconer, their it is, according to Dr. Daniell, with English dogs so fertility; The taken to Sierra Leone. fowl, a native of the hot jungles of in every quarter fertile than its parent-stock India, becomes more north Greenland far advance as as of the world, until we not bird will breed. Both this and Northern Siberia, where direct autumn the I received which fowls and during pigeons, I have, at once Sierra Leone, were from ready to couple.*^" kinds within the common as also, seen pigeonsbreeding as freely Nile. The from the upper guineaa year after their importation of the hot and dry deserts of Africa, whilst fowl, an aboriginal livingunder our damp and cool climate, produces a largesupply of eggs. conditions animals under domesticated new Nevertheless, our Roulin asserts that show occasionally signsof lessened fertility. Cordillera sheep are not fully in the hot valleysof the equatorial ''" fecund ; and accordingto Lord Somerville," the merino-sheep fertile. which he imported from Spain were not at first perfectly It is said " that mares brought up on dry food in the stable,and have The peahen,as we turned out to grass, do not at first breed. It seen, is said not to lay so many eggs in England as in India. and even now was fully fertile, long before the canary-bird was In the hot and first-rate breeding birds are not common." dry province of Delhi, as I hear from Dr. Falconer, the eggs of the turkey, though placed under a hen, are extremely liable to fail. According to Roulin, geese taken to the loftyplateau of Bogota, at first laid seldom, and then only a few eggs; of these scarcely a fourth were hatched, and half the young birds died ; in the second wrote Roulin more fertile;and when they generation they were were becoming as fertile as our geese in Europe. With respect to the valleyof Quito, Mr. Orton says: ''* " the only geese in the valley few imported from Europe, and these refuse to propagate." are a In the Philippine Archipelagothe goose, it is asserted, will not
^^For
analogous
sec
cases
'
with
fowl,
243; Proc. Sykes, in Zoolog. With Soe.,' 1832, "c. respect to the fowl not breeding in northern Latham's Hist, of regions, see Birds,' vol. viii., 1823, p. 169.
' '
the de
des Sciences,' torn, vi., 347. ^^ Youatt on Sheep, p. 181. " Treatise CatJ. Mills, on tie,' 1776, p. 72.
'
Acad,
1835,
p.
'
"
Bechstein,
*
'
Stubenvogel,'
and the Ama-
s.
242.
^*
The
Andes
""^
"
M6m.
par
divers
Savans,"
3!
Chap.
XVIII.
CHANGED
CONDITIONS.
14X
breed
or
which,
at
curious
case
is that
of the
not
fowl,
breed the
at nest
first introduced
would
Cusco
in
English
its full of eggs marked
France
Game
quite fertile;and
not
as
yet
arrived
a
for fertility,
was
raise
two
In
or
three
from
thought
on
fortunate.
Europe
fowl:
confinement been
has found
effect that of
the fowls
fertility of the
allowed
in
with the
considerable allowed
only twenty
forty per
were
per
not
cent,
eggs in close So
some we
failed; when
confinement
that
on see
freedom
sixty
of the
hundred
unnatural
changed
most
conditions
produce
as
effect in wild
the
same
of fertility
manner,
thoroughly
in
a
domesticated
animals,
with
no
the
though
males known have
no
far
less
degree,
It is not
captive
means
by
rare
to
and
females
to
which
will
breed
together, though
males and is caused their
be
perfectly
to
other this in
our
females. animals
We
reason
pose sup-
by these subject.
having
habits
present
have for been his
been
sexual
incompatibility of
essay
on
pair which
to
matched. W. C.
eral Sev-
instances
communicated
(well known
and Eyton, by Mr. Wicksted in of relation to horses, cattle, pigs, foxhounds, Chelsfield, Waring In other these either females, which pigeons." dogs, and cases, failed be to to breed were fertile, or proved subsequently previously
Mr.
with match
males,
A
with
whom in the
it
was
particularly
of the
desired
to
change
occurred
constitution she
was
female
may
cases
to
be
male; put to the second this explanation is hardly tenable, for a female, or unsuccessfully paired seven barren, has been
before the
same
eight
times With
with
male
likewise
known
to not
be
perfectly
with lions, cart-stalthe lesser
will sometimes cart-mares, which bred have but of pure blood, subsequently
breed
with
to
Spooner
is inclined
to
attribute But
I have
the
failure
from
heard
the Mr.
frequently
or
occurs
with
to
;
a
greatest Waring,
times
several
during
power, with
two
seasons
particular stallion
mare
and
some
yet prove
other
so
barren
the
afterwards
are on
horse."
These
facts animal
"
'
show,
like
many
previous facts,
an
differences
^5
the
fertility of
'
often
For
depends.
Chapnis, Beige,
the
^e
mat.,'
torn,
ix., 1802,
Le
Pigeon
p.
1865,
60.
142
STERILITY
FROM
Chap. XVIII.
Sterilityof Plants
of Life, and
of sterilityfrequently cases vegetable kingdom analogous with those previously given in the animal occur, stances, But by several circumthe subject is obscured kingdom. presently to be discussed, namely, the contabescence
In
the
of the
anthers,
"
as
Gartner
has
named
"
certain
affection
"
monstrosities
"
doubleness
or
and
long-continued
that
in not
It is notorious
though
preserved
I too do
seed.
plants in our gardens and hot-houses, perfect health, rarely or never duce proto leaves, from to plants which run
or
being kept
do not
damp,
too
case
warm,
too
much
manured different.
or
for these
Nor from
allude much
the
be
want
wholly
of heat
not
own
do
and
rotting
their seed.
too
But
exotic from
plants, with
will
set
ovules
any
The
rility ste-
observation, is simply the pollen to carrying proper But after several the the stigma. cases just specified, excluding there are the reproductive system has been plants in which many of life to which they seriously affected by the altered conditions have been subjected. be tedious to enter details. It would Linnaeus on long many with observed that loaded Alpine plants, although naturally ago when cultivated in gardens. But seed, produce either few or none of our the Draba oughly thormost si/Ivestris, one exceptions often occur: son's Alpine plants, multipliesitself by seed in Mr. H. C. Wathas and London; Kerner, who garden, near particularly to the cultivation various attended of Alpine plants, found that themselves." kinds, when cultivated, spontaneously sowed Many in peat-earth are plants which naturally grow entirely sterile in liliaceous fact with several our gardens. I have noticed the same nevertheless plants, which vigorously. grew Too much renders kinds manure some utterly sterile,as I have observed. The myself runs tendency to sterilityfrom this cause in families; thus, according to Gartner,"" it is hardly possible to to most give too much manure Graminese, Cruciferse, and Legusucculent bulbous-rooted minosse, whilst and plants are easily
I know
due
to
the
absence
of the
my insects
for
'*
vol. i., 1739, the same retnnrk in his Travels (Eng. translat.), vol. 1. p. 292. '" A. Die Cnltnr rter Korner, p. 3. makes
' '
'
78
"
Swedish Pallas
Acts,'
D. the
'
Cameron,
culture mentions
plants
pp.
in
Gard.
Chronicle,'
a
1848,
few der
which
^o
1864,
s.
189;
Wat-
Britannica,'
vol.
1.
Chap. XVIII.
CHANGED
CONDITIONS.
I43
to
affected.
but
Extreme
induce
sterility;
on a me
dwarfed
often
plants
mown
minus
and
were
lawn which
and
manured,
often have
repens, found
growing
by
the
not
season on
to at
produce any
seed.
The
watered,
observed
marked the
case
effect
of
by Kolreuter
in
their Mirabilis."
of Edinburgh, observed Gardens Scott, in the Botanic that not set seed when Oncidium divm'icatum would in a basket grown it throve, but was in which capable of fertilisation in a pot where it
was a
little
damper.
Pelaryonium
fuhjidum,
for
many
after of
its introduction, seeded freely;it then became is fertile *^ if kept in a dry stove during the winter.
sterile; now
Other
years it
varieties
able
sterile
and
others
on
bank
or
at
make
all the
has
on some
apparently much of plants than a more powerful influence on the fertility Nevertheless it is wonderful that of animals. what changes with few plants will withstand undiminished thus fertility:
Candida,
severest
a
in its
producing
seed.
Temperature
the
native hot
of the
moderately
near seen
warm
banks
and in
dry country
I have
snow
Lima,
seeds
resists the
frosts, and
with Khasia hot
gathered
weeks.*^ cool
pods which by
our
covered the
during
in
three
range
summers.
the
I presume must to change of attribute we and o f the Persian sterility many foreignplants; thus, lilacs {Syringa chinensis), though perfectly persica and
never us
hardy here,
with
never
lilac (*Sf. seed; the common vulgaris) the capmoderately well, but in parts of Germany sules
produce
seed.^* due
contain
state
Some the
few
of the have
to
cases,
given
here
in the
last
been
chapter,of
as
been which
introduced,
their The
to
conditions
they have
subjected.
of plants to liability conditions is the branch of formation
or a
be affected
more
in their
by slightly fertility
as
changed
once
remarkable,
flower-buds be
the
a
in process
is not with
easily injured;
cut
transplanted,
in
once
placed
female least
the water, and pollen will be matured. be matured, may kept for weeks or even
plants,when
flag, could
organs
81
'
carefullyremoved
seldom
more
so
that
^^
they did
occurred found
"
be
fertilised; this
even
potted
1844,
are
that
dicotyledonous
Chronicle,'
Faivre gives in tliis subject
des
Nova
Acta
391.
pp.
215;
Gardener's 1850, p.
resume
470.
on
"2
'
good
'
his
""
La p.
'
1868, "c.,
Vnriabilite 155.
zur
Especes,'
Kenntniss/
Kenntniss,'
"c.,
s.
zur
s.
144
STERILITY.
Chap.
XVIII.
plants
some
if the
roots
had
grown
out
of
the
hole
at
the
bottom.
did
In not
few
prevent
Brassica
Digitalis, liowever, as with transplantation cases, the to fertilisation; and, according testimony of
rapa
Mawz,
when and
pulled
in
up
by
of
ripened
when
its seed.
off
Flower-steras
cut
cases
placed
that with
after
water
its
and
these for
Herbert"
or
I presume found
flowers
had that
been the
already fertilised,
plants might
would
be
moved re-
Crocus
act
mutilated
of
fertilisation,and
still
perfect their seeds; but that, if transplanted before being fertilised, the application of pollen was powerless. Plants which have been can long cultivated generally endure various and with undiminished fertility great changes; but not in of most climate domesticated cases so animals. as great a change It is remarkable that many these circumstances plants under are affected that much the proportion and the nature of their chemiso cal modified, yet their fertility is unimpaired. ingredients are
Thus,
the in
as
Dr.
Falconer in the
informs
me,
there the
is
great difference
of oil in the
in
in the
seed
character
of the
fibre in
Linum,
hemp, proportion of
in
narcotin of
gluten to starch in wheat, when the plains and the mountains on remain fully fertile.
Cofitabescence. condition When shown but in of the become
state
"
of
poppy, cultivated on
the
Gartner anthers
brown
has in and
designated by
certain
term which
no
plants,
and the
shrivelled, or
in this sterile
tough,
contain
anthers of the most they exactly this subject, has on hybrids. Gartner,*^ in his discussion that plants of many orders are occasionally thus affected; the Caryophyllaceae and Liliacese suffer most, and to these
I
resemble
orders,
affected very
may
extent.
be
added.
all
Contabescence flowers
are are
varies
degree,
to
the
same same
plant
the
generally
at
a same
nearlv
recorded
the
in
The
anthers remain
affected the
early period
one
the
flower-bud, and
in
state
affection
exception) during the life of the plant. The and cured is by any change of treatment, In and seed. propagated by layers,cuttings, "c., perhaps even by contabescent ly affected, or mereplants the female organs are seldom become The of this affection cause precocious in their development.
cannot be in
(with
different but
cases.
Until did
I read to
it, as
apparently
Herbert,
the
plants;
The
its permanence
under
changed conditions,
incompatible
with
the view. in
our
female
this
not being affected, seem organs endemic fact of several plants seems, at first
becoming
"
'
contabescent
of Hort.
gardens
vol.
'
sight, equally
s.
.Tournal
8.3.
Soc.,'
Drittc
'
Fortsotziing,'
'
57.
ii.,1847, p. "s zur Beitrjige 117 -et s. Ac, scq.; Zweite Fortsetzuug,'
' '
Konntniss,'
s.
Her355. Bastardp.
erzeugung,'
s.
27.
146
with
natural
more
or
STERILITY.
Chap.
XVITf.
the
to
depart wonderfully
vulgaris
seem
from
those
of Linaria
generally
of
be
mains,
unable
pollen, are perfectly for bees to left when sterile themselves, are fertile,though tubular flower. The peloric flowers into the narrow to crawl
own
described
Antirrhinum
of
and
to
Corydalis
sometimes flower
sometimes
are
barren known
well
greenhouse Pelargoniums, the informs peloric,and Mr. Masters vain several he tried in to seed from that me during get years vain flowers. I likewise made these times attempts, but somemany from them with in fertilising normal succeeded a pollen flower of another variety; and conversely I several times fertilised I succeeded with in ordinary flowers peloric pollen. Only once from fertilised flower from a a a peloric by pollen plant raising be variety; but the plant, it may peloric flower borne by another Hence w^e added, presented nothing particular in its structure. conclude that rule be laid but no can down; general may any when the reproducstructure, even tive great deviation from the normal yield plenty of
In
our
central
of the
is often
not
Flowers. becomes
"
When
on
the male
converted
into
petals,
the
and
plant thus changed, the are pistils Symmetrical flowers having numerous
liable to become
the
side
double,
as
being the
most
subject
and become
to
follows
from
flowers with
only
or
few
stamens,
asymmetrical
the
structure,
gorse
sometimes
double,
The abnormal
double
Ulex, and
flowers central
Antirrhinum.
called
of
double
by the
their
florets.
Doubleness
is sometimes
connected
with
the continued or prolification,^^ growth of the axis of the flower. is strongly inherited. No Doubleness has produced, as Lindley one flowers remarks,^^ double by promoting the perfect health of the the On unnatural conditions of life favour their plant. contrary, is to believe that seeds kept during some reason production. There and seeds to believed be imperfectly fertilised,yield many years, than double flowers more fresh and perfectly fertilised seed."' freely in rich soil seems to be the commonest Long-continued cultivation A double narcissus and a double Anthemis exciting cause. nohilis,
'
Journal
"5
'
of
Horticulture,' Rendus,'
1039.
July
Dec.
act.
Hort.
Soc.,'
vol.
iii. p.
'
406:
Comptes
p.
19th, 1864,
"''
'
Gardener's
Chronicle,'
of
1866,
p.
p.
681.
^^
'
Theory
Horticulture,'
in
'
333.
"8
Mr.
Fairweather,
Trans-
Geb. der ii. s. 77. schlchte Natur,' of removal effects of the On the In Mr. Leitner, the see anthers, American Silliman's North xxiii. vol. of Journ. Science,' p. and 47: Des Varifetes,* Verlot, 1865, p. 84.
Bosse,
quoted
by
Bronn.
'
'
Chap. XVIII.
SEEDLESS
FRUIT.
147
been observed to soil, has transplanted into very become poor "" I have and white seen a single; completely double primrose rendered and permanently single by being divided transplanted whilst in full flower. It has been observed by Professor E. Morren and doubleness that of the flowers variegation of the leaves are antagonistic states; but so many exceptions to the rule have lately been be looked at as recorded,^"" that, though general, it cannot invariable. Variegation seems generally to result from a feeble or of the plant, and a large proportion of the atrophied condition seedlings raised from parents, if both are variegated, usually perish at an early age; hence we may perhaps infer that doubleness, which arises from is the antagonistic state, commonly tion. a plethoric condiOn the other hand, extremely poor soil sometimes though ^"^ I formerly described doubleness: to cause some rarely, appears by completely double, bud-like, flowers produced in large numbers amarclla wild plants of Gentiana stunted growing on a poor chalky I have distinct bank. also noticed in a tendency to doubleness the flowers of
a
Ranunculus,
Msculus
(Ranunculus
very With that
repens,
Bladder-nut
growing
^"^
unfavourable
conditions.
near
Lehmann
found
wild,
plants growing
cause
hot
spring with
double
flowers.
respect to the
of doubleness, which der arises,as we see, uncircumstances, I shall presently attempt to show is that that unnatural
on
conditions
of principle
first
give
tendency
as
and sterility,
then,
do not
the
tion, compensa-
perform their proper functions, into either become developed petals, or additional petals are they been This view has latel}^ formed. supported by Mr. Laxton,^"^ who of some the case advances common peas, which, after long-continued second flowered a time, and produced double flowers. heavy rain, of valuable most Seedless Fruit. our fruits, although Many of widely different are consisting in a homological sense organs, is ously notoriThis few seeds. either quite sterile, or produce extremely the pinewith with the case best pears, grapes, and our apple, figs, banana, bread-fruit, pomegranate, azarole, date-palms, and varieties of these same members of the orange-tribe. Poorer some horticulfruits either habitually or occasionally yield seed.^"* Most
the
reproductive organs
"
89
Lindley's
'
'
Theory
of
culture,' Horti-
10*
Lindley,
'
Theory
of
culture,' Horti'
100
333. Gardener's
p.
626; Verlot,
p.
"1'
1866,
'
Des
'
p. the
*
Chronicle,'
article
above I
1843,
gested sugon
De Godron. ing, 106; PickerRaces of Man; Gnllesio, della 1816. Teoria Riproduzione.' una 101-110. (' lieise Meyen pp. that Th. ii. s. 214) states Erde,'
'
theory
given
of flowers. This doubleness is view Carriere, adopted by Production et Fix. des Varietes,* 1865, p. 67.
102 Quoted by tarderzeugung,'
Manila at is banana
one
variety
of
'
of
the
full
seeds:
and
Gartner,
s.
'
Bas-
567.
Gardener's p. 901.
'
i""
Chronicle,' 1866,
Bot. Chamisso Misc.,' (Hooker's vol. a i. p. 310) describes variety in the Mariana of the bread-fruit ing small Islands with fruit, containwhich are seeds frequently in his Travels Burnes, perfect. remarks th" in on Bokhara,'
'
1-18
STERILITY
FROM
THE
DEVELOPMENT
Chap.
XVIIL
turists fruit
as we as
look
the shall
development of the great size and anomalous the result; but the opposite view, and as sterility cause, is more probable. presently see,
at the
StcTility
Growth
or
from
the
"
excessive
Plants
development
Avhich
from
of
any
the
cause
organs
of
too
Vegetation.
in
excess,
grow
flower
luxuriantly, and
bulbs, "c.,
not
produce
suckers, tubers,
if under their
they
do
mate cli-
To make European vegetables yield seed. to check of India yield seed, i1^4l^necessary one-third
are
the
stems for
hot
and
growth;
and,
grown,
or
theyV^taken up,
and
their
roots tap-
cut
it is with
hybrids;
instance.
Lecoq ^"^ had three plSntsof Mirabilis, which, though they beatquite sterile; but after ing floNVered, were luxuriantly aJBtl^"'Mith
a
branches
alone
were
left,these
at
and
to
yielded gO"^
obsen
The
of
sugar-cane, succulent
in
which
grows never,
vigorously
stems,
according
which
Cochin
seed the
the
West
Malay
are
Archipelago."^ Plants
produce
certain
me as
large number
the
of tubers
common
extent, \vith
the
he sweet
as
that
far
has
but
seen,
potato yields
to a as occurs, apt to be sterile, informs potato; and Mr. Fortune in China {Convolvulus batatas) never, seed. Dr.
Royle
in rich
and to
remarks
"*
that
in lead
an
India
to
the
bulbs,
an
vivipara, grown no seeds; whilst a poor soil In China, according opposite result.
Agave
tiumber of and
when
soil,invariably produces
dry climate
Mr.
in
Fortune,
the
axils
extraordinary
the
in leaves
little bulbs
this
are
developed
not bear and
of
of the
eases,
yam,
as
plant
double
does
seed.
Whether
these
in
those
of
flowers
of the
seedless
fruit,
cause
changed
excessive
conditions
of life is the
primary
the
;
development
some
might that perhaps a more probable view method, plants which largely by one propagate themselves namely not sufficient vital power for or by buds, have organised matter of sexual the other method generation. and Several distinguished botanists good practicaljudges believe that long-continued propagation by cuttings, runners, tubers, bulbs, "c., independently of any excessive development of these parts, is the of many cause plants failing to produce flowers, or producing barren only flowers, it is as if they had lost the habit of sexual thus generation."" That many plants when propagated are sterile
of this view. It is
"
doubtful
though
evidence
pomegranate
seeding
a
in
Mazen-
demoy.
Soc. vol.
of
deran,
105
as
remarliable in
Hort.
'
in Transact, Mauritius
'
of
'
the
R.
a
vi.
187.3, pp.
of
(now 60-67,
of in
series),
gives
eral sev-
large
which
number
never
cases
plants
tius. Mauri-
seed,
including
species Fecondation,'
'
indigenous
Linn.
*
18G2,
108
"
p. p.
Transact.
Soc.,' vol.
Bot.
'
Misc..'
della
vol.
i.
xvii.
103
p.
563. De Herbert
Ri-
Godron,
J. de
Cor-
ii. p.
106;
Chap.
XVIII.
OF
THE
ORGANS
OP
VEGETATION.
149
there this
can
be of
no
doubt, but
is
as
to
whether
actual
the
cause
long continuanee
of
of
form
propagation
the be
the
their
I sterility,
an
will not
venture, from
want
of sufiicient
evidence, to express
opinion.
That the the
state
plants may
aid
case
of sexual with
of nature.
many As I
propagated for long periods by buds, without generation, we may ing safely infer from this bewhich must have in a plants long survived
have
had
occasion
before
to
allude
to
this
I have collected. as subject, I will here give such cases Many ascend mountains the beyond height at which alpine plants they and can species of Poa Festuca, when produce seed.^^" Certain mountain-pastures, propagate themselves, as I hear growing on from Mr. almost Kalm Bentham, exclusively by bulblets. gives a
more
curious
instance marshes
^"
of several in thick
American
trees, which
that
grow
so
in plentifully
well but
or woods, they are certainly stations, yet scarcely ever adapted for these produce seeds; of the when the outside marsh accidentally growing on or are
wood,
Sweden
loaded and
with
seed. but
The
common
ivy
fruits
is found
in Northern
only in the southern extends Acorus calamus The over a provinces. large portion of the globe, but so rarely perfects fruit that this has been seen only by few botanists; according to Caspary, all its pollen-grains are in a a
Russia,
worthless
in
flowers
and
condition."so
The
our
Hypericum
shrubberies
but
itself this in
freely in
blossoms
calycinum, by rhizomes,
which
and
gates propa-
is naturalised
Ireland,
profusely,
rarely
sets
did it set any only during certain years; nor from garden by pollen plants growing at my which is furnished with
any when
seed,
and
fertilised The
distance.
so nummularia, long runners, has Decaisne,"^ who produces seed-capsules, that Professor it in fruit. to this plant, has The never seen especiallyattended Carer fails to perfect its seed in Scotland, Lapland, rUjkla often New in the United States."* and Greenland, Germany, Hampshire The is which periwinkle {Vhica minor), spreads largely by runners, but said scarcely ever this plant reto produce fruit in England; quires
LysimacJiia
seldom
"^
insect-aid al)sent
in
or rare.
for
its
The
be fertilisation,and the proper insects may naturalised Jussia'a f/randiflora has become
has
Southern
of 254: has in he of
France,
Hort.
Dr.
seen
and
spread by
its rhizomes
so
extensively
in
p.
on
'
Jonrnal
l.S4r., p.
what
this
Soc.,' vol. i., Wi,!,'ht. from lieves bein India, Madras view;
'
Acorns,
'
fsee
Dr.
Bronifield
the ^~Cu
iii. vol. Phytoloffist,' Vanoher Also and Lindley and as Acorns, .sec Caspary
'
"Tournnl
Lit.
and
Science,' specifies
vol.
in Tonr
this
see
state in
on
the to
the below. "3 .Srd Sc. Nat.,' Annal. des iv. 280. torn. series. Zool., p. also to refers Decaisne Professor and with mosses oases analogous lichens
"*
Alps:
bv pp.
Ill
"
Sir
near
Mr.
'
vol.
ii.
man's
"=i
in of
Sillience.' Sci-
274-2S0. Travels
Enjr.
^^^
North America,' vol. iii. p. 175. trnnslat., With to the respect ivy and
English
150
to
STEHILITY.
Chap. XVIll.
as
never
horse-radish
is naturalised these
{Cochlearia
in various
flowers,
me
that
its
he
has
65
rarely produce capsules: Professor Caspary this plant since watched 1851, but has
per
cent,
fruit;
but
of its
bears
are pollen-grains
bad.
The
Raniiniulns in
ficaria rarely
1863 I observed
eases
seed
on
in
Switzerland;
near
seeds
several
my
house."^
Other
analogous
of
mosses
with and
foregoing
have
could
never
be
lichens
plants are probably multiplication by buds, and their nourish seed. But the sterility consequent incapacity to produce and of others more probably depends on the peculiar conditions under which of the ivy in the northern they live, as in the case and of of the trees in the of the United parts Europe, swamps be in some States; yet these plants must respects eminently well for for they hold the stations which their adapted they occupy, host of places against a competitors.
these rendered sterile from excessive
Some
endemic
and
naturalised
often companies achigh degree of sterilitywhich the doubling of flowers,or an excessive ment developof fruit,seldom An incipient tendency at once. supervenes is observed, and continued selection completes the result. The the most view which seems probable, and which connects together all the foregoing facts and brings them within our present subject,is, that changed and unnatural conditions of life first give a tendency to sterility; and in of this, the organs of reproduction being no consequence longer able fully to perform their proper functions, a supply of organised matter, not required for the development of the
Finally, the
organs
and
renders
them
foliace-
fruit,stems, tubers, "c., increasing their size and succulency. But it is probable that there exists, independently of any antagonism between an incipient sterility, the two forms of reproduction, namely, by seed and buds, when either is carried to an extreme degree. That incipient
de Flora Planchon, Montpellier.' 1864, p. 20. ^^"^ On the of non-production seeds in England, Mr. Crocker, see in Gardener's Weekly zine,' MagaHist. 1852, p. 70; Vaueher, Plantes torn. i. Phys. d'Europe,' Bot. 33; Geograph. p. Lecoq, d'Europe,' torn. iv. p. 466; Dr, D.
'
into
the
""
G.
'
'
des torn,
So.
Nat.,'
refers
xvii., 1852,
129;
other
this
latter
author
See cases. analogous especially on this plant, and allied Die Naturw.
"
'
other
cases,
Caspary.
hand.
Nuphar,"
'
Professor AbGesellsch. zu
'
40, 78.
Chap.
XVIII.
STERILITY.
151
important part in the doubling of flowers, and in the other cases I infer chieflyfrom the just specified, fertility is lost from a wholly different following facts. When namely, from dency, hybridism, there is a strong tencause, Gartner afiirms, for flowers to become as double, and this tendency is inherited. that Moreover, it is notorious become sterile before the fewith hybrids the male male organs
an
"^
sterility plays
organs,
and
This
with
double
flowers
the stamens
foliaceous. of dioacious
by the male
first become plants, which, according to Gallesio,"** often insists that the flowers double. Again, Gartner of even utterly sterile hybrids, which do not produce any seed, has generally yield perfect capsules or fruit, a fact which with the Cucurlikewise been repeatedly observed by Naudin bitacete; so that the production of fruit by plants rendered has also sterile through any is intelligible. Kolreuter cause astonishment velopmen deat the size and expressed his unbounded in all exof the certain tubers hybrids; and perimentalis have remarked the strong tendency in on and suckers. Seeing hybrids to increase by roots, runners, that hybrid plants, which from their nature less are more or thus tend to produce double flowers;that they have the sterile, parts including the seed, that is the fruit,perfectly developed, when containing no seed; that they sometimes yield gigantic even roots ; that they almost invariably tend to increase seeing this, and largely by suckers and other such means; facts given in the earlier parts of knowing, from the many all organic beings when this chapter, that almost exposed to
"
^^^
"
unnatural
seems
conditions the
most
tend
to
become
more
or
much
probable view
exciting
in
some
that and
with
cause,
double
flowers,
cases
largely-developed organs
results
"
vegetation, "c.,
been in
most
man.
are cases
the indirect
these
results having
largely increased
through continued
selection
lis
'
by
Bastarderzeugunsj,'
(Dritte
also
s.
565.
s.
Kolrenter
two
er
Fortesetziiug,
shows
that when
'
are
theothsingle and species, one crossed, the hybrids double, are double. apt to be extremely
s.
573.
"^
Ibid.,
s.
527.
152
SUMMARY
OF
THE
Chap.
XIX.
CHAPTEK
SUMMARY
OF THE FOUR LAST
XIX.
CHAPTERS,
WITH
REMARKS
ON
HYBRIDISM.
On
the
of domestication influence The effects of crossing on fertility and evil results from conditions Good changed Close interbreeding not crossed ence when of life Varieties invariably fertile On the differvarieties Conclusions crossed and in fertility between species gitimate on hybridism with respect to hybridism Light thrown by the illeof crossed of heterostyled plants Sterility species progeny confined to the Not due to differences reproductive system mulated accuvarieties selection lieasons through natural why domestic
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
are
not
mutually
sterile
"
in fertility between
stress
has
species and
"
uals individchapter that when of the same of a distinct variety, are variety, or even mately is ultiallowed freely to intercross, uniformity of character few characters, however, are ble incapaacquired. Some often of of fusion, but these are unimportant, as they are and semi-monstrous have suddenly appeared. a nature,
It
was
shown
in the fifteenth
Hence
to
preserve
our
domesticated
breeds
true,
or
to
prove im-
selection,it is obviously necessary by methodical that they should be kept separate. Nevertheless, a whole be slowly modified, through unconscious body of individuals, may selection,as we shall see in a future chapter, without into lots. Domestic have distinct races separating them often been intentionallymodified by one or two crosses, made with allied race, and some occasionally even by repeated
crosses
them
with
very
distinct and
races
but
in almost
all such
cases,
long-continued
necessary,
careful
selection
has
been
absolutely
spring, off-
owing
due
to the excessive
to the
principle of reversion.
retained
a
few
instances,
from
uniform
character
two
varieties
numerous
are
allowed the
to
cross
freely,and
former varieties
one
is
than latter.
other, the
both
absorb
the
Should
151
On the
SUMMARY
OF
THE
Chap. XIX.
other hand, long-continnedclose interbreeding between the nearest relations diminishes the constitutional and occasionally of the offspring; vigour, size,and fertility
terioration to general deleads to malformations, but not necessarily This failure of fertility of form or structure. of shows that the evil results are interbreeding independent
to both augmentation of morbid tendencies common parents, though this augmentation no doubt is often highly
of the
ing injurious. Our belief that evil follows from close interbreedthe experience of practical on rests to a certain extent animals of those who have reared many breeders,especially it likewise but rests of quicklypropagating kinds; on eral sev-
carefullyrecorded
experiments. With
some
animals
be carried on for a long period with close interbreedingmay impunity by the selection of the most vigorous and healthy later evil follows. The evil, ever, howor individuals;but sooner
slowly and graduallythat it easily escapes ous but can be recognised observation, by the almost instantanein constitutional which size, vigour, and fertility manner
comes on so are
are
distinct
family.
namely, the good derived great classes of facts, and the evil from close interbreeding, with the crossing,
consideration of the innumerable adaptationsthroughout for compelling, nature or favouring,or at least permitting, taken together, individuals, lead to the conclusion that it is a law of nature that organic beings shall not fertilisethemselves for perpetuity. This law
was
of distinct
firstplainly hinted at in 1799,with respect to plants, by Andrew that sagacious Knight,^and, not long afterwards, after showing how well the Malvaceae are observer Kolreuter, asks, " an id aliquidin recessu habeat, adapted for crossing,
quod hujuscemodi floras nunquam proprio suo pulvere,sed aliarum eo suae speciei impregnentur,meritoqu8eritur? semper
1
'
Transactions
p.
PMl.
Soc.,'
failed
1709,
'
202. For KfUreuter, see de Mem. St. PetersI'Acad. de bourg,' torn. ill. 1809 (published In 1811), p. 197. reading C. K.
*
meaning
flowers
scribed,
before
fnll the understand of the of the structure which he has dewell so from not always having his mind the key to the to
problem,
rived tinct
this
wonderfully
observe acute
dedls-
ii
Chap.
XIX.
FOUR
LAST
CHAPTERS.
;155
demur
Certe
natura
Kolreuter's how
many
saying that
nature
may
to
in
vain, seeing
are,
rudimentary
the argument
and from
useless
the
there
yet
doubtedly un-
innumerable greatest
contrivances,
The
most to
which
favour
crossing, is of the
weight.
uniformity of of the same character in the individuals species. In the case of certain hermaphrodites which probably intercross only at long intervals of time, and with unisexual animals inhabiting somewhat which separated localities, can only occasionally into and the contact come pair, greater vigour and fertility of the crossed offspring will ultimately tend to give uniformity of character. when But we beyond the limits of go the same species, free intercrossing is barred by the law of sterility. In searching for facts which might throw light on the of the good effects from crossing,and of the evil effects cause from close interbreeding,we have seen that, on the one hand, it is a widely prevalent and ancient belief, that animals and plants profitfrom slight changes in their condition of life; and it would in a somewhat that the germ, analogous appear is more effectuallystimulated by the male element, manner, when taken from a distinct individual,and therefore slightly
modified
same
important
is that
it leads
in nature, been
than
when
from
other
male
having the
numerous are
identical have
constitution.
hand,
animals
facts
given, showing
when
first
in their native land, and although subjected to captivity, even allowed much often their reproductive functions are liberty, Some of animals greatly impaired or quite annulled. groups affected than others,but wdth apparently capricious are more Some animals rarely never or exceptions in every group. or couple under confinement; some couple freely,but never the The nal materrarely conceive. secondary male characters, With functions and instincts, are, occasionally affected. first subjected to cultivation, analogous facts plants, when have double been observed. We flowers, our probably owe rich seedless fruits, and in some cases greatly developed the above nature bined comtubers, "c., to incipient sterility of which Animals with a copious supply of nutriment. have long been domesticated, and plants which have long been
156
SUMMARY.
Chap.
XIX.
ity, cultivated,can generally withstand, with unimpaired fertilof life; though both great changes in their conditions animals the somesometimes what are slightly affected. With gether rare capacity of breeding freely under confinement, tothe kinds which with their utility, mainly determine have We been
can
domesticated.
in
no case
precisely say
an
what
is the
cause
of the
a
diminished
of fertility
first
a
animal
we
when
can
first
captured, or of
infer that
it
plant
caused life.
when
cultivated;
of
some
only
is
by
The
change
remarkable
kind
in the natural
conditions
of
of the reproductive syssusceptibility tem to such to any changes, a susceptibilitynot common other organ, bility, apparently has an important bearing on Variashall see in a future chapter. as we It is impossible not to be struck with the double parallelism the two classes of facts just alluded to. between On the and crosses one hand, slightchanges in the conditions of life, between slightlymodified forms or varieties,are beneficial as far as prolificness and constitutional vigour are concerned. On the other hand, changes in the conditions gree, greater in de" "
or
of have
different
nature,
and
crosses
between
forms
greatly modified by natural in other words, between ous, species, are highly injurimeans, is concerned, and in far as the reproductive system as far as constitutional few instances cerned. vigour is conas some it not Does Can this parallelism be accidental?
which been
slowly and
"
"
rather
out
indicate
some
real bond
so
?
are a
As
unless
it be stirred up,
to
according
unless of other
In
Mr.
Herbert and
Spencer,
renovated
to
state
of the
brium, equiliaction
disturbed
through
to
forces.
some
keep distinct,by breeding at different seasons, by great difference in size,or by sexual preference. But the crossing of varieties,far from of the first union diminishing, generally adds to the fertility all the more and of the mongrel offspring. Whether widely varieties are distinct domestic invariably quite fertile when time do not positivelyknow; much and trouble crossed, we would be requisite for the necessary experiments, and many
cases
few
varieties
tend
difficulties occur,
such
as
the
descent
of
the
various
races
Chap.
XIX.
HYBRIDISM.
I57
aboriginally distinct species, and the doubts whether forms certain ought to be ranked as species or varieties. the wide of Nevertheless, experience practical breeders proves if some that the great majority of varieties,even should fertile inter se, are hereafter prove to be indefinitely not far fertile when crossed, than the vast majority of closely more allied natural ever, species. A few remarkable cases have, howbeen given on the authority of excellent observers, ing showthat with plants certain forms, which undoubtedly must be ranked crossed than varieties, yield fewer seeds when as is natural varieties have had to the parent-species. Other far modified their reproductive powers that they are either so
from
more or
crossed
with
species. cated Nevertheless, the fact remains indisputable that domestidiffer greatly of animals and of plants,which varieties, in structure, from another scended but which one are certainly defrom the same of such as the races aboriginal species, the fowl, pigeon, many vegetables, and a host of other productions, are extremely fertile when crossed; and this seems broad to make and domestic a impassable barrier between varieties and natural species. But, as I will now attempt to portant show, the distinction is not so great and overwhelmingly imas
distinct
it at first appears.
On
the
Difference in Fertilitybetween
when crossed.
Varieties
and
Species
place for fully treating the subject of hybridism, and I have already given in my ' Origin of Species a moderately full abstract. I will here merely the general conclusions which be relied on, enumerate may and which bear on our present point. the laws Firstly, governing the production of hybrids are and vegetable identical,or nearly identical,in the animal kingdoms. first Secondly, the sterility of distinct species when most united, and that of their hybrid offspring, graduate, by an alis not the
proper
'
This
work
infinite number
never
of steps, from
a
zero,
when
never
the
ovule
up
is
to
impregnated, and
is seed-capsule
formed,
158
HYBRIDISM.
Chap. XIX.
We can only escape tlie conclusion that completefertility. fertilewhen crossed, by determining to some are fully species
designate as varieties all the forms which are This high degree of fertility however, rare. is,
quite fertile.
Nevertheless,
conditions, which have been exposed to unnatural plants, that they sometimes a manner, become modified in so peculiar fertile when crossed with a distinct species much more are ing than when fertilised by their own pollen. Success in effectof and the fertility first union between two species, a
their hybrids, depend in an eminent degree on the conditions of hybrids of of life being favourable. The innate sterility the same seed-capsule parentage and raised from the same between two with that of parallel speciesdoes not always run strictly of species known their hybrid offspring. are Many cases which can be crossed with ease, but yieldhybridsexcessively
a
firstcross
sterile ; and
which can be crossed with great some conversely but produce fairlyfertile hybrids. This is an difficulty, fact, on the view that specieshave been speinexplicable cially in order to keep them with mutual sterility endowed
distinct. often differs greatlyin Fourthly,the degree of sterility two crossed; for the first will specieswhen reciprocally after fertilisethe second; but the latter is incapable, readily of fertilising the former. hundreds of trials, Hybrids produced two from reciprocal between the same species crosses These likewise sometimes differ in their degree of sterility. the view of also cases on are sterility utterlyinexplicable endowment. a being special the degree of sterility of firstcrosses and of hybrids Fifthly, with the generalor to a certain extent, parallel runs, the of forms which are united. For spesystematic affinity cies those distinct longing beand to belonging can rarely, genera distinct families can however, is far from parallelism,
to
allied species will not unite,or unite with extreme closely whilst other species, other, widely different from one andifficulty, with the culty diffibe crossed ]^or does can perfect facility. for andepend on ordinary constitutional differences, of
Ii
Chap.
XIX.
HYBRIDISM.
I59
and perennial plants, deciduous trees, evergreen plants flowering at different seasons, inhabiting different stations, and naturally living under the most opposite climates, often be crossed with ease. The difficulty can or facilityapparently the sexual constitution depends exclusively on of the species which their sexual elective crossed; or on are i. e., Wahlverwandtschaft of Gartner. As affinity, species in one modified become rarely or never character, without in many time modified being at the same characters,and as similari systematic affinity includes all visible similarities and disany
nual
and
difference
in sexual
constitution
between
two
less close relation species would naturally stand in more or with their systematic position. Sixthly, the sterilityof species wdien first crossed, and that of hybrids, may possibly depend to a certain extent on distinct causes. With species the reproductive organs pure in a perfect condition, whilst with hybrids they are often are A plainly deteriorated. hybrid embryo which partakes of the constitution is exposed to unof its father and mother natural within the conditions, as long as it is nourished
womb,
that
or
egg,
or
seed
of the
mother-form;
induce
and
as
we
know
unnatural
the reprosterility, ductive of this the be early age hybrid might at organs manently perfertilit affected. has no bearing on the inBut this cause conditions often of first unions. The
may
diminished often
number
of the offspring is
from
sometimes
first unions
case,
result, as
death
see
certainly
of the
a
the
from
we
of most that
hybrid embryos.
an
For
immediately
law
of
unknown
more
or
spring apparently exists,which leads to the offfrom infertile, being themselves unions, which are be less infertile;and this at present is all that can
nature
said.
SeventJily,hybrids and mongrels present, with the one in the most striking accordance great exception of fertility, all other respects; namely, in the laws of their resemblance to their two parents, in their tendency to reversion, in their and in being absorbed variability, through repeated crosses by either parent-form. gate led to investiAfter arriving at these conclusions, I was considerable throws light on hybridism. a subject which
160
HYBRIDISM.
Chap.
XIX.
namely, the fertilityof heterostyled or dimorpliic and triunited. I have had occamorphic plants,when illegitimately sion several times to allude to these plants, and I may here Several plants belonging give a brief abstract of my observations. orders present two exist to distinct forms, which
in about in their
equal numbers,
and
which
one
differ in form
no
respect
except
having a long pistil the other a short pistilwith with short stamens, mens; long statriboth with differentlysized pollen-grains. With morphic plants there are three forms likewise differing in and stamens, in the size and colthe lengths of their pistils our other respects; and as and in some of the pollen-grains, reproductive
organs;
in each
are
there
are
two
sets
of stamens, kinds
to
one
there
altogether six
organs any
are
of stamens
and
in
three
of
pistils.
another stand
I have
These
proportioned
length
that, in
on a
two
in each
level with
Now
by other observers, shown, and the result has been confirmed with these plants, it is that, in order to obtain full fertility
necessary
that the
stigma of the
the stamens
one
form of
should
be fertilised
by pollen taken
corresponding height in So that with dimorphic species two unions, the other form. be called legitimate, are which and fully fertile, two, may which be called illegitimate,are less infertile. more or may With trimorphic species six unions are legitimate, twelve and less are fully fertile, illegitimate, or or more or
infertile.*
The
from
which be observed in various phic dimorinfertility may and trimorphic plants, when illegitimatelyfertilised, that is, by pollen taken from stamens not corresponding in differs much in degree, up to absolute height with the pistil, and utter in sterility; just in the same manner as occurs in the crossing distinct species. As the degree of sterility latter case depends in an eminent degree on the conditions of life being more less favourable,so I have found it with illegitimate or unions. that if pollen of a distinct It is well known
' observations On the My Character and nature hybrid-like the of the offspring from illegitiand union of mate Dimorphic
'
nean
abstract
same
in
the
p. is
393.
The
Trimorphic
lished in the
Plants
'
'
were
pubthe Lin-
of
Species.'
Journal
of
162
inter se, and
are.
HYBRIDISM.
Chap.
XIX.
it is well known
how
sterile these
When, on the other hand, a hybrid is usually much ened lesseither pure the sterility parent-species, it is when illegitimate plant is fertilised by : and so an the sterility of manner as a legitimate plant. In the same of parallel with the difficulty hybrids does not always run the two between the making the first cross so parent-species, of certain illegitimate plants was sterility unusually great,
whilst the
was
from
which
they
were
rived de-
hybrids raised from the is innately variable, same seed-capsule the degree of sterility it is in a marked with illegitimate manner so plants. Lastly, hybrids are profuse and persistent flowerers,whilst many other and more sterile hybrids produce few flowers,and are with the weak, miserable dwarfs; exactly similar cases occur illegitimateoffspring of various dimorphic and trimorphic plants. and Although there is the closest identity in character behaviour between illegitimate plants and hybrids, it is that the former brids, hyhardly an exaggeration to maintain are but produced within the limits of the same species of certain forms, whilst ordinary by the improper union between sohybrids are produced from an improper union there is that called distinct species. We have already seen first illegitimate the closest similarity in all respects between between distinct species. This will unions, and first crosses more fully apparent by an illustration: we perhaps be made
great.
may suppose
With
that
botanist
found
two
well-marked
ties varie-
phic occur) of the long-styledform of the trimorand that he determined to try by LytJirum salicaria, would He distinct. specifically crossing whether they were find that they yielded only about one-fifth of the proper ber numof seed, and in all the other abovethat they behaved specifiedrespects as if they had been two distinct species. he would his But the case raise plants from to make sure, lings find that the seedsupposed hybridised seed, and he would and and that were miserably dwarfed utterly sterile, in all other respects like ordinary hybrids. He they behaved that he had actually proved, in accordance might then maintain with the common as view, that his two varieties were
(and such
Chap.
XIX.
HYBRIDISM.
l^^
good and as distinct speciesas any in the world ; but he would be completely mistaken. The facts now given on dimorphic and trimorphic plants are important, because they show us, first that the physiological b oth in test of lessened first and in fertility, crosses is criterion of hybrids, no cause specificdistinction;secondly, bewe
may
conclude the
that
there
is
some
unknown
bond
infertilityof illegitimate unions with that of their illegitimateofi^spring, and we led to extend are the same view to first crosses and hybrids; thirdly,because of especialimportance, that two to me we find,and this seems of three forms of the same exist and may differ species may in no in constitution, or respect whatever, either in structure relatively to external conditions, and yet be sterile when
connects
which
united
in
certain
ways.
For
we
must
remember
that of the
it is
same
the union
of the sexual
elements
of individuals
form, for instance, of two long-styledforms, which results in whilst it is the union of the sexual element sterility; proper
to two
distinct
at
forms
wdiich
the
is fertile.
reverse
Hence
the
occurs
case
pears ap-
first
sight exactly
of what of the
same
in the
species,and distinct species. It is,however, doubtful with crosses between whether this this is really so; but I will not enlarge on obscure subject. We tion however, infer as probable from the consideramay, of of dimorphic and trimorphic plants,that the sterility distinct species when crossed, and of their hybrid progeny, of their sexual elements, depends exclusively on the nature difference in their structure and not on stitution. or general conany
ordinary unions
We
are
of the individuals
also led to
this
same
conclusion
by
sidering con-
in which the male of one species reciprocalcrosses, male with the febe united, or only with great difficulty, cannot be of a second cross can species,whilst the converse ner, effected with perfect facility. That excellent observer, Gartsterile crossed are likewise concluded that species when ov/ing to differences confined to their reproductive systems.
whilst for man, principlewhich makes it necessary to keep he is selecting and improving his domestic varieties, On the them
separate, it would
ie4
in
state
HYBRIDISM.
Chap.
XIX.
if they could incipient species, be kept from blending, either through sexual aversion, or by it at one time appeared to becoming mutually sterile. Hence might have me probable, as it has to others, that this sterility selection. On this view we been acquired through natural of lessened that a shade mufit fertilityfirst sponsuppose taneously in other certain like modification, appeared, any individuals crossed with other individuals of a species when of the same species; and that successive slight degrees of infertility,from being advantageous, were slowly accumulated. all the more This appears probable, if we admit that the forms of dimorphic differences the structural between and trimorphic plants, as the length and of the curvature "c., have been co-adapted through natural selection; pistil, for if this be admitted, we hardly avoid extending the can conclusion to their mutual same infertility. Sterility, over, morehas been acquired through natural selection for other with neuter and widely different purposes, insects in reference as of plants, the In the case to their social economy. flowers on the circumference of the truss in the guelder-rose of the spike in (Vihurnum opulus) and those on the summit the feather-hyacinth (Muscari comosum) have been rendered sterile,in order conspicuous, and apparently in consequence that insects might and visit the perfect easily discover flowers. But when endeavour to apply the principle of we natural selection to the acquirement by distinct species of mutual with great difficulties. In the first meet we sterility, habited be remarked that separate regions are often inplace, it may of species or by single species, which when by groups less brought together and crossed are found to be more or it could clearly have been no sterile; now advantage to such and separated species to have been rendered mutually sterile, ral consequently this could not have been effected through natuselection ; but it may perhaps be argued, that, if a species sterile with some rendered with were one compatriot, sterility follow as a necessary In other species would consequence. the second place,it is as much ral opposed to the theory of natuselection, as to the theory of special creation, that in the male element of one form should have reciprocal crosses been rendered utterly impotent on a second form, whilst at
a
of nature, that is to
Chap. XIX.
HYBRIDISM.
1^5
of this second form is
the
same
time
the
male
element
abled en-
freely to fertilise the first form; for this peculiar state of the reproductive system could not possibly have been advantageo to either species. In considering the probability of natural selection having into action in rendering species mutually sterile, come one
of the greatest difficulties will be found
to
lie in the
ence exist-
graduated steps from slightlylessened fertility be admitted, on the principle to sterility. It may above explained, that it would profitan incipient species if it rendered in some slightdegree sterile when crossed with were other variety; for thus fewer its parent-form or with some bastardised and deteriorated offspring would be produced to of commingle their blood with the new species in process
formation. But he who will take the trouble
to reflect
on
of many absolute
the
could be increased sterility through natural selection to that higher degree which is common to so many species,and which is universal with species which have been differentiated to a generic or family rank, will find the subject extraordinarily complex. After mature reflection it
seems
steps by which
to
me
not
have
been
effected
through natural
which,
what when
is there
selection.
case
dividua in-
in a slightlyhigher happened to be endowed thus and which approached infertility, degree with mutual ? Yet an advance by one small step towards absolute sterility of this kind, if the theory of natural selection be brought to with many have incessantly occurred species,for bear, must sterile neuter With a multitude mutually quite barren. are
which
insects
structure
we
have and
reason
to
believe
that
modifications
in
their
ral by natuhave been slowly accumulated fertility from advantage having been thus indirectly selection, an other to which given to the community they belonged over of the same communities species; but an individual animal slightly not belonging to a social community, if rendered not thus other variety,would sterile when crossed with some itself gain any advantage or indirectlygive any advantage to the other individuals of the same variety,thus leading to their
preservation.
166
But it would be
HYBRIDISM.
Chap.
XIX.
superfluous to discuss this question in detail; for with plants we have conclusive evidence that the be due to some of crossed species must principle, sterility Both Gartner and quite independent of natural selection. have Kolreuter proved that in general including numerous when from be formed species which species, a series can never crossed yield fewer and fewer seeds, to species which produce a single seed, but yet are affected by the pollen of
swells. It is here manifestly for the germen species, sterile individuals,which impossible to select the more of sterility, have already ceased to yield seeds ; so that this acme have been alone is affected,cannot when the germen gained through selection; and from the laws governing the various grades of sterility throughout the being so uniform infer that the cause, animal and vegetable kingdoms, we may in all it may whatever nearly the same or be, is the same certain other
cases.
As
species have
not
been
rendered
mutually
infertile
action of natural selection, and as through the accumulative safely conclude, from the previous as well as from we may other and more general considerations, that they have not been endowed through an act of creation with this quality, infer that it has arisen incidentally during their must we slow formation
in in
connection
with
a
other
and
unknown
dentally, quality arising inciI refer to such cases different species of animals as affected by poisons to which and plants being differently they not naturally exposed; and this difference in susceptibility are is clearlyincidental other and unknown differences in on their organisation. So again the capacity in different kinds fers difof trees to be grafted on each other, or on a third species, cidental much, and is of no advantage to these trees but is instructural or functional differences in their woody on need not feel surprise at sterility We tissues. incidentally
changes
their
organisation. By
resulting from
descendants how of
crosses a common
between
distinct species,
"
progenitor,
"
when
we
is affected by various reproductive system often by extremely slight changes in the conditions causes of life,by too close interbreeding, and by other agencies. It
easily the
"
is well
to
bear
in mind
such
cases
as
that
of the
Passiflora
Chap. XIX.
HYBRIDISM.
X67
from self-fertility being grafted of the cases species plants which normally or a distinct on abnormally are self-impotent, but can readily be fertilised by the pollen of a distinct species and lastlythe cases of individual
alata, which
recovered
"
its
"
domesticated sexual We
animals
which
evince
towards
each
other
incompatibility.
now
dispoint under cussion is it that,with some few exceptions in the case : how of plants, domesticated such as those of the dog, varieties, and fowl, pigeon, several fruit-trees, culinary vegetables,
at
come
last
to
the
immediate
which
many
differ from
are species,
each
other in external
characters
more even
perfectlyfertile when
crossed, or
a
in excess, in some
whilst
almost certain
ably invari-
give
extent,
over
Passing
between
the
cies spe-
two
guide
know
sterility, so
be
no
that similar
sure
differences
we
in the
case
of varieties would
cause
guide,
that
in
with
species the
animals
lies exclusively
Now
in differences conditions
to
their
sexual
constitution. and
the
which
domesticated
cultivated
wards plants have been subjected have had so little tendency toing leadmodifj'ing the reproductive system in a manner to mutual that we have very good grounds for sterility, admitting the directly opposite doctrine of Pallas, namely, that such conditions generally eliminate this tendency; so in their that the domesticated which of species, descendants
natural
state
would
have
been
in
some
crossed, become
plants, so perfectly fertile together. With far is cultivation from giving a tendency towards mutual that in several well-authenticated already sterility, cases, in often alluded to, certain species have been affected a very different manner, for they have become self-impotent, whilst and being fertilised by, retaining the capacity of fertilising, distinct species. If the Pallasian doctrine of the elimination mitted, be adof sterility through long-continued domestication in the highit becomes est and it can hardly be rejected, should monly comdegree improbable that similar circumstances both induce and eliminate the same tendency; though
43
168
in certain with
HYBRIDISM.
Chap.
XIX.
species having a peculiar constitution, lieve, Thus, as I besterility might occasionallybe thus induced. animals understand we can why with domesticated varieties have not been produced which are mutually sterile ; have been observed, and why with plants only a few such cases namely, by Gartner, with certain varieties of maize and verbascum, by other experimentalists with varieties of the gourd kind of tobacco. with one and melon, and by Kolreuter have originated in a state With respect to varieties which of nature, it is almost hopeless to expect to prove by direct evidence that they have been rendered mutually sterile; for could be detected, such varieties of sterility if even trace a would be raised by almost naturalist to the at once every of distinct species. If, for instance, Gartner's rank ment statewere fully confirmed, that the blue and red flowered sterile when forms of the pimpernel (Anagallis arvensis) are
cases,
crossed, I
on
presume
that
who
are were
now
maintain
various
forms
varieties,would
The real
admit
that
they
in our difficulty present subject is not, as it appears become domestic varieties have not ally mututo me, why infertile when crossed, but why this has so generally occurred fied with natural varieties as soon as they have been modiin a sufficient and degree to take rank as permanent but species. We are far from preciselyknowing the cause; ence that the species, owing to their struggle for existsee we can have been with numerous exposed competitors, must of life during long periods of uniform conditions to more time make than
a
domestic
varieties
have
been, and
For
we
wide wild
in the result.
well
monly com-
ral plants,when taken from their naturendered conditions and subjected to captivity, are sterile; of organic beings which have and the reproductive functions natural ditions conalways lived and been slowly modified under would be eminently sensitive probably in like manner to
the
influence
on
of
an
unnatural
cross.
ductions, promere
tive sensinow
changes
in their conditions
of
can
170
SELECTION.
Chap.
XX.
CHAPTER
SELECTION
BY
XX.
MAN.
Selection
with
Eesults
unconscious,
Care taken
and in
natural selection
"
selection
"
"
by
people
selection
animals
"
"
Unimportant
circumstances
cliaracters the
on
"
by
"
Unconscious
As
slowly change,
action the
same
changed
of different
through
breeders selection
in
have so of unconscious
our
sub-variety
as
by unconscious
amount
Effects
of selection
most
of difference
the
parts
valued
by
man.
by man, or brought into play under nature through the struggle for existence and the consequent survival of the fittest, absolutely
power
The
of
Selection, whether
exercised
ability varidepends on the variabilityof organic beings. Without nothing can be effected;slight individual differences, however, suffice for the work, and are probably the chief in the production of new sole means or our species. Hence the causes discussion and laws of variabilityought in on strict order to have preceded the present subject, as well as inheritance, crossing, "c. ; but practically the present arrangement has
not
been
cause
found
the
most
convenient.
Man
does
variability;though he unintentionally effects this by exposing organisms to new of life, conditions and by crossing breeds already formed. But variability being wonders. Unless granted, he works some degree of selection be exercised, the free commingling of the individuals of the have previously seen, the same variety soon obliterates, as we acter slight differences which arise, and gives uniformity of charIn of individuals. to the Avhole body tricts, separated disof different to conditions long-continued exposure life may without the aid of selection; but races produce new to this subject of the direct action of the conditions of life I shall recur in a future chapter. animals When or plants are born with some conspicuous and firmly inherited to new character, selection is reduced
attempt
to
Chap.
XX.
SELECTION.
I7I
preservation of such individuals,and to the subsequent that nothing more need be said ou so prevention of crosses; the subject. But in the great majority of cases ter, characa new some or superiorityin an old character,is at first faintly pronounced, and is not strongly inherited; and then the full of selection is experienced. Indomitable difficulty patience, of discrimination, and the finest powers sound judgment be exercised A clearly predetermust during many mined years. be kept steadily in view. Few object must men are endowed with all these qualities, criminat especiallywith that of disbe acslight differences;judgment can quired very if but of these only by long experience; qualities any be wanting, the labour of a life may be thrown I have away. astonished when celebrated been skill and breeders, whose at exhibitions, judgment have been proved by their success their animals, which have shown me appeared all alike, and for matching this and that indihave assigned their reasons vidual. The importance of the great principle of Selection of selecting scarcely api)reciable mainly lies in this power w^hich nevertheless found to be transmissible, differences, are
and which
to the
can
the
be accumulated
fest mani-
conveniently divided Methodical selection is that which into three kinds. guides who to modify a breed cording acsystematically endeavours a man Uficonscious to some lection sepredetermined standard. follows from is that which men naturally preserving valued and destroying the less valued the most individuals, without thought of altering the breed; and undoubtedly any tion selecthis process slowly works great changes. Unconscious be cases can graduates into methodical, and only extreme or perfect a useful distinctly separated ; for he who preserves it with the hope of getting animal will generally breed from character; but as long as he has not a offspring of the same be said to improve the breed, he may predetermined purpose have Natural seto be selecting unconsciously.^ Lastly, we
be
1
The
The been
term
unconscious to
as a
selection
contra-
m;irks up
has
objected
that sand-dunes
wh^n it
the
wind
and the
heaps
uncon-
sifts sand
diction;
but excellent see some this head serrations on by fesor Hist. (' Nat. Huxley view,' Oct. 1864, p. 578), who
obProRere-
sciously
the beach size,
selects
grains
from of
gravel on of equal
172
SELECTION.
Chap.
XX.
the
in
individuals the
course
which
are
best
conditions
which
they
a
are
exposed,
domestic
extent
procreate
selection
their
comes
kind.
to
With
certain
of, and
even
in
Methodical
times in
What
man
has
effected
within
cent re-
selection is clearly by methodical shown by our exhibitions of improved quadrupeds and fancy their With birds. owe respect to cattle,sheep, and pigs, we to a long series of well-known names great improvement ter Bakewell, Colling, Ellman, Bates, Jonas Webb, Lords Leicesand Agricultural Western, Fisher Hobbs, and others.
England
"
writers
are
unanimous
of statements
any
few
experienced observer, writes,' that which enables the agriculthe principle of selection is turist, not only to modify the character of his flock,but to change it altogether." A great breeder of Shorthorns says,
Youatt,
a
sagacious and
"
"
of the shoulder
on
modern
breeders
have
made
great
the
improvement
the
the
Ketton
or
knuckle
shorthorns
snugly in the
it.
. . .
and has
thereby
ion its fashstanding outeye
different from
periods:
the
at
one
high and
the
head, and
at
another
time have
sleepy
sunk medium
these extremes
merged
*
into the
clear and prominent eye with a placid look." full, Again, hear what an excellent judge of pigs says : " The legs should be no longer than just to prevent the animal's the ground. The trailing on belly from leg is the least therefore profitableportion of the hog, and we require no of is it than for the more absolutely necessary support of Let
any
one
the rest."
compare
with
any
proved im-
breed, and
been
"
he
will
see
shortened.
Tonatt,
Mr.
'
On
Sheep,'
on
1838,
p.
60.
"
J. in
'
Wright
Journal
Shorthorn
cultural 209. * H.
Soc.,' vol.
D.
vii.
'
pp. On
208,
Richardson
Pigs,*
Cattle,
of
Royal
Agii-
1847,
p.
44.
Chap.
XX.
METHODICAL
SELECTION.
1^3
of the systematic
Few
care
persons,
except breeders,
are
aware
selectinganimals, and of the necessity of having almost prophetic vision into futurity. Lord a clear and well known; Spencer's skill and judgment were and he " It is therefore writes,* desirable, before any very man either cattle or sheep, that he should to breed commences make to the shape and qualities he wishes to obtain, up his mind and steadily pursue this object." Lord Somerville, in ter Leicesspeaking of the marvellous improvement of the New " effected and his successors, It sheep, by Bakewell says, would if they had first drawn seem as a perfect form, and then given it life." Youatt the necessity of annually urges animals will certainly degenerdrafting each flock, as many ate
*
taken
in
"
from
the in
standard his
own
which
with
the breeder
a
has such
established little
were
bird
of
which
the
London
breed
at
the the
several
sub-varieties.^ A
"
great
the
prizes
Almond who
Pigeon-shows,^ in describing
says,
short-faced
bler, Tumare
There
are
many
ticularly par-
partial to
what
is called
goldfinch-beak,which
is very beautiful; others say, take a full-size round cherry then take a barleycorn, and judiciouslyplacing and thrusting it into the
cherry, form
as
it
were
your
beak
and
that is not
all,for it will form a good head and beak, provided, as I said before, it is judiciously done; others take an oat; but I think the goldfinch-beak the handsomest, I would advise as the inexperienced fancier to get the head of a goldfinch,and keep it by him for his observation." Wonderfully different the beaks of the rock pigeon and goldfinch, the end as are has undoubtedly been nearly gained, as far as external shape and proportions are concerned. animals with the greatNot only should our be examined est
care
should
'
'
their carcases remarks," alive,but, as Anderson " the descendants be scrutinised, so as to breed from whilst
^
'
Journal of Agricult. Royal Soc.,' vol. i. p. 24. " On Sheep,' pp. 520, 319. T Loudon's Nat, of Mag. Hist.,' vol. viii.,1835, p. 618.
' '
Breeding 1851, p.
"
'
the
Art
of
Tumbler,'
vol.
in
Agriculture/
174
of such The with
"
SELECTION.
Chap.
XX.
only
up
well."
grain of the
and fat,^** of
our
in
or
cattle,and
its
the greater
less accumulation
sheep, have been attended to with success. So with poultry, a writer," speaking of Cochin-China fowls, in the quality of their flesh, which said to differ much are " the best mode is to purchase two young brother-cocks, says, if he be indifferent, kill,dress, and serve similarly one; up dispose of the other, and try again; if,however, he be fine and well-flavoured,his brother will not be amiss for breeding
abdomen
purposes
The
great
to
of
labour
has
'^
been
"
brought
breeding
persons,
bear
selection.
to
In
a
certain
very
districts
the of
of bulls who
are
is confined
limited attention
to
number
to
a
this
partment de-
furnish
class of
steadily improving the general breed of the district." The has long rearing and letting of choice rams of profit to several been, as is well known, a chief source In eminent breeders. this principle is parts of Germany carried with merino point." " So imporsheep to an extreme tant selection of breeding animals is the proper considered, that the best flock-masters do not trust to their own ment judgcalled to that of their shepherds, but employ persons or * who it their special business make to sheep-classifiers,' attend of several flocks, and to this part of the management thus to preserve, if possible to improve, the best qualities or of both parents in the lambs." In Saxony, " when the lambs is placed upon table that weaned, each in his turn are a his wool and form be minutely observed. The finest may
are
bulls which
selected
are one
for
year
breeding
and
receive
first mark.
When
they
close those and third
i"
old, and
defect
examination
in which
no
receive months
second
mark,
a ewes
the and
rest
are
condemned.
afterwards
rams
last
on
scrutiny is made;
Cattle,
'
prime
and
Youatt
pp.
191,
'
227.
^1
p.
Gardener's 29.
^^
Chronicle,'
'
1844,
Fergnson,
in
'
Prize
Transact.
Poultry, High-
Agricult.
Soc.,'
quoted
in
Simmonrls. in Gard. quoted And for Chronicle,' 1855, p. 037. the second Xouatt quotation, see on Sheep, p. 171.
Chap.
XX.
METHODICAL
SELECTION.
175
slightest blemish
is
receive
third
cause
and
final mark,
but
the
sufficient to
These sheep rejection of the animal." bred and valued almost exclusively for the fineness of are their wool; and the result corresponds with the labour bestowed the
on
their
selection.
Instruments
have
been
invented
accurately the thickness of the fibres ; and " an fleece has been produced of which twelve hairs Australian equalled in thickness one from a Leicester sheep." silk is produced, the the world, wherever Throughout is bestowed from which selectingthe cocoons on greatest care A careful cultifor breeding are to be reared. vator the moths the moths likewise examines themselves, and destroys those that are not perfect. But what more immediately concerns
to
measure
^*
us
is that certain
families
in France
near
devote
themselves
habitant Shanghai, the inof two small districts have the privilege of raising for the whole surrounding country, and that they may eggs this business, they are terdict intime to their whole give up by law from producing silk.'" successful breeders take in matching their which The care birds is surprising. Sir John Sebright, whose fame is perpetuated " " and two Sebright Bantam," used to spend by the three days in examining, consulting, and disputing with a Mr. Bult, the best of five or six birds." friend which were whose exported prizes,and were so pouter-pigeons won many America under the charge of a man sent on to North purpose, for several days before he told me that he always deliberated understand the advice of each pair. Hence matched we can " eminent fancier, who writes,^^ I would here particularly an guard you against having too great a variety of pigeons,
to
raising eggs
for sale.^^ In
China,
"
otherwise
as
you
will know
little of all,but
nothing about
"
one
it
ought
there
to be known."
Apparently
to
it transcends
:
a
of the that
human
may
intellect be
a
breed
few
fanciers
have
are
good general
more
knowledge
1*
of
'
many
who
vol.
Robinet,
Soie,' 1848,
The
Poultry
Chronicle,'
'
p.
271.
"
i., 1854,
^^
Maladies Les Quatrefagps, du Ver a Soie,' 1859, p. 101. i" la in M. de Bull, Simon, Soc. tom. d'AccUmat.,' ix., 1862,
'
j,
Fancy
'A
Pii?eons,' 3852.
on
Treatise
bier,' 1851,
p.
11.
p.
221.
176
labour under
SELECTION.
Chap.
XX.
supposing they know what they do not." The excellence of one sub-variety, the Almond Tumbler, lies in the plumage, carriage, head, beak, and eye;
the delusion of
but it is too presumptuous in the beginner to try for all these points. The great judge above quoted says, " There are some
young
fanciers five
who
are
over-covetous,
who
go
for
all the
above
they have their reward by getting properties at once; thus that see fancy nothing." We breeding even smile at the solemnity of pigeons is no simple art: we may these precepts, but he who laughs will win no prizes.
What methodical selection has effected for
our
animals
is
sufficiently proved, as already remarked, by our Exhibitions. So greatly were the sheep belonging to some of the earlier and Lord breeders, such as Bakewell Western, changed, that could not be persuaded that they had not been many persons Our pigs, as Mr. Corringham crossed. remarks,^** during the last twenty years have undergone, through rigorous selection The first together with crossing,a complete metamorphosis. exhibition for poultry was held in the Zoological Gardens in effected since that time has been 1845 ; and the improvement it to me, great. As Mr. Bailey, the great judge, remarked of the Spanish cock was formally ordered that the comb should be upright, and in four or five years all good birds had cock ordered that the Polish upright combs; it was should have no comb nished bird thus furor wattles, and now a would be at once ordered, disqualified;beards were and of fifty-sevenpens out lately (1860) exhibited at the So it has been in many other Crystal Palace, all had beards. But in all cases the judges order only what is occasionally cases. be improved and rendered produced and what can The steady increase in weight during constant by selection. the last few years in our fowls, turkeys, ducks, and geese is " notorious ; whereas four six-pound ducks are now common, As the time required to pounds was formerly the average. make often been recorded, it may be worth a change has not mentioning that it took Mr. Wicking thirteen years to put a clean white head on an almond tumbler's body, " a triumph," another fancier," of which he may be justly proud." says
^" ^3
'
Soc.,'
Royal
p. 22.
Agricultural
Chronicle,'
yol.
ii.f
178
tions result have
care were was
SELECTION.
Chap.
XX
selected obtained.
and The
propagated by seed,
finest shades and selected with
no
conspicuous
in wheat
as
of difference almost
been
as,
discriminated the
case
much
higher animals, for instance by Col. Le Couteur and more especiallyby Major Hallett. cal It may be worth while to give a few examples of methodiselection with plants ; but in fact the great improvement be attributed of all our to anciently cultivated plants may selection long carried on, in part methodically, and in part the in a former chapter how unconsciously. I have shown weight of the gooseberry has been increased by systematic
in
of the
selection
been
and
culture.
The
of
the
Heartsease
have
regularity of outline. bold enough when the Cineraria, Mr. With was Glenny the flowers were ragged and starry and ill defined in colour, fix a standard considered which then to outrageously was if reached, it was high and impossible, and which, even said, we should be no gainers by, as it would spoil the beauty of the flowers. that he was He maintained right; and the The has proved it to be so." event doubling of flowers has several times been effected by careful selection : the Rev. W. after sowing during several years seeds of Anemone Williamson,"^ additional coronaria, found a petal; he plant with one sowed in the same the seed of this, and by perseverance similarly increased
in
"
course
obtained
several
varieties
rose or was
with
was
six
or
seven
rows
of
petals. The
single Scotch
doubled,
and
yielded
selection ture cul-
ten
The years.^*'
Canterbury
doubled
years
by careful
four
Mr.
Buckman,"^ by
selection,converted parsnips, raised from and good variety. By selection during wild seed, into a new of years, the early maturity of peas has been a long course
and hastened curious
careful
by
case
between is offered
ten
and
twenty-one
days."
more
in
Journal p. 369. " Transact. iv. p. 381. 28 Transact. iv. p. 285.
' ' '
France,
of
vation by the beet plant,which since its cultihas almost its yield of exactly doubled
Gardener's Chronicle,' 1857, p. 550. ^s Gard. Chronicle,' 1862, p. 721. ^^ Dr. in The Bee.' Anderson, In vol. vi. Mr. 96; Barnes, p. Gard. Chronicle,' 1844, p. 476.
. ' ' '
^*
18G2,
Hort. Hort.
"
Rev,
W.
Bromehead,
Chap.
XX.
BY
THE
ANCIENTS.
1Y9
most
sugar.
This
has
been
effected
by the
careful
selection
the
specificgravity of the
saved for the
roots
production of seed.^"
and Semi-civilised
Selection In
hy Ancient
People.
attributing so much importance to the selection of animals and plants,it may be objected,that methodical tion selecwould have been carried on not during ancient times. A distinguished naturalist considers it as absurd to suppose that semi-civilised people should have practised selection of kind. Undoubtedly the principle has been systematically any in acknowledged and followed to a far greater extent withthan at any former the last hundred period, and a years be a corresponding result has been gained; but it would shall immediately see, that its to suppose, as we greater error not recognised and acted on importance was during the most ancient times, and by semi-civilised people. I should premise facts now that care that many to be given only show was this is the case, selection is almost taken in breeding; but when We shall hereafter to be practised to a certain extent. sure better to judge how far selection, when be enabled only try, occasionallycarried on, by a few of the inhabitants of a counwill slowly produce a great effect. in the thirtieth chapter of GeneIn a well-known sis, passage then thought posrules are given for influencing,as was sible, the colour of sheep; and speckled and dark breeds are spoken of as being kept sei)arate. By the time of David the
fleece the
was
likened
to
snow.
who Youatt,^^
to
has Old
discussed
all
passages
in relation that
at
breeding
"
in
the
Testament,
of the best principles early period some have been steadily and long pursued." of breeding must shalt not let It was ordered, according to Moses, that " Thou but mules were thy cattle gender with a diverse kind ; chased,^^ purhave other nations must that at this early period so concludes this
"
crossed
some
30
the
horse
and
ass.
It
is said
^^
that had
'
Erichthonius,
many
generations before
Godron,
' '
the
Trojan
^2
war,
brood-
On
Sheep,'
KulturBpitrilge znr gescbi elite,' 1852, s. 47. ^^ of Mitford's History Greece,' vol. i. p. 73.
volz,
'
180
"
SELECTION.
Chap.
XX.
judgment in the choice of stallions produced a breed of horses superior to any in the Homer (Book v.) speaks of Eneas' surrounding countries."
mares,
which
by his
care
and
horses
as
bred
from
mares
'
which
were
put
to
to
the
steeds
"
of
Glaucus, I see house a great many that you raise at your dogs for the chase. Do you take care about breeding and pairing them ? Among there not always some animals of good blood, are which are " Glaucus To which in the answers superior to the rest ?
Laomedon.
Plato, in his
Republic,' says
affirmative.^* Alexander
cattle to send
to to
the Great
to
selected
Macedonia
of
oxen:
did
years
suffer the
bulls
and
cows
to
come
might not degenerate. gives as strong Virgil, in his Georgics (lib.iii.), modern advice as any agriculturistcould do, carefully to select " the tribe, the lineage, and the breeding stock ; to note
the
sire ; whom
to
"
reserve
for
husband
of
the
herd
"
"
to
the progeny; to select sheep of the purest white, and if their tongues that to examine are swarthy. We have seen the Romans kept pedigrees of their pigeons, and this would brand have in been
a
senseless
proceeding had
not
great
care
been
taken
Columella gives detailed instructions breeding them. " Let the breeding hens therefore be of about breeding fowls : choice colour, a robust body, square-built,full-breasted, a Those with large heads, with upright and bright-red combs.
are
believed
to
to
be
the
best
bred
which
have
five toes."
"
of their Tacitus, the Celts attended to the races that they paid high domestic animals; and Caesar states for fine imported horses."*^ In regard to prices to merchants plants,Virgil speaks of yearly culling the largest seeds; and
According
Celsus
"
says,
where
the
^'
corn
and
crop
is but
of
corn,
and
of them
must
seed
down
the
stream
of time,
we
may
At
ex-
the
century
"
Charlemagne
Chronicle,'
'
Gardener's
De
pp.
1848,
des p.
May, 1852,
ch. 45.
p.
32.3.
38
I'Economie
on
s.
80.
36
'
Le
Couteur
15.
Hist,
of
the
World,'
Chap.
XX.
BY
THE
ANCIENTS.
181
pressly ordered his officers to take great care of his stallions; and if they proved bad or old, to forewarn him in good time before they were in a country so put to the mares.*" Even little civilised as Ireland during the ninth century, it would from ancient verses,^^ some manded dedescribing a ransom appear by Cormac, that animals from particular places, or valued. Thus it is having a particular character, were said,
"
Two
pigs of
the
pigs
of Mac
Lir,
both round and red, and ewe A ram from I brought with me Aengus. and a mare I brought with me a stallion stud of Manannan, From the beautiful from Druim Cain. A bull and a white cow
Athelstan, in 930, received running-horses as a present from and he prohibited the exportation of English Germany; chosen stallions horses. King John imported " one hundred
from
wrote
Flanders."*"
to the
On
June
of Wales
of any of the
Archbishop of Canterbury, begging for the loan and promising its return choice stallion, at the end
season.*^
in
There
are
numerous
records
at
ancient
importation of choice of various animals kinds, and of foolish laws against their exportation. In the reigns of Henry VII. and VIII. it ordered that the magistrates, at Michaelmas, should was the heaths and and scour destroy all mares commons, periods
beneath
a
English
history of
the
certain
size.** Some
of
our
earlier
kings
passed laws
of any against the slaughtering of rams good before that breed seven they they were old, so years time breed. In Ximenes to might have Spain Cardinal issued, in 1509, regulations on the selection of good rams for
breeding.*"
The
"
to have
is said before the year 1600 Khan Emperor Akbar wonderfully improved " his pigeons by crossing the
'
p.
"" Des Michel, Haras,' 1861, 84. " Sir W. an on Wilde, Essay Unmanufactured Animal Remains.' "c., 1860, p. 11. *Col. Hamilton Nat. Smith, vol. Library.' xii.. Horses, pp.
' '
Horse,'
423.
*^
'
Veterinary,'
vol.
xiii.
'
p.
M.
de p.
I'Abbe
nal
Jour-
xxiv.,
con-
135,
" **
140.
Mr.
'
Haras,'
'
p.
History
of
90. the
memoir this 181; much information on ancient selection of sheep; not for rams is my authority in England. ing killed j'^oung
1784,
tains
182
SELECTION.
Chap.
XX.
breeds; and this necessarilyimplies careful selection. About the same attended with the^greatest care period the Dutch
to the managers
Belon
the
in 1555
examined of
a
colour
and
that
order
white
colour
to
"
better kinds.
Mark-
ham
in 1631
select the
largest and
Even
conies," and
to
mer
into minute
^''
details.
with
seeds
of
writing about
most
plants for the flower-garden. Sir J. Hanin " choosing seed, 1660 the year says,
weighty, and
'
"
the
is had
then
from
the lustiest
and
and
on
attended
In in
to
flower-gardens
has
not
two
hundred
ago.
on
order
to show
been been
places where
in
have
add
that
the
middle
of the
last century,
America, Mr. Cooper improved by careful selection all his vegetables," so that they were greatly his radishes, When superior to those of any other iDcrson.
remote
part of ]^orth
for instance,
most approves,
are
fit for
use,
he
takes
ten
or
twelve
that
he
and
at the
plants them
same
at least 100
yards from
manner
others
time.
In
the
same
he treats
according
to
their nature."
In the
published in the last century is chieflycompiled from cient anby the Jesuits, and which " it is said that with sheep proving imChinese encyclopaedias, the breed consists in choosing with particular care for propagation, in nourishing which destined the lambs are them well, and in keeping the flocks separate." The same applied by the Chinese to various plants and principleswere fruit-trees.""* An the choice of imperial edict re ommends seed of remarkable size; and selection was by practised even imperial hands, for it is said that the Ya-mi, or imperial noticed at an ancient period in a field by the Emperor rice, was
great
work
on
China
Khang-hi,
has
*"'
was
saved valuable
and from
cultivated
in his
garden, and
which
1800,
p.
since
become
p.
of
Phytologia,'
1786,
tom.
v.
Chinois,' p. 507.
Chap.
XX.
BY
SEMI-ClVlLlSED
PEOPLE.
l83
with the flowers,
will grow
tree
north
Wall."
been
Even
Chinese
(P. moutan) cultivated, according to between 1400 for 200 and 300 vatraditions, years; rieties have been raised, which cherished like tulipsforare merly by the Dutch.^** were to semi-civilised Turning now it people and to savages:
pseony to
me,
occurred South
from
what
I had
seen
of several
parts
of
mals America, where fences do not exist,and where the aniof little value, that there would be absolutelyno are in breeding or selectingthem ; and this to a large extent care is true. Roulin,^^however, describes in Columbia naked a of cattle,w^hich are not allowed to increase, account race on
often do
born
not
in
Paraguay
that
a
"
like them,
states
they
race.
a
hand, Azara
and
in
propagated
its
informed with
of the existence
Banda
Oriental
of
breed
reversed
hair; and
have since
appeared and
certain have
so
kept
distinct
in La
Hence
conspicuous
been ally habitulittle favourable
variations
have
been
preserved,and
We have
others
are seen on
also cattle
introduce
fresh
On the
hand, I have
of the
heard
never
on
selecting the best bulls or stallions for breeding; and this probably accounts in horses for the cattle and being remarkably uniform of the Argentine character throughout the immense range republic. " The Looking to the Old '^orld, in the Sahara Desert Touareg is as careful in the selection of his breeding Mahari is in that of his of the dromedary) as the Arab (a fine race dary The horse. a dromepedigrees are handed down, and many boast a genealogy far longer than the descendants can Pampas pains
in
"
'
Recherches
sur
ture
vey
des
With
par
in p.
'
Linn.
Trans-
2."'".3.
1850,
de
I'Acad.'
("|ivers
p. dn 3:W. rara-
Kliang-lii,
savants),
""'
Hue's
Chinese
Empire,'
page
Quadnipedes
^1,
333, 371,
4Q
184
of the
SELECTION.
Chap.
XX.
Darley Arabian."
endeavour
to
"
According
Yaks
or
to
Pallas
the
lians Mongobuffaloes
breed, the
horse-tailed
with
as
tails,for these are sold to the Chinese and Moorcroft, about fly-flappers; seventy
white that white-tailed animals
were
mandarins
years
after for
Pallas, found
still selected
breeding.''*
We have
seen
in
the
chapter
America
as
on
the and
Dog
in
that
savages
cross
in their
different
parts of North
wild
Guiana
Gauls, according This done to give their dogs strength and to Pliny. was the keepers in large warrens as now vigour, in the same way I informed their ferrets (as have been sometimes by cross " devil." Mr. Yarrell) with the wild polecat, to give them more
dogs with
Canidae,
did
the
ancient
According
crossed
same
to
ass
with
tame at
animal
to
manner
the present
of Java with
times some-
drive
their
cattle into
the forests
the wild
the Siberia, among Banteng (Bos sondaicus) !"" In Northern but Ostyaks, the dogs vary in markings in different districts,
in each
place they
manner
are
spotted black
"''
and this
white fact
in
ably remarkwe
and
from
alone
may
dogs of one for their superiorthroughout the country localityare famed ity. I have heard of certain tribes of Esquimaux who take of dogs being uniformly coloured. In pride in their teams informs me," the dogs of the Guiana, as Sir P. Schomburgk Indians Turuma are highly valued and extensively bartered: the price of a good one is the same that given for a wife : as they are kept in a sort of cage, and the Indians " take great the female when is in season to prevent her uniting with care of inferior description." The Indians told Sir dog a an Robert that, if a dog proved bad or useless, he was not killed, left to die from but was sheer neglect. Hardly any nation than the Fuegians, but I hear from barbarous is more Mr.
breeding,
more
"
'
especially as
the
Rev. 238.
5*
The H.
by 1860,
the p.
'
Indian
see
56
Varro, beria,'
453.
^^
for Sii.
p.
Erman's
Travels
in
Pallas,
Act.
'
Acad.
tersburg,'
and
1777,
Trebeck,
from
p. 249, Travels
St. PeMoorcroft
in the
Eng.
also
translat.,
*
vol.
See
Himala.van ^* Quoted
Provinces,'
1841. Raffles, in
graph.
the 65.
Soc.,' vol.
Geoi. p.
186
others
set at
SELECTION.
Chap. XX.
liberty. The
old males and
various females
a
kinds
were
of
deer
were
amined; ex-
the
"
likewise
number
but
the
young
females, with
the
most
certain and
of
killed; males,
given strong," were their freedom. Here, then, we have selection by man aiding natural followed selection. So that the Incas exactly the
reverse
selected
from
beautiful
system of
of
that
which
our
Scottish
sportsman In
are
accused
following, namely,
causing the whole
llamas Incas
was
of
finest
stags, thus
to
race
degenerate."
were
the domesticated
the time
one
and
alpacas, they
to
regard separated
if
in
of
in
a
the
according
born
colour:
and
by
was
chance
flock
of the
wrong
colour, it
"
eventually put
In
co
into
another
the
genus
Auchenia wild
and
Vicuna, found
and
These
four
the
Llama
Alpaca,
four
known
only in
appear
so
domesticated
dition. con-
animals
different, that
studied
these
are
most
have that
animals
their
native
country,
maintain
they
specifically
distinct, notwithstanding that no one pretends to have seen llama or alpaca. Mr. Ledger, however, who has closely a wild
studied
to
these
animals
both who
in Peru
and
Australia, and
has
made
experiments
which
seem
on
their
me
propagation,
of the
we
arguments
is the
to
conclusive, that
guanaco,
domesticated
ant descendAnd
alpaca of the
animals
ago,
were
vicuna.
now
that
and
know
these
systematically
is
bred
selected
in
many
centuries
amount
there
nothing they
prising sur-
the
great
of
change
which
have
undergone.
It ancient
appeared
and
to
me
at
one
time
semi-civilised
people might
the
in essential points, useful animals improvement of their more have disregarded unimportant characters. yet that they would is the same But human nature throughout the world : fashion
everywhere
he
may
reigns
supreme, possess.
and We
man
is apt to value
whatever
in
chance
the niata
Natural p.
to
have
seen
that
not
la
South useful
d'Accli-
America
"
'
cattle,which
History
476. of
certainly are
^'
made
Soc.
The
Dee
Side,' 1855,
mat.,'
Bull, torn,
de
vii., 1860, p.
457,
Chap.
XX.
OF
TRIFLING
CHARACTERS.
i87
faces and upturned have been by their shortened nostrils, of South Africa value their cattle preserved. The Damaras for uniformity of colour and enormously And I long horns. is hardly any will now show that there peculiarity in our useful animals most which, from fashion, superstition,or other motive, has not been valued, and consequently presome served. With respect to cattle, an early record," according " white cows with red ears to Youatt,^^ speaks of a hundred as being demanded compensation by the princes of North a
"
and
South
Wales.
were
If
to
the
cattle
were
of
dark
or
black
was
colour, 150
attended Central
to in Wales
In
Africa,
in
an
ox
beats
some
the
ground
Kaffirs
with
its tail is
killed; and
eat
South
a
Africa
ox.
"
of the
Damaras
will not
an
the
a
flesh of musical
a
spotted
excited
up
^
The
a
value
animal the
with low
voice ; and
at
Kaffraria that
a
of
heifer
sprung
so
much
sharp
competition
possession,and she realised a With considerable price." respect to sheep, the Chinese with without horns; the Tartars prefer them prefer rams the hornless horns, because are thought to spirally wound
lose Some courage.''^ of the
In Damaras
to
for her
will not
at
eat
the of
as
of hornless fifteenth
pomme
sheep.
most
regard
of
in
horses,
colour
the
end
century
were
"
animals valued
the
have
proverb,
carries
seen,
Never
buy
with
horse
him
"
white
feet, for he
we
his
shroud
the
Arabs with
also, as
have
despise dun-coloured
others
at
an
horses.
So
dogs, Xenophon
and
ancient
;
period
white
or
were
certain
were
colours
and
"^
"
not
esteemed."
to
Turning
that the
thought
In
are
liver of
white
goose
was are
savoury.
Paraguay
thought
63 6*
'
black-skinned
more
fowls
kept
their
because
they
to be
productive, and
Travels,
Lake 57.
^^
proper
xl.
p. pp.
F.
50.
Michel,
Hamilton
'
Des
Haras,'
respect
see
'
47,
"
Quarterly
in
1860,
Memoire
p.
sur
1.39. les
'
Col. Nat.
Lib.,'
Smith. volume
Doffs,
x.
page
Chinois
'
103.
188
SELECTION.
Chap.
XX.
as
am
informed
by Sir R. Schom-
of the burgk, the aborigines will not eat the flesh or eggs fowl, but two races are kept distinct merely for ornament.
Philippines, no less than nine sub-varieties of the be separategame-cock are kept and named, so that they must ly
In
the
bred.
At
are
the present time in Europe, the smallest peculiarities useful animals, either most carefully attended to in our
from
fashion,
could of
as
or
as
mark
; two
of
purity of blood.
"
Many
amples ex-
be
given
as
will suffice.
In
a
the
white
Western
counties
England
the
prejudice against
pig
is
in Yorkshire." In against a black one " of the Berkshire one sub-breeds, it is said, the white should be confined to four white feet, a white spot between the eyes,
nearly
strong
and
few
"
white three
this
hairs
behind
"'
each
shoulder."
one
Mr.
Saddler
was
possessed
marked
in
hundred manner."
pigs,
every
of
which
the close of Marshall, towards the last century, in speaking of a change in one of the Yorkshire breeds of cattle,says the horns have been considerably modified, as " a clean, small, sharp horn has been fashionable for the last twenty of the Race
years."
are
'"
In
part of
valued
a
for many
they
much
wrong
must
so
of
that
mechanical
;
and tint, so particular curvature means applied if they take a are inhabitants
"
direction
but
the
consider bull
is
it
of
the be
that
the
nostrils
of 'the
should
an
the
A
pensable indisnot
blue low
nostrils would
"
be
purchased,
no man
or
say
price."
Therefore
let
character selected
is too
to be trifling
methodically attended
Unconscious
more
by breeders.
I mean,
man as
Selection.
"
By
this term
already
of the uals, individ-
than
once
most
valued, and
without
any
intention
his
part of altering
the breed.
Azara, Parapunv.'
69 "*
Qnaclrnpprles
ii. p.
torn.
Sidney's
edit,
du .324. of Youatt,
"'^
'
Rural
vol.
of
'
York-
shire.'
^i
182. Du
Moll
p.
Gayot,
Boeuf,'
1860, pp.
24, 25.
1860,
547.
Chap.
XX.
UNCONSCIOUS
SELECTION.
139
the the indirect
one case
which
follow
from
this kind
In
of
selection;but
that
other in
evidence
man
is abundant.
fact, except
in the
acts
intentionally,and
between
man
unintentionally,
and
there
is little difference
In
methodical
preserves
unconscious which
selection.
are
both
or no
cases
the
animals
most
useful
But
pleasing
doubt than
to
a
him, and
far
more
the from
"
others.
methodical
"
from
unconscious
The
roguing
in
of
by
stances in-
law
Henry
of
a
process
selection the
same
in
sense
of the influence
word, but
is well
a
leading
shown of black
the
The
of the destruction
of individuals
character
every
by the
about
on
lamb
with
trace
; or
of France tall
men
wars
many
being left
conclusion
to
be the fathers
some
at least is the
of
scription; con-
of those and
closelystudied
that since
the
effects of the
time
it is certain
Napoleon's
the
standard
for the army has been lowered three times. two or selection blends with Unconscious methodical, so that it
is
When fancier long a scarcely possible to separate them. unusually short an a pigeon with ago first happened to notice though w4th the tail-feathers unusually developed, albeak, or one
he bred of
from
the
these
birds
with
the
distinct
intention
propagating
a
make
variety, yet he could not have intended to far from tumbler short-faced fantail, and was or a
that he had
seen
knowing
If
made the
the
towards would
we
this
end. been
he
could with
have
have of
struck habits
astonishment,
know
the
tumblers
as we
manner,
may
given in the chapters on the Pigeon, the comparison of birds brought from distant countries.
evidence been with
So from
dogs;
our our
present
fox-hounds
have
differ become
English hound;
greyhounds
190
SELECTION.
Chap.
XX.
has been modified, and is now lighter: the Scotch deer-hound those which Our formerly were rare. bulldogs differ from do used for baiting bulls. Our pointers and Newfoundlands in the counfound not tries closelyresemble any native dog now These have been whence changes brought. they were the result has but in every effected partly by crosses; case Nevertheless, there been governed by the strictest selection. cally that man is no intentionally and methodito suppose reason As our the breeds made are. exactly what they now
horses
became
fleeter,and
the
were
country
more
cultivated and
and
produced, but they distinctly foreseeing what one probably without any Our would become. pointers and setters, the latter almost from large spaniels, have been greatly certainly descended
smoother, fleeter fox-hounds
desired modified
in
accordance
with
fashion
and
the
desire
for
creased in-
have become extinct, and so has the speed. Wolves bulls are no longer baited, wolf-dog; deer have become rarer, answered to and the corresponding breeds of the dog have the change. bulls will
now
But
were
we no
may
feel almost
sure man
for instance,
longer baited, no
himself, I
create
breed
race.
my
present
and With
As
the
unconsciously
followed their
genitors. pro-
slowly modified
race-horses
of selection.
selection
our
for swiftness
now
has been
surpass appearance
methodically, and
The
horses
easily
different
observer
increased led
size and
a
of the
to
our
English
"
race-horse
any
one
good
were
in
India
at
ask,
horses, race-
Could
in
this year
of 1856, the
mare
looking
of
This
"
conceive
that and
they
result ?"
the
union
of
the Arab
it is
horse
the African
change
has,
as
lection, selargely effected through unconscious that is, by the general wish fine horses to breed as with possible in each generation, combined training and
probable, been
their to give to them high feeding, but without any intention the introduction According to Youatt,''* present appearance.
in
Oliver
Cromwell's
time
of three
speedily affected the English breed ; " so that Lord Ilarleigh,one of the old school, complained that the great horse
"
'The
India
'
Sport.
Stud
Rev..'
v.
181;
Cecil,
The
Farm,'
ii. 58.
''^
'
The
Horse,'
p.
22.
Chap.
XX.
UNCONSCIOUS
SELECTION.
was
fast
disappearing." This
must
is
an
excellent
fully care-
selection
care,
soon
have small
been
an
attended
such
of
so
infusion lost.
absorbed has
and
Notwithstanding
esteemed
particularly to horse, yet long-continued selection, both and unconscious, together with that practised by during a still longer and earlier period, has ended
never
England
the
been
giving us the best breed of horses in the world. whose lay remarks, " Two men authority on such
was
Macau-
subjects
and Sir
held
in
great
esteem,
the
Duke
of
Newcastle
hack ever ported imFenwick, pronounced that the meanest from than Tangier would produce a finer progeny could be expected from the best sire of our native breed. They would not readily have believed that a time would come when the princes and nobles of neighbouring lands would be as eager horses from the Engto obtain England as ever lish had been to obtain horses from Barbary." The London in appeardray-horse, which differs so much ance from any natural species, and which from its size ha's so astonished Eastern probably formed by princes, was many the heaviest and most powerful animals having been selected and during many generations in Flanders England, but without the least intention or expectation of creating a horse If we such as we back to an now see. early period of go history,we behold in the antique Greek statues, as Schaaffhas remarked," a horse equally unlike hausen a race or dray from breed. and horse, existing differing any The results of unconscious selection,in an early stage, are well from shown the
same
John
in
the
difference
between
the
flocks
separately reared
instance
by careful
of this fact
Youatt
excellent
the
have sheep belonging to Messrs. Buckley and Burgess, which for been purely bred from the original stock of Mr. Bakewell There is not a suspicion existing in upwards of fiftyyears. the subject that of any the mind at all acquainted with one the from
7*
'
owner
of either blood
of
deviated
in
any ;
one
instance
the pure
History
316.
Bakewell's
"
'
flock
yet. the
differder
England,'
Ueber
Bestiindigkeit
i. p.
Arten.'
192
ence
SELECTION.
Chap.
XX.
between
'"
the
two
gentlemen is
of beingquite different so great, that they have the appearance varieties." I have seen several analogousand well-marked
cases
with
had
from those long bred by Sir family long bred by another fancier,and the two families and a more plainlydiffered from each other. Nathusius
" "
competent witness could not be cited observes that,though the Shorthorns are remarkably uniform in appearance cept (exin colour), individual the character and wishes of yet each breeder become impressedon his cattle, so that different herds differ slightly from assumed
another.'^ The Hereford catone tle their present well-marked character soon after the year 1769, through careful selection by Mr. Tomkins,'' and the breed has latelysplit into two strains one strain it is said,'* in having a white face,and differing slightly,
"
: but there is no to believe that this reason points the of which is unknown, was origin split, intentionally with it much attributed be made; to more probability may some
other
different breeders
having attended
to
different
points. So
again, the Berkshire breed of swine in the year 1810 had changed from what it was in 1780; and since 1810 at greatly least two distinct sub-breeds have arisen bearing the same name.*" Keeping in mind how rapidly all animals increase, be annuallyslaughtered and that some must and some saved for breeding, breeder during a long course then,nf the same
settles which shall be saved and which of years deliberately shall be killed, it is almost inevitable that his individual will influence the character of his stock, of mind out withturn his having had any intention to modify the breed. selection in the strictest sense Unconscious of the word, useful animals and the neglect that is, the saving of the more slaughter of the less useful,without any thought of the or
future, must
have
gone
on
the remotest
on
Sheep,
p.
315.
p.
"
Quarterly
von
. . .
Review,'
Nathnsins,
'
1849,
Vor-
Shorthorn
'
Rindvieh,'
Ani-
892.
^"
H.
s.
Low,
studien
Schweineschiidel,'
1864,
140.
194
the wild
SELECTION.
Chap.
XX.
pear?
on an
Alphonse de Candolle
ancient
as
informs
a
me
that he has
latelyseen
the
are
mosaic
at Rome
melon: silent
on
and
who were Romans, that the melon this fruit, he infers the
greatly ameliorated since the classical period. Coming to later times, Buffon,**' on comparing the flowers,
vegetables which were excellent drawings made a hundred
was
fruit, and
then and
cultivated
with
some
struck been
with
surprise
at
the
had and
effected; and
remarks be
flowers
a
rejected, not
the time
only by
of Buffon
gone
on.
florist
Since
the work
improvement
compares
has
steadily and
our
rapidly
Every
florist who
books
those
long since, is astonished at A well-known in speaking of the varieties of Pelargonium amateur,**^ raised by Mr. Garth only twenty-two before, years " What excited had attained : surely we remarks, a rage they of the flow^ers of not said; and now perfection, it was one But none the less is the debt those days will be looked at. of gratitude which what to those who to be we owe saw was done, and did it." Mr. Paul, the well-known horticulturist, in writing of the same he remembers when flower,^* says being delighted with the portraits in Sweet's work; young " but what they in point of beauty compared with the are did not advance Pelargoniums of this day? Here again nature by leaps; the improvement was gradual, and if we had have foregone neglected those very gradual advances, we must the present culturist grand results." How^ well this practical hortiappreciates and illustrates the gradual and accumulative published
not
force
of selection !
manner;
The line
Dahlia of
has
advanced
in
beauty
iii
like
the
improvement
being
guided by fashion, and by the successive modifications which A steady and gradual change the flower slowly underwent.
has been noticed
in many
other
flowers
thus
an
old
florist,**
were
which
The
'
passasre
is of
Soc.
"3
d'Acclimat..'
Journal
p. 394.
'
1862,
"*'
Gardener's
Chronicle,'
1857,
See Mr. Wildmnn's address the Florienlt. Soc. in Gardener's Chronicle,' 1843. p. 86. "" Journal of Horticulture,' Oct. 24th, 1865, p. 239.
to
' '
*'
p.
85.
Chap. XX.
SELECtlON.
^[05
be of have the
grown
in
1813, adds,
grown
as
scarcely
so
"
the
many
flowers raised
and
number
been
is all the
striking when
in
hear
at
that
flower-garden
the year
Europe, namely
Padua,
only from
1545."^
hy the parts most valued presenting the greatest amount hy man of difference. The of whether methodical long-continued selection, power or conscious, unboth combined, is well shown in a general way, or the namely, by the comparison of the differences between varieties of distinct species,which valued for different are parts, such as for the leaves,or stems, or tubers, the seed, or
"
Effects of Selection, as
shown
fruit, or
will be With
flowers. found
to
man
values
amount
most,
of
greatest
trees
cultivated
larger than
"c., it is the
seed
in the
larger; and
case,
he
counts ac-
one
and
to
by the
and
lected se-
other, having been carefully attended the Gallesio has made during many ages.
Godron
insists
on
same
servatio obin
the
diversity of
of the
the
tuber
the potato,
of the bulb
on
in the
onion, and
melon; and
these
In
same
the
close
similarity of the
far
my
own numerous
other
plants.*^
to
order
was
judge
I
to
how
impression
varieties
on
this
subject
same
correct,
cultivated
one
of the of the
species close
of difference
vague;
another.
The
comparison
organs
amount
between
widely different
seen
is
sarily necesa
I will therefore
few
cases.
W^
have
previously
of
of
the
ninth
the
Mex-
cabbage
differ in
8^
'
Hist,
61. Phvsi-
details
confirm
on
remarks
onion. I
respect
also shown in
to
Gallesio,
'
have
Teoria
p.
della
Riproduzione,'
De I'Es-
1816,
?ece,' In 0, my
88; 1859,
Godron,
torn.
gard
melon.
Naudin the
concurs
re-
varieties
of
the
tenth
196
SELECTION.
Chap.
XX.
closelythey seeds. resemble in their flowers, capsules, and another one In seven varieties of the radish, the roots differed greatly in tected could be decolour and shape, but no difference whatever
and
stems, which
are
the selected
parts, and
how
in
their
foliage, flowers, or
any
seeds.
Now
what
trast con-
presented, if we compare of these two plants with those of or flower-gardens for ornament;
is with
are
the flowers
of the
varieties
in
our
speciescultivated
we
if
compare
their
seeds
those
of the varieties
and shown
valued
it
was
of maize, peas, beans, "c., which In the ninth for their seeds. ter chapvarieties of the
pea
differ but
little
all
lected se-
par-
eaten
valued.
one
cultivated Dwarf
two
an
twelve
varieties differed
in the the
of
the
common
bean;
alone, the
appearance;
one
Fan,
differed
considerably
colour of
in
general
flowers,
instead in the
their
being
albino, and
other
being
in
differed
far
more
wholly considerably
the
bean
this is the valued selected part. and Toker's itself, and broad bean, for instance, is twice-and-a-half as long and the horse-bean, and is much and thinner of a different as
shape.
The
much
or
organs
fer formerly described,difin their fruit, but hardly perceptibly in their flowers of vegetation. With the plum, the differences likeas
to
be greater
other
in
in
the flowers
or
the
plum, differs hardly at all ; whilst every knows how that is, the one greatly the fruit enlarged receptacle differs in several varieties. In apples, and peaches the flowers and leaves differ considerably, pears, but not, as far as I can judge, in proportion with the fruit. Chinese The double-flowering peaches, on the other hand, show that varieties of this tree have been formed, which differ in in flower than fruit. If, as is highly probable, the more descent of the almond, a surprising peach is the modified of change has been effected in the same amount in the species,
" "
corresponds with
Chap.
XX.
SELECTION.
197
and in the
fleshy covering of
latter.
the
former
kernels
of
the
relationshipto each other,such the seed and the fleshy covering of the fruit (whatever as its homological nature be), changes in the one may are in modifications the other, though usually accompanied by the plum-tree, for not degree. With necessarilyto the same varieties produce plums which instance, some are nearly dissimilar in stones alike, but include extremely shape; whilst other varieties dissimilar fruit conversely produce with barely distinguishable stones; and generally the stones, been subjected to selection,differ though they have never greatly in the several varieties of the plum. In other cases which not manifestly related, through some are known unorgans bond vary together,and are consequently liable, without intention man's part, to be simultaneously acted on by on any the varieties of the stock (Matthiola) have Thus selection. been selected solely for the beauty of their flowers,but the in size. seeds differ greatly in colour and somewhat ties Varieselected solely on of the lettuce have been of account likewise differ in colour. their leaves, yet produce seeds which a Generally, through the law of correlation,when variety in fellow-varieties from its differs greatly character, one any
it differs to observed of the
same a
When
parts stand
in close
extent
in several
other
characters.
many
this
together
a
varieties
rieties va-
species,for
differed of
list of the
which
and
most
manner
most
in
their foliage
in
that differed of those growth, afterwards and lastly in their seed-capsules, their flowers,then
names seed; and I found that the same in two, three, or four of the successive
in their mature
erally gen-
lists. the
the
greatest
for which in mind
to
amount
as
of difference far
as
between
always exhibited,
organ
I could
judge, by
bear
because
useful
a
man,
subsequent, often
the greater
amount
cannot
explain
parts
diversity in
with
were
the
an
valuable
by
especialtendency to We originallychosen.
198
must
SELECTION.
Chap.
XX.
attribute
the
result
to
the
variations
in
these
parts
having been
;
successivelypreserved, and thus continually augmented whilst other variations, excepting such as inevitably
through correlation, were
most
appeared
may
neglected and
lost.
We
therefore
infer that
long-continued selection, to
another which
in
any
are
character
as
in
those
parts
for
they
valued
we
and
see
cultivated.
With
animals
nothing
are
of
not
same
kind; but
for
a a
of
species have
in the
domesticated their
comparison.
differs much
Sheep
more
valued several
wool, and
the
the
in
are
races
than
hair
European
like
cattle,nor
we
pigs
strength; and
respects
the
do not
possess
differing in
But
we
these
the
are
race-horse valued
and
dray-horse.
and and
But
strength
former
in camels
with
the swift
dromedary
and mastiff.
in
and
higher degree for their mental knows how one greatly the every
a
races
respects.
serve
On for
the
other
as
hand,
the
where
the
dog
to kept solelj''
food,
as
"
in
Polynesian
as
islands
and
China,
have
it is described
an
Blumenbach
remarks
a
that
many
dogs, such
so
the
badger-dog,
build
so
marked
and
appropriate for
find it very difficult to that I should particular purposes, dental accian persuade myself that this astonishing figure was Had Blumenbach of degeneration." flected reconsequence have the great principle of selection, he would not on
*"
used
the
term
degeneration,
other
the
we
and
he
would should
not
have
astonished
animals
man.
become
adopted for
On the character
is most
service
may
"
of
conclude whether
that the
whatever
part
or
valued
seed
or
intellect of animals
to
of
that
acter char-
invariably be found
I'Espece,'
torn.
present
the greatest
1856,
p.
Godron,
27.
'
'
De
il. p.
"o
tises 292.
Blumenbach,'
The
Anthropological
Trea-
Chap.
XX.
SELECTION.
;[99
and
amount
of
may
difference be
both
in
kind
to
man
degree.
And
this
result
a
safely attributed
of
on
an
portant im-
subject. With
the whole
structure
of which giraffe,
is
admirably co-ordinated
that
for certain
poses, pur-
all the parts must have been supposed simultaneously modified; and it has been argued that,on the principleof natural selection,this is scarcelypossible. But in thus arguing, it has been tacitlyassumed that the variations have No must been abrupt and great. doubt, if the neck of a ruminant suddenly to become were greatly elongated,
it has been
the
fore
limbs
and
back
would
have
to
be
simultaneously
be denied that an strengthened and modified; but it cannot animal might have its neck, or head, or tongue, or fore-limbs
elongated
modificacorresponding tion in other parts of the body; and animals thus slightly modified would, during a dearth, have a slight advantage,
a
very
little without
any
and
A
be enabled mouthfuls
to
browse
more or
on
few
thus
make
survive.
all the
difference
same
life and
process,
by the occasional
be
some
there
progress,
fluctuating
though
it would
be, towards
If
of the
its small
giraffe.
small been
a
the
conical
body, short
all in harmony
wings, and
"
characters
which
appear
its whole would structure species, have w^ell fitted for its life; but in this case been viewed as know that inexperienced breeders are urged to attend to we point after point, and not to attempt improving the whole time. Look at the greyhound, that structure at the same natural and vigour; no perfect image of grace, symmetry, admirably co-ordinated structure, speciescan boast of a more its tapering head, slim with body, deep chest, tucked-up limbs, all adapted abdomen, rat-like tail,and long muscular
had
natural
for
extreme
fleetness, and
what
we we see
Now,
from
from what 47
weak down running prey. of the variability of animals, and for which different
men
know
of the method
fol-
200
low
in
SELECTION
Chap.
XX.
chiefly attending to one some improving their stock point, others to another point, others again correcting defects
"
by
crosses,
see
and
the
so
forth line
"
we
may
feel of
a
assured
that
if
we
could
up to
long
of ancestors
first-rate greyhound
its
wild
and
should behold progenitor, we an finest gradations, sometimes in one in another, but all leading towards
present
perfect type.
we
By
small
and
doubtful
steps such
confidentlybelieve,has progressed, and development. of improvement on A similar line of reasoning is as applicable to separate has recently to the whole organisation. A writer as organs " it is p"robablyno maintained that exaggeration to suppose the eye at all,it that in order to improve such an as organ probabili And the imbe improved in ten different ways at once. must of any complex organ being produced and brought is an such way to perfection in any improbability of the kind and degree as that of producing a poem or a same
these, nature, as her grand march
may
"^
mathematical
on
by
eye
throwing
were
letters
at
dom ran-
a
no
the
abruptly and
have should
to
greatly
able. service-
modified,
parts would
organ
be
ously simultane-
remain
is this
the
see
case
with
smaller
in
who
can
distinctlyonly
believe, on
to
are
this of
condition
depends,
the abnormal
is known
be inherited.
ISTow if
bird, for
seeing well in instance, receive some great advantage from sensitive rewith the most the twilight, all the individuals tina best and be the most would succeed likely to survive;
and
why should
a
not
all those
the
itself be
were
little larger, or
likew^ise
not
these
modifications would
The
individuals
sequently sub-
blend
his
their
more
respective advantages.
caTitionsly givon
Pres. in
"^
Mr.
openinj;
'
Murphy,
to the
by
sermon
the
Belfast
jjiven in the Nat. Hist. Soc., as Nov. Northern Belfast Whig^.' folhere Mr. 19, 18G6. Murphy of lows the line arjrument and views previously against my
Royal
beat
his
(Appendix,
fore the
p. British
33)
preached
Association
Nottingham,
1866.
202
SELECTION.
Chap.
XXI.
CHAPTER
SELECTION,
Natural
appear nature
"
selection
as
aflfecting domestic
often
man
" "
Characters
which the
of real
Facility in
attention
vourable fa-
Close of
a
production
no
large number
liable of each
to
favourable formed
man
"
selection animals
sable indispenespecially
are
not
Highly-bred
carry to
degeneration
to
an
"
Tendency
"
in
to
selection
character
extreme
point,
Characters of character, rarely to convergence diVergence leading have in which direction already they continuing to vary in the same of intermediate varied Divergence of character, with the extinction Limit in our to the domestic races varieties, leads to distinctness in which mestic doManner of time selection of important Lapse power have originated Summary. races
" " " " "
Natural
Selection, kept by
own
or
the
"
of the
little on
Fittest,
as
affecting domestic
But
as
productions.
savages
this head.
animals their
the year
can
food
either that
entirely or
in
hardly be doubted
in
different
in
differing
succeed
is that the
as
constitution
so
and
various
best, and
been
naturally selected. Hence perhaps it few domesticated animals kept by savages partake,
be remarked of their
has
by
more
than and
one
appearance
masters,
likewise
natural
in
species.
wilder
Even
in
long-civilised countries,
selection must
act very
on our
least
the
parts, natural
that and
domestic
It is obvious
varieties
having
For
different
best
on
habits,
structure, pastures.
would
succeed
mountains
and
on
rich
lowland
were
formerly taken to the Lammermuir Hills; " but an intelligentsheep-master reported that coarse our lean unequal to the task of supporting such were pastures into heavy-bodied sheep; and they gradually dwindled away
sheep
less and
less bulk:
one;
each
generation
the
was
was
inferior
severe,
to
the
ceding premore
and
when of the
spring
seldom
ravages
than
two-thirds
lambs
survived
the
of
the
Chap.
XXI.
NATURAL
SELECTION.
203
Wales and
storms."
So
with
they could
not
withstand
delicate lowland larger and more Two French breeds. naturalists, in describing the horses of situdes vicisthat, subjected as they are to extreme Circassia, remark of climate, having to search for scanty pasture, and danger from wolves, the strongest and exposed to constant
being
crossed
with
the
most
struck
with
the
surpassing
its bold
grace,
strength, and
confident
vigour
of the
Game-cock,
with
and
neck, compact
body,
powerful and
closelypressed wings, muscular thighs, strong beak, massive at the base, dense and sharp spurs set low on the legs for delivering the fatal blow, and its compact, glossy, the EngNow and mail-like plumage serving as a defence. lish game-cock has not only been improved during many
years
by
man's
careful
selection, but
a
kind
in
active and
courageous
antagonists in the cockpit,generation after generation, and have subsequently served as the progenitors of
The the
same
their
race.
kind
of double
come
into
play with
inferior without their
In
race.
carrier
birds
fail to return
and
are
selection
by
man
only
the
times, almost every district had its own breed of cattle and sheep ; " they were nous indigewhich on to the soil, climate, and pasturage of the locality for it and by they grazed : they seemed to have been formed it." But in this case quite unable to disentangle we are of life, of the effects of the direct action of the conditions
Great
Britain, in former
"
use
or
habit which
"
of natural
we
selection is
"
and
of that
kind
of
lection se-
have
even
followed Let
1
by
us
man
now
of natural
^
.
selection
on
spe-
Quoted
See
p.
325.
2
tie, pp.
MM.
62,
bv Youatt on Sheep, also Youatt Caton 69. De and Lherbette ' in Soc. Bull. d'Ac-
12.3.
tj^^ Mr.
or
Homing
pp.
*
45-58.
Youatt
on
Sheep,
p.
312.
204:
cial characters.
man
SELECTION.
Chap.
XXI.
Although
nature
is difficult to
resist, yet
with
seen our cess. suc-
often
and sometimes strives against her power, From the facts to be given, it will also be
natural selection would powerfully affect many productions if left unprotected. This is
of
a
interest,for
we
thus
learn
that
differences
the survival of a slightimportance would certainlydetermine form when existence. It may forced to struggle for its own it formerly did to me, have occurred to some naturalists, as would that, though selection acting under natural conditions the structure of all important organs, determine yet that it could
not
affect characters
which
are
esteemed which
we are
by
are
us
of little
to
eminently
of real value
characters
living
man
creature.
When defect
attempts
or or
to
make
breed
with
some
in structure, will
in the
mutual
relation
of the
parts, he We have
partly
that
an
completely fail, or
a
encounter
form
once
of natural made
in
attempt
was
to breed
so
to
buttocks, but the cows perished often in bringing forth their calves, that the attempt had In rearing short-faced be given up. tumblers, Mr. Eaton
enormous
"
cattle with
says,"
am
convinced
that better
ever
were
head
and
beak the
birds
reason
perished
that break
more
in the the
shell than
hatched;
bird
so
amazingly
case,
short-faced
cannot
reach
Here
comes
the
shell with
perishes."
selection
curious
at
which
natural
time:
into
play only
the
as
long intervals of
can
Niata from
cattle 1827
to
graze
as
well
as
longsuch
continued times
common
droughts
pasture
is burnt
perish by the thousand, but survive by browsing on twigs, reeds, "c. ; this the many well effect from Niata cattle cannot their upturned jaws so and the shape of their lips attended to, ; consequently, if not cattle. before the other In Columbia, according they perish of to Roulin, there is a breed nearly hairless cattle, called but are Pelones; these succeed in their native hot district,
^
"
cattle and
horses
Treatise
on
the
Almoud
Tumbler,'
1851, p. 33.
Chap.
XXI.
NATURAL
SELECTION.
2()5
found natural
too
tender
for the
Cordillera; in this
only
as
selection that
determines
a
the
races
range
It is obvious
in
a
host of artificial
"
could
survive
state
of nature; toothless
such Turkish
Italian
"
dogs, cannot barbs and Polish fly well against a strong wind, fowls, with their vision impeded by their eye wattles and
"
and
almost
great
cannot
topknots, hornless
"
bulls and
rams,
which have
many
a
consequently
poor
cope
with
other
"
males, and
thus
chance such
of
other
cases.
by the systematic naturalist generally esteemed as unimportant : let us, therefore, see how far it indirectly affects our domestic productions, and how far it would affect if they were them left exposed to the full force of natural In a future chapter I shall have to show selection. that constitutional of bility peculiarities the strangest kind, entailing liaof certain to the action poisons, are correlated with I will here give a single case, on the colour of the skin. the he informs that, Wyman; me high authority of Professor in being surprised at all the pigs a part of Virginia being black, he made inquiries,and ascertained that these animals
feed their
on
the bones
roots
of the Lachnanthes
tinctoria,which
of
as
pink, and, excepting in the case the hoofs to drop off. Hence, varieties,causes
squatters
the
one
select the black members of the remarked, " we litter for raising, as they alone have a good chance of living." So that here we have artificial and natural selection working hand
in
hand.
may
add
that
in
the
Tarentino
the
habitant in-
the Hypericum sheep alone, because crispiirnabounds there; and this plant does not injure black time.* in about a fortnight's sheep, but kills the white ones believed to certain diseases, are Complexion, and liability Thus white and the lower animals. to run together in man terriers suffer fatal
a more
keep black
than
those
distemper.^In
which
Heusinger,
fiir
s.
'
North
of any America
other
colour
are
from
the
plum-trees
caused
liable to
disease
"
Downing^
believes
"
'
is not
The
by insects;
of Ainor-
Dr.
schrift
die 279. on
WochenBerHeilkunde,' p.
Fniit-troes for
peaclies,
p.
lin, 1S4G.
^Youatt
tlie Dog,
232,
206
the have kinds
never
SELECTION.
Chap.
XXI.
are
most
affected," and
varieties filled with America
seems
we
yellow fruited
first become
in North
fected in-
the
the
a
had
the
peaches
the
suffer
to
disease that
"
yellows, which
more
be
peculiar
of the
-
continent,
when the
and
than
nine-tenths
were
victims,
disease
first
-
appeared,
fleshed of the have
the
are
white
some
kinds
parts
In been
Mauritius,
so
the
white
sugar-canes
country of late
severely attacked by a disease, that many riety planters have been compelled to give up growing this vafor (although fresh plants were imported from China trial) and cultivate only red canes." Now, if these plants forced other competing plants had been to struggle with
and flesh
are
enemies, there
or
cannot
be
doubt
that
as
the
colour
of the
skin
of the
fruit, unimportant
have
these
characters their
considered, would
rigorously determined
existence.
Liabilityto the attacks of parasitesis also connected with colour. White chickens subject than certainly more are
dark-coloured
worm
chickens
to the gapes,
which
is caused
by
asitic par-
On the
the other
hand, experience
caterpillarswhich produce white cocoons resist the deadly fungus better than those producing cocoons.^^ observed facts have been yellow Analogous with plants : a new and beautiful white onion, imported from alone attacked France, though planted close to other kinds, was by a parasiticfungus.^^ White verbenas are especially Near liable to mildew." Malaga, during an early period of
France
" the vine-diseases,the green and red and sorts suffered most ; fered black grapes, when interwoven with the sick plants,sufeven
has
shown
not
at
all."
In
France
whole
groups
of varieties
were
the but
Chasselas, did
T do
not
not
know
any
correlation
Roval
of Soo.
between
Arts
colour and
to disease liability
a
Proc.
of
and p.
10
Sciences
cxxxY.
Mauritius,'
1852,
p.
'Gardener's 379.
Chronicle,'
'
1856, Ac-
pp.
1851,
of
Rorticulturp,'
1^
Quatrefages,
Maladies
1862, p. 476.
Chap.
XXL
NATURAL
SELECTION.
207
was
was
here
observed.
liable certain
even one
In
former
chapter it
shown
to
how
curiously
It
range
mildew.
cases
is
regulate in
of the Under in
many
the
and
the
existence
living under
their natural
conditions.
most:
or
light-coloured animals
do not
are
suffer
much
more
white,
An
by various
sensitive
"
kinds
of flies than
negro,
the been
brown,
In
red,
or
cattle.
Albino
to
it has
remarked,''was
the West work The
are
peculiarly
those
are
the
bites of
insects. cattle
in
Indies
are
the
only horned
deal
of
good
black
white weak
they
In
Devonshire
terribly tormented by the insects; and sluggish in proportion to the white." there is a prejudice against white pigs,
that the
man sun
because out;
it is believed and
I knew
a
blisters them
not
when
turned
keep white pigs in The scorching of flowers by the Kent, for the same reason. likewise to depend much sun seems on colour; thus, dark suffer and from various it is pelargoniums accounts most; clear that the cloth-of-gold variety will not withstand a which other varieties enjoy. to sunshine degree of exposure Another that not amateur asserts only all dark-coloured
the sun : " the scarlets, suffer from paler kinds stand better, and pale blue is perhaps the best of all." So (Viola tricolor); hot again with the heartsease
who
would
verbenas, but
likewise
weather
tiful destroys the beauother kinds.'"* During one markings of some extremely in Holland all red-flowered cold season served obhyacinths were inferior in quality. It is believed by many to be very climates is hardier in northern that red wheat agriculturists white
sorts, whilst
it
than
1*'
wheat.^"
analogous
mankind facts
in my
Gardener's Chronicle,' 1852, 435, 691. pp. ^5 DeutschBechstein, 'Natnrg. lands,' 1801, b. i. s. 310. i" tory HisPriehard. Physical of Mankind,' 1851, vol. i. p.
'
in
Man,'
"
'
of
of
1862,
'
100.
"
G.
and
1*
dence Lewis's of ResiJournal in West Home Indies,' Col. Library,' p. 100. edit, of Youatt on Sidney's
' '
Chronicle,'
Jacinthes. 53: p. de
on
186.3,
ture,'
1768,
tbe
Pig,
p.
24,
have
given
'Gardener's 653.
Chronicle,'
1846,
208
With the
In
most
SELECTION.
Chap.
XXI.
animals, white
liable to be
being conspicuous
and birds
of
are
by
beasts
prey.
where hawks and Germany abound, perparts of France sons Parmenwhite advised not to keep pigeons; for, as are " the white in flock tier says, it is certain that a alway-ofirst fall victims have white Prof.
which is the G.
to
the
kite."
In
Belgium,
same
where
so
many
cieties so-
been
one
for the
flightof carrier-pigeons,
reason
for the
is disliked.'^ four
Jaeger''
been he
fishing
and
found all
were
pigeons
had
of the
pigeons which
white; on another the the eyrie of a hawk, and all of a had been caught w^ere
On the other hand, it is said that the yellow colour. land sea-eagle (Falco ossifragus, Linn.) on the west coast of Ire" the villagersavoid picks out the blacks fowls, so that M. Daumuch possible rearing birds of that colour." as as in Russia, remarks din,"^ speaking of white rabbits kept in warrens that their colour is a great disadvantage, as they are be seen thus more during bright exposed to attack, and can A gentleman in Kent, who failed to nights from a distance. stock his woods with a nearly white and hardy kind of rabbit, for their early disappearance. accounted in the same manner Any one who will watch a white cat prowling after her prey will soon perceive under what a disadvantage she lies. The white Tartarian cherry, " owing either to its colour like that of the leaves, or to the fruit always being so much appearing from a distance unripe," is not so readily attacked The yellow-fruited raspberry, which by birds as other sorts. generally comes nearly true by seed, " is very little molested by birds, who evidently are not fond of it; so that nets may be dispensed with in places where nothing else will protect This the red fruit." immunity, though a benefit to the be a disadvantage in a state of nature gardener, would both to the cherry and raspberry, as dissemination depends
^*
on
birds.
"
I noticed
that
^i^
la
some
trees
of
B. Fielfl,' Feb.
W.
Te^etmeier,
25,
1SG5. fowls, Willi
sec
'
The
re-
spect
to
black
quotaHist.
in Nat tion Thompson's of Ireland,' 1849, vol. i. p. 22 In Darwin's Sachen tra Wigand,' 1874, p. 70.
'
22.
con-
cTAccliSTO. 24 Transact. Hort, Soc.,' vol. i. 2nfl For series, 1835, p. 275. Gard. see Throniraspberries,
23
"
b^iu^
Soe.
mat.,'
toin.
vii., 1860,
p.
"
'
p.
154, '
aud
1863,
p.
210
varieties of the
in
SELECTION.
Chap.
XXI.
apple enjoy,
parts
the
as
we
have
seen,
various On
of the world
a
of not
by the
Nelis
coccus.
other hand,
particular case
kind
in
on
recorded
in which
aphides confined
touched
no
themselves
pear
and The
other
extensive leaves of
orchard.^"
existence
of minute
glands
the
by apricots,would not be esteemed botanists as a character of the least importance, for they are descended sub-varieties in closely-related absent or present that the same from parent-tree ; yet there is good evidence is highly injuriof glands leads to mildew, which the absence ous
^^
to these
trees.
difference
in
either
in
flavour
causes
or
in the amount
to
of nutriment
certain
varieties enemies
them
any
be
more
eagerly
of the
attacked
same
by various
than
other
varieties
(Pyrrhula vulgaris) injure our species. Bullfinches fruit-trees by devouring the flower-buds, and a pair of these " birds have been seen to denude a large plum-tree in a couple " of the bud ; but certain varieties of days of almost every especially apple and thorn (Crataegus oxyacantha) are more served obA liable to be attacked. striking instance of this was of a particuin Mr. River's garden, in which two lar rows variety of plum^^ had to be carefully protected, as they usually stripped of all their buds during the winter, were them whilst other sorts growing near escaped. The root (or turnip is preferred by enlarged stem) of Laing's Swedish
^^
hares, and
and v/hen rabbits both of
are
therefore
eat
grow
suffers
common
more
than
rye
other
varieties.
Hares
down
together.'*In
"
the
orchard
almond-trees
sown,
"
'"'
is formed, order
see
of be
the
bitter
variety
almonds. Other
in
we
that the
use
they
devoured
by field-mice
so
of the bitter
principle in
would
^^
be
thought quite
p.
The
.Tounial
=5*
September
.see
27, 1804,
Mr. R.
other
X.
3^
given
'
in
chap. ology
vol.
Mr.
and
Selby,
in
ii., 1838.
Botany,' p. 393.
Soc.,' vol. vi. p. 179. Gard. For Swedish turnips, see Chron.,' 1847, p. 91. ^^ De Godron, I'Esp^ce,' torn, ji, p. 98.
Agricult.
'
Chap. XXI.
NATURAL
SELECTION.
211
of great service both unimportant, are no doubt sometimes to The Whitesmith's plants and animals. gooseberry, as formerly stated,produces its leaves later than other varieties,
and,
as
the flowers
In
one
are
thus
variety of the cherry, according the petals are curled backwards, and much Kivers,^"
of this the
a severe
fails.
Mr.
sequence con-
in
stigmas
were
observed
to
be
killed by
with
time, in another
were
variety
jured. least inequal un-
not
in
the
of
a
the
Fenton
wheat observer
is
remarkably
that
height; and
competent
believes
this
the ears from variety is highly productive, partly because at various being distributed heights above the ground are
together. The
same
observer
maintains
that in
serviceable by are upright varieties the divergent awns breaking the shocks when the ears are dashed together by the wind.'^ If several varieties of a plant are grown together, and the seed is indiscriminately harvested, it is clear that the hardier and more ral productive kinds will,by a sort of natuthe others; this takes selection, gradually prevail over in our believes,^'' place, as Colonel Le Couteur wheat-fields, in character. for, as formerly shown, no variety is quite uniform Avould The same thing, as I am assured by nurserj^men, take place in our flower-gardens, if the seed of the different varieties were When of the the eggs not separately saved. wild ducks and
not
and
tame
almost
duck
hatched
wild
size
Facts
have
now
been
given showing
checks, but
These
power
of selection.
lesson, namely, that in judging what of importance in a cautious characters are have to struggle and plants,which state of nature to animals
for existence from
the
valuable
hour
of their
on
birth
to
that
of their which
death,
"
we
are
conditions, about
38
p.
'
p.
pp.
820, 821.
Varieties of Wheat,' ^s'On the 59. ^9 in and others, ]vjr_ Hewitt of Hort.,' 1SG2, p. 773. Journal
212
SELECTION.
Chap.
XXI.
Circumstances The
favourable
to Selection
by Man.
and this, variability, shall see in the following chapters, mainly depends on we as plex comchanged conditions of life,but is governed by infinitely of selection possibility
rests
on
and
unknown
laws.
Domestication,
but
goose
a
even
when
long
small
and
amount
bility, of varia-
in
the
case
of the
turkey.
The
slight
mal anihowever, which characterize each differences, in most, probably in all,cases suffice for and plant would the production of distinct races through careful and prolonged selection.
mere
individual
We
see
what
selection, though
effect when families been
men
acting
of
on
differences,can have sheep, pigeons, "c., of the same race, of years bred during a number by different
individual
wish
on
cattle, separately
any
same
without
see
their
part
to
modify
between
in many
the
breed.
We
the
fact
in
the
difference
hounds other
bred such
for
cases.
hunting result, it
in
different
In
order
selection
should
produce
races
any
is
manifest
that
crossing of distinct
must
be
vented pre-
in pairing, as with the pigeon, is highly facility ; in pairing, as with favourable for the work; and difficulty of distinct breeds. On nearly cats, prevents the formation the same principle the cattle of the small island of Jersey have been improved in their milking qualities" with a rapidity in a widely extended that could not have been obtained
hence
country
on
like France."
one a
*^
Although
one can
free crossing is
see, too
danger
the is
side which
every
on
close interbreeding
ditions con-
hidden
danger
the other
side.
Unfavourable Our
of life overrule
the power
of selection.
not
improved
formed
heavy breeds
on
of cattle and
sheep could
nor
have
been
dray-horses have and inhospitable land, such as the barren been raised on a the light horses of La Plata Falkland Islands, where even impossible to preserve rapidly decrease in size. It seems the several English breeds of sheep in France ; for as soon as
mountainous
pastures;
could
lambs
**'
"
are
weaned
of
their
Rural
'
vigour
decays
Roy.
43.
as
the
heat
of
the
Encvclop.
'
Sports,'
Journal
Agricult.
Soc.,' vol.
Iv.
p.
p.
405. *^ Col.
Le
Couteur,
Chap.
XXI.
FAVOURABLE
CIRCUMSTANCES.
c^\^
impossible to give great length of wool to sheep within the tropics; yet selection has breed kept the Merino nearly true under diversified and
summer :
increases
"
it would
be
conditions.
of the
The
power
of selection
is
so
great,
smallest with
opposite characters,have
augmented,
to
treated and
in every
alike,being
same
posed ex-
the
same
climate
fed
on
the
food.
lection, Se-
however, is either checked or favoured by the effects of use habit. Our wonderfully-improved pigs could never or if they had been forced to search have been formed for their food; the English race-horse and greyhound could not own have been improved up to their present high standard of excellence without constant training. As conspicuous deviations of structure occur rarely, the of each is generally the result of the breed improvement selection of slight individual differences. Hence the closest of observation,and indomitable attention, the sharpest powers are indispensable. It is,also,highly important perseverance, that many individuals of the breed which is to be improved
should be raised
;
for thus
there will be
in
better chance
of the
appearance
of variations
the right
manner
or
uals direction,and individmaybe freely rejected of individuals should vour faof life should
number
be raised, it is the
that the
conditions
the peacock been propagation of the species. Had should probably ere this have reared as easily as the fowl, we the importance of a large We had many distinct races. see number of plants, from the fact of nursery gardeners almost of new varieties. in the exhibition always beating amateurs estimated" and 5000 that between 4000 In 1845 it was goniums pelarseed in England, yet were annually raised from At Messrs. variety is rarely obtained. a decidedly improved such flowers as the Lobelia, Carter's grounds, in Essex, where for seed, by the acre Nemophila, Migonette, "c., are grown " kinds without being now some scarcely a season passes
"
Malinsrit'-Nouel,
vol.
Journal
R.
"""'
xiv.,
1853,
p.
Gardener's 273.
Chronicle,'
1845,
214
SELECTION.
Chap. XXI.
raised, or
Kew,
as
some
improvement
Beaton
effected
on
old
kinds."
**
At
mon com-
Mr.
forms of Laburnums, plants are So with animals : Marshall," Spiraeas,and other shrubs." in speaking of the sheep in one part of Yorkshire, remarks, " they belong to poor people, and are mostly in small lots, as Lord Kivers, when asked how be improved." can they never first-rate greyhounds, anin always having he succeeded swered, " and hang many." I breed many, This, as another
"^
many
seedlings of
man
remarks, "was
be found
in
the
secret
of his
"
success;
and
the
same
will breed
exhibiting fowls,
*
successful
competitors
capacity of breeding at an with pigeons, rabbits, "c., as early age and at short intervals, made faciliates selection; for the result is thus soon visible, in It the work and perseverance can hardly be encouraged. accident that the great majority of the culinary and agricultural an have yielded numerous races are nuals anplants which or biennials, which therefore are capable of rapid propagation, and thus of improvement. Sea-kale, asparagus, mon comIt follows this that the and Jerusalem
onions,
must
be
excepted, as they are perennials: but onions are propagated like annuals, and of the other plants just specified, with none, the exception of the potato, have yielded in this country more In varieties. the Mediterranean than two one or region,
where artichokes
as are
often
Mr.
raised
from
seed, there
No doubt
are
several
kinds,
which host
I hear
cannot
from
Bentham.
of
varieties, though
permanent
races;
but
these,
judging from prehistoric remains, have been produced at a comparatively late period. will A species may be highly variable,but distinct races selection be not applied. It not be formed, if from cause any in fishes from would be difficult to select slight variations is extremely their place of habitation; and though the carp attended variable and is much to in Germany, only one wellhas been formed, as I hear from Lord A. Russell, marked race
4*
'
Jonrnal
of
Horticulture,'
p.
"'A
Gardener,'
1860,
of
Reports,'
1808,
Chronicle,' 1853,
p. 45.
Chap.
XXI.
PAVOUKABLE
CIRCUMSTANCES.
215
namely the spie g el-carp e; and this is carefullysecluded from the common On the other hand, a closelyallied scaly kind. the gold-fish, from being reared in small vessels, species, and from having been carefully attended to by the Chinese, has Neither the bee, which has been semiyielded many races. domesticated from an extremely remote neal period,nor the cochicultivated cans,*^ insect, which was by the aboriginal Mexihas yielded races be impossible to match ; and it would the queen-bee with any particulardrone, and most difficult to cochineal insects. match Silk-raoths,on the other hand, have been subjected to rigorous selection,and have produced Cats, which from their nocturnal habits cana host of races. not be selected for breeding, do not, as formerly remarked, within the same yield distinct races Dogs are held country. in abomination in the East, and their breeding is neglected; kind consequently, as Prof. Moritz Wagner" remarks, one
alone exists there. and
poor
The it is
an
ass
in
England
in colour
size; but
not
as
animal
no
of little value
bred
by
selection, and
not
distinct
races
have of
our
formed.
We
must
attribute the
inferiority
smaller climate, for in India they are of even size than in Europe. selection is brought to bear But when the ass, all is changed. Near Cordova, as I am informed on (Eeb. 1860) by Mr. W. E. Webb, C.E., they are carefully 200Z. having been paid for a stallion ass, bred, as much as and they have been immensely improved. In Kentucky, asses have been imported (for breeding mules) from Spain, Malta, than fourteen and France ; these " seldom averaged more hands high: but the Kentuckians, by great care, have raised sometimes them to sixteen. to fifteen hands, and even up The prices paid for these splendid animals, for such they much how they are in request. One really are, will prove thousand sold for upwards of one male of great celebrity, was sent to cattle-shows, are pounds sterling." These choice asses
asses a
Analogous
Isidore Hist. ' On 49. p. sect,,' p. 46.
*8
facts
have
been
observed
nnd
""
with
plants: the
der
Geoffroy
Nat.
laire,
"
Gp'n.,' torn.
the
Snint-Hiiii. InCoeliineal
das
Oij^anismen.'
Cnpt.
in
'
Marryat,
Journ. p.
quoted
Soc.
by
of
Blvtti
Asiatic
*"
'
Die
Darwin'scUQ
Theorie
229"
4^
^16
nutmeg-tree
there The has
common
SELECTION.
Chap.
XXI.
in the
no
been
distinct
races."
conspicu mignonette {Reseda odorata), from bearing in" flowers, valued solely for their fragrance, remains in the same condition when first duced." introas unimproved forest-trees Our are common variable, as very in every extensive nursery-ground; but as they be seen may like fruit-trees,and as they seed late in life, not valued are selection has been applied to them; consequently, as Mr. no Matthews remarks,^^ Patrick they have not yielded distinct different to leafing at different periods, growing races, We sizes, and producing timber fit for different purposes. fanciful semi have and monstrous gained only some doubt varieties, which no see appeared suddenly as we now
"
-
botanists
have
grown year
botanic
gardens,
or our
tentionally unincorn
crops,
produced
mingled with
; but
for
by slight variations not having been Let a plant w^hich is now grown
any
common
selected
in
a
botanic
garden,
large scale,and Jet a sharp-sighted gardener look out for each slight variety and the seed, and then, if distinct races not produced, the are sow
or
weed, be cultivated
on
argument The
will be valid.
ering by considimportance of selection is likewise shown breeds of For instance, with most special characters. and the colour of the plumage of the comb fowls the form have been attended eminently characteristic of are to, and each
race;
but
in
Dorkings,
fashion
has
never
demanded
diversity in colour; and the utmost or uniformity of comb these double-combs, cuprespects prevails. Rose-combs, in purely be seen combs, "c., and colours of all kinds, may bred and closely related Dorking fowls, whilst other points, of body, and the presence of an the general form such as attended been additional are invariably to, and toe, have
"
Mr.
p
Oxley,
645.
'
Journal
Indian
Archipelago,'
Mr.
of vol.
the
Horticulture,'
430.
"3
'
Dec.
1,
1863,
p.
ii.,
of
1848,
62
On
Naval
Timber,'
1831, p.
Abbey,
in
'
Journal
107.
218
SELECTION.
Chap.
XXI.
Horse,
has
sums
up:
"It
must
have
there
**'
been
observed
in
the
ceding pre-
pages
that, whenever
has been
neglect,the breed
If a considerable number proportionally deteriorated." of improved cattle,sheep, or other animals of the same race, allowed with breed to were selection, but no freely together, with no be no change in their condition of life,there can doubt that after a score hundred or generations they would be very far from excellent of their kind; but, from what we of the many of dogs, cattle,fowls, pigeons, see races common without have "c., which particular care long retained any
character, we have no grounds for believing nearly the same that they would altogetherdepart from their type. It is a general belief amongst of breeders that characters all kinds become fixed by long-continued inheritance. But I in the fourteenth have attempted to show chapter that this belief apparently resolves itself into the following proposition, namely, that all characters whatever, whether recently acquired
w^hich
or
ancient, tend
to
be
transmitted, but
that
those
and
all counteracting fluences inalready long withstood will,as a general rule, continue to withstand them, consequently be faithfully transmitted. have
Tendency
in Man
to
carry
the
'practice
of Selection
to
an
extreme
point.
It is
man
an
of selection important principle that in the process almost invariably wishes to go to an extreme point.
no
Thus, there is
horses and
certain
kinds
of
possible,and others as strong as possible; certain kinds of sheep for extreme fineness, and others for extreme length of wool; and he wishes to produce fruit,grain, tubers, and other useful parts of plants, as large excellent and animals bred for amuseas possible. With ment, the same principle is even more powerful ; for fashion, in our This view to extremes. dress, always runs as we see has been Instances expressly admitted by fanciers. were the the but here is another in : Mr. chapters on pigeon, given Eaton, after describing a comparatively new variety,namely,
as
57
'
dogs
fleet
Tijg
Veterinary,'
For tUe
vol.
xiii.
cattle,
51.
see
Youatt
on
Cattle, p.
p.
720.
Glamorganshire
Chap.
XXL
CARRIED
TO
AN
EXTREME.
219
intend
the
Archangel, remarks,
am
"
What
fanciers
doing with
they intend to breed tumbler's head to beak, or carry it out to the carrier's head and beak; leaving it as they found it, is not progressing." Ferguson, speaking of fowls, says, " their peculiarities, whatever they may be, must sarily necesbe fully developed: a little peculiarity forms nought but ugliness, seeing it violates the existing laws of symmetry." So Mr. Brent, in discussing the merits of the sub-varieties of the Belgian canary-bird, remarks, " Fanciers indefinite always go to extremes; they do not admire properties." This principle,which necessarily leads to divergence of of various character, explains the present state domestic
at
a
this bird I
it down
the
^*
races.
We
can
thus
see
how
it is that
race-horses
and
dray-
mastiffs,which are opposed to each character, how varieties so distinct as Cochinchina fowls and bantams, or carrier-pigeonswith very long with excessively short beaks have been beaks, and tumblers from derived the same stock. As each breed is slowly improved, the inferior varieties are first neglected and finally lost. In a few cases, by the aid of old records, or from intermediate ions varieties still existing in countries where other fashenabled have are partially to trace the prevailed, we graduated changes through which certain breeds have passed. methodical whether unconscious, always tending or Selection, towards extreme an point, together with the neglect and slow
other in every
"
horses, greyhounds
and
extinction
of the unlocks
intermediate the
and of
less-valued
how
man
forms, is the
has
key which
such
In
purpose,
mystery
i^roduced
a
wonderful
a
results.
few
has
instances led
to
single
proved im-
of
character.
All
the has
and
different
of the each
pig, as
in
Nathusius
well
shown,^*closely approach
shortened rounded
convergence
58
legs and
bodies, and
in the
'A page and
character, in their hairless, large, muzzles, their almost We small tusks. degree of some see
other outline
on
similar
Treatise
of the
'Cottage
p.
'
body
in
well-bred
October,
J.
M,
on
Fancy
guson,
Eaton, Pigeons,'
'
the
Gardener,'
des
S2;
Prize
Fer-
1860,
*^
Rare
try,'
page
162;
Mr.
Ponlin Brent,
1860,
Schweines,
220
cattle
cases.
SELECTION.
Chap.
XXI.
belonging to
distinct
races.*"*I know
of
no
other
such
deed divergence of character depends on, and is ina clear proof, as previously remarked, of the same parts direction. The tendency to continuing to vary in the same of organisation can plasticity or tainly cergeneral variability mere
Continued
be inherited,
even
from
one
parent,
as
has
been
shown
by Gartner
from
and
two
variable. It species,of which one alone was has varied in any is in itself probable that, when an organ if the condiin the same tions it will again vary manner, manner, the being to vary which first caused remain, as far as This is either tacitly or expressly be judged, the same. can admitted by all horticulturists : if a gardener observes one or additional petals in a flower, he feels confident that in a two few generations he w^ill be able to raise a double flower, of the seedlings from the weepcrowded with petals. Some ing Moccas oak were that crawled so they only along prostrate the ground. A seedling from the fastigate or upright Irish is described as differing greatly from the parent-form yew " by the exaggeration of the fastigatehabit of its branches." Mr. Shirreff, who has been highly successful in raising new kinds of wheat, remarks, " A good variety may garded safely be re^^
as
the
forerunner
of
better the
same
one."
^"
great
with
rose-
grower, to
roses.
Mr.
remark
respect
large experience, in speaking of fruit-trees, of the future progress observes that the most " that the more important principle is plants have departed from their original type, the more they tend to depart from is apparently much it." There truth in this remark; for we understand the surprising amount in no other way of difference can varieties in the parts or qualitieswhich between are acter. valued, whilst other parts retain nearly their original charThe what
Sageret," who
had
foregoing discussion naturally leads to the question, of variation in any is the limit to the possible amount
'
60 remarks See on some good de this head Quatrefa,c"es, by M. Unite de Humaine,' I'Espece 1861, p. 119. "i Des Varietes,' 1865, Verlot,
' '
^^ ^j. Gardener's
Patrick
in p.
771.
"'Pomologie
p.
Physiolog.,' 1830,
106.
p. 94.
Chap.
XXI.
SELECTION.
221
part
than
or
any
selection
effect? Can
Will
race-horse
ever
be reared
and sheep be stillfurther Eclipse? our prize-cattle Will a improved? than gooseberry ever weigh more that in 1852? Will the beet-root in produced by "London France yield a greater percentage of sugar? Will future varieties of wheat and other grain produce heavier crops than These be positively our questions cannot present varieties? answered; but it is certain that we ought to be cautious in lines of variation answering them by a negative. In some the limit has probably been reached. Youatt believes that of bone in some the reduction of our sheep has already been carried so far that it entails great delicacy of constitution."* But seeing the great improvement w^ithin recent times in our cattle and sheep, and especiallyin our pigs; seeing the wonderful in weight in our increase kinds of all poultry during
"
years
he would
be
bold
man
who
would
assert
It has often been said that perfection has been reached. and never will be, beaten in speed by any Eclipse never was, other horse; but on making inquiries I find that the best The judges believe that our present race-horses are fleeter.*^" to raise a new more productive variety of wheat attempt ly than the many old kinds, might have been thought until latequite hopeless; but this has been effected by Major Halmals lett, by careful selection. With respect to almost all our aniand plants, those who are best qualified to judge do not believe that the extreme point of perfection has yet been
reached
to
a
even
in the
characters
For
which
have
already been
ried car-
high standard.
has been
"
bler-pigeon tum-
according greatly modified ;nevertheless, to Mr. Eaton,'"' the field is still as open for fresh competitors it was hundred again ago." Over and over as one years it has been said that perfection had been attained with our ly Hardreached. been has soon but a higher standard flowers, fruit has been more improved than the strawberry, yet any " that be concealed not a great authority remarks," it must
we are
far from
on
the extreme
limits at which
^"
'
we
may
arrive."
"* "5
Youatt
See
ish p.
Rural
Tumbler,'
"
M.
384,
Chron.,'
1858, p. 173,
222
No
cannot extreme
SELECTION.
Chap.
XXI.
doubt be
there modified of
is
is
limit
degree
animal
fleetness, for
capable, may
as
restrial terour
by
present
the unlimited whether been And doubt
race-horses; but
interests in
any
Mr.
"
Wallace is not
well
remarked,"'
and
question that
change
such
us,
or as
whether
is
indefinite
all directions do
occur
possible,but
could have
differences
the
our
in
nature
produced by
in the
case
accumulation domestic
of varieties
by selection."
can man
of
productions, there
to
a
be
no
that
many
has
attended, have
the
modified
in
greater
degree than
same
corresponding parts
or even
the
natural
see
species of the
form beak and and
in the
genera
families.
We
or
this in the
"
size
many
of
our
light and
characters
heavy dogs
of
our
horses,
"
other
many
fruits, in
"
in
the
size and
quality of
to
the
species belonging
the
same
natural is
an
groups.
in the formation of our important element domestic it permits innumerable individuals to be as races, born, and these when exposed to diversified conditions are
Time
rendered
variable.
Methodical
an
selection
has
been
ally occasioneven
practised from
ancient
period
to the
present day,
by semi-civilised people, and during former times will selection will have effect. Unconscious produced some still more effective; for during a lengthened period the individual animals will occasionally have valuable of saved, and the less valuable neglected. In the course
different will also have been
more or
have been
more
been
through natural
on
It is
or no
this head
in
we
characters
time it
come be-
long remained
fixed
conditions
has
first domesticat
to
cultivated
plants, we
begin dimly
were
see.
When
'
lake-dwellings of 'Switzerland
to tlie
inhabited
edit., 1871,
"8
Contributions
Ttieory
of
Natural
Selection,'
2ud
p.
292.
Chap.
XXI.
SELECTION.
223
period, several animals were mesticat already docultivated. various and The science of plants that of tells the art ploughing and sowing the us language had been already land was followed, and the chief animals doniesticated, at an epoch so immensely remote, that the
Sanskrit, Greek,
had
not
Sclavonic
common
guages lan-
parent-
tongue.
scarcely possible to overrate occasionally carried on in various of generations. All that thousands
It is
places during
stronger the
we
do
not
great majority of
agrees
breeds, even
that their and When
the them
modern
breeds,
almost
with
the
view
the action
of unconscious
insensibly slow.
is usual
to to
sure
attends of his
rather
more
closely than
almost
They are in his immediate in consequence valued neighbourhood, and ever bred by others; and their characteristic features, whatare these may be, will then slowly but steadily be increased, sometimes and almost always by unconscious by methodical improve
extent.
breeding to a slight
animals, he
is
selection.
At
last
a
strain, deserving
more
to
be
called
sub-
variety, becomes
name,
slow
widely known, receives a local and spreads. The spreading will have been extremely is rapid. during ancient and less civilised times, but now
little time
that the
new
By
the
breed
had
assumed
somewhat
at the time, chai'acter, its history, hardly noticed remarks," will have been completely forgotten; for, as Low
distinct
"
We
know
how
quickly the
new
memory
of
such
events
is
effaced." As the
same soon as a
breed break
is thus
up
process
to
into
are
strains
and
ties. sub-varie-
For
different
varieties
suited Fashion
fashion
last for
even
moderate
length of time,
some
strong
is
the
effect will
probably
p.
"Max
'^i
'
Domesticated
Animals,'
Language,' ^o'Youatt
224
SELECTION.
Chap.
XXI.
increasing how in number, and history shows us wonderfully they have As each new increased since the earliest records.'' variety is produced, the earlier,intermediate, and less valuable forms not will be neglected, and perish. When being a breed, from evitably invalued, is kept in small numbers, its extinction almost
be
impressed
on
the breed.
Thus
varieties
go
on
follows of destruction
sooner or
or
later,either from
close of well-marked
a new
accidental
and
causes
from
case
interbreeding;
this
is
an
event
which, in the
The birth
or
breeds, excites
domestic
or race
tion. atten-
production of
is
so
slow
notice ; its death that it escapes is comparatively sudden, is often recorded, and
a
process
destruction
too
when
late
sometimes Several
regretted.
authors natural have
races. a
drawn The
wide latter
distinction
are more
between
in
artificial and
uniform
of high degree the appearance natural species,and are of ancient origin. They are generally in less civilised countries, and have probably been found by natural selection, and only to a small largely modified selection. and methodical extent They by man's unconscious have, also, during a long period, been directly acted on by of the countries which the physical conditions they inhabit.
character, possessing in
The
so-called
uniform such
as
^'
the
a
other
hand,
are
not
so
semi-monstrous
character,
ing," wry-legged terriers so useful in rabbit-shootPolish fowls, sheep, niata oxen, turnspit dogs, ancon fantail-pigeons,"c. ; their characteristic features have generally been acquired suddenly, though subsequently increased which Other cases. by careful selections in many races, for they have been largely be called artificial, certainly must selection and by crossing, as the Engmodified lish by methodical werp race-horse, terrier-dogs, the English game-cock, Antbe said to cannot carrier-pigeons, "c., nevertheless have
seems races. an
"
unnatural
to me,
can
appearance;
and between
no
distinct and
line,
as
it
be
drawn
natural
artificial
It is not
'
races
should
'
generally
of Rural
Kul99
et
''^
Blaine,
p.
Encyclop.
Sports,'
213.
226
SELECTION.
Chap.
XXL
scent. divergent line of deHe shown in the earlier chapters, concludes, as was he has long attended that all the chief breeds to which original abare the productions. The systematic naturalist, on other hand, who ing, generally knows nothing of the art of breedhow the several who and when does not pretend to know links
in
each
domestic
races
were
formed, who
these
races
cannot not
are now
have
seen
the intermediate
doubt But
that ask
him
whether
the
not turn
closely allied
have will descended
natural from
a
perhaps rejectthe
and breeder
may
Thus useful
the
naturalist each
"
mutually Summary
learn
lesson from
other.
can
Selection selection
was
hy Man.
has
There and
be
no
doubt
effected
will
effect wonderful
occasionally practised in ancient times, of and is still practised by semi-civilised people. Characters of triflingvalue, have others the highest importance, and
been has attended been
has
so
modified.
on
I need
not
here
repeat Avhat
tion selecbetween slow
many ported trans-
said
see
played:
as
unconscious difference
flocks
which
have
been
changes,
animals
circumstances
have
into
a
country, the
or
when
We
combined
effects of
selection,in the great amount of difference in those parts or qualitieswhich valued by are in comparison with the parts w^hich are not man valued, and Natural selection to. consequently have not been attended
often
err
methodical
and
determines
man's
power
of
selection.
We
sometimes
considered are as imagining that characters, which fected unimportant by the systematic naturalist,could not be afby the struggle for existence, and could not be acted have been given, on by natural selection; but striking cases
in
showing
The
how
great
an
error
this is.
possibilityof selection coming into action rests on variability; and this is mainly caused, as we shall hereafter of life. Selection is by changes in the conditions see, rendered sometimes or even difficult, impossible,by the con-
Chap.
XXL
SELECTION.
227
character
or
ditions
being opposed
checked which That
to
the desired
quality. It
is sometimes
constitution
by the lessened fertility and weakened follow from long-continued close interbreeding.
selection
may
methodical
and
be
the successful,
closest attention
with unwearied discernment, combined and patience, are these same absolutely necessary; ties, qualithough not indispensable,are highly serviceable in the
case
of unconscious
selection.
It is almost be
necessary
that
large number
will be
a
of individuals
should
reared;
for thus
there
any
ing, arisnature of and individual with the slightest blemish in every or degree inferior being freely rejected. Hence length of
is
fair chance
of variations
of the desired
time
work.
important element of success. Thus, also,reproduction at an and short at intervals favours early age the in Facility pairing animals, or their inhabiting a confined is advantageous as check free crossing. to a area,
an
Whenever
races one are
and
not
wherever formed
selection
the
is not
same
practised, distinct
When
any
mains re-
within
one or
country.
attended
part of the
either
at
body or unchanged
time
quality
varies
is not
a
to, it
in
fluctuating manner,
other
whilst become
the
same
other
parts
and
qualities may
But from the permanently and greatly modified. and to continued those tendency to reversion variability, which parts or organs are now undergoing rapid improvement much. to vary through selection,are likewise found when generate deConsequently highly-bred animals neglected soon
but
we
have
no
reason
to
believe
that
the
effects of life
of
long-continued selection
the
same,
remained Man
be
soon
always tends
to
go
or
in the
tion, selecand
it
to
whether
methodical
is
important principle, as
and
in
some rare cases
continued of
divergence
character. The
convergence
possibility of
in
continued
or
each
in
part
the
organ
to
which
it has
already
proved by
animals and
ter, lengthened periods. The principle of divergence of characcombined with the neglect and final extinction of all prQ^
228
SELECTION.
Chap.
XXI.
intermediate
the
varieties, explains
of
our
the
of difference
we
and
distinctness the
utmost
we
several
to
Although
reached,
the selection how
may
can
have be
reached
limit
are
which
characters
as we
modified, yet
good by
reason
far
from
having
limit between stand undermeans
have
cases. on
to
believe, the
the difference
we can
in
majority
as
of
Finally, from
man
carried it is that
in
and
races
by nature,
domestic
often, though
from
by
no
general
aspect
closely allied
I have action
natural
this
chapter and
power,
our
elsewhere
the
paramount
we
yet
its
spoken of absolutely
or
depends
accidental build The
the the
an
what
in
ignorance
an
call be
spontaneous
variability. Let
edifice of with
uncut
architect fallen be
compelled
a
to
stones,
may
from
precipice.
shape
nature
each has
fragment
been
shape of each
of the
determined the
called
rock, and
between
events
circumstances,
is
no
all of which
natural the
laws;
purpose
but for
same
relation
these
and builder.
are no
fragment
variations
by
In
the
creature
by
the
fixed
immutable which
laws;
is
these
bear
up
living
If the
structure
slowly built
or
through
noble
power
of selection, whether
our
artificial selection.
a
architect
rearing
for
we
edifice,using longer
his skill
rough
in
wedge-shaped
lintels, and degree higher
fragments
so
arches, the
admire
stones
stones
even
for the
a
forth,
if he
shaped for So it is with the applied by selection, whether purpose. for although variability is indispensably by nature; man or and look at highly complex some we yet, when necessary, to quite variability sinks a excellently adapted organism,
than had subordinate in used with
position
the
same
in
manner
importance
as
in
comparison
with
lection, se-
the is
shape of each
by
our
supposed
architect
unimportant
fragment in comparison
his skill.
Chap.
XXII.
CAUSES
OF
VARIABILITY.
229
CHAPTER
CAUSES
XXII.
OF VARIABILITY.
Variability does
not
necessarily accompany
"
"
reproduction
"
"
Causes
assigned
"
Individual differences by various authors Variability of every kind due to changed conditions of life On the nature of such changes of nutriment Climate, food, excess Effects Slight changes sufficient of grafting on the variability of seedling-trees Domestic productions habituated conditions to changed become On the accumulative tion acof changed conditions Close interbreeding and the imagination of the mother supposed to cause of variability Crossing as a cause
"
"
"
"
"
"
of and which
new
from
characters reversion
"
Variability from
On the
manner
"
either
system, induce
directly,or variability.
as
indirectlythrough
We almost The
our
will
now
consider,
an
far
our
as
we
can,
the
causes
of the
universal is
variabilityof
obscure S6me
one;
domesticated
it may
productions.
to
subject
but
be useful
probe
Dr. authors, for instance Prosper Lucas, look at variabilityas a necessary contingent on reproduction, and as much ance. an aboriginal law as growth or inheritOthers have of late encouraged, perhaps unintentionally, this view by speaking of inheritance and variabilityas equal and antagonistic principles. Pallas maintained, and he has had some ly followers, that variability depends exclusivethe crossitigof primordially distinct forms. Other on authors attribute variabilityto an of food, and with excess animals of exercise to an excess relatively to the amount That taken, or again to the effects of a more genial climate. these causes all effective is highly probable. But we are must,
I
ignorance.
think, take
broader
view, and
conclude
that organic
beings, when subjected during several generations to any the kind in their conditions, tend to vary; change whatever in a far of variation which cases ensues depending in most of the being, than constitution higher degree on the nature or the nature of the changed conditions. on
Those each authors who should believe differ that
in it is
some a
law
of nature
that
individual
230
CAUSES
OF
VARIABILITY.
Chap.
XXII.
other, may maintain, apparently with truth, that this is the fact,not only with all domesticated animals and cultivated plants, but likewise with all organic beings in a state of nature. The and Laplander by long practice knows to each gives a name reindeer, though, as Linnaeus remarks, " from another to distinguish one multitudes such among like ants on an was beyond my comprehension, for they were anthill." In Germany shepherds have won by recogwagers nising in each sheep flock of a hundred, which a they had until the previous fortnight. This power of discriminat never seen however, is as nothing compared to that which florists have some acquired. Verlot mentions a gardener who could distinguish 150 kinds of camellia, when in not flower; and it has been positively asserted that the famous old Dutch florist Voorhelm, who kept above 1200 varieties of in knowing the hyacinth, was deceived each vahardly ever riety
every
by the bulb
bulbs of the
alone.
Hence
we
must
conclude
that
the
and leaves of the hyacinth and the branches camellia, though appearing to an unpractised eye absolutely undistinguishable, yet really differ.^ As
I may
the
reindeer
its fellow
ants to
to
ants,
munity. com-
knows I
Several
times from of
one
carried ant-hill of
of
species
parently ap-
{Formica
were
rufa)
by
tens
another, inhabited
but the
thousands
ants;
strangers
ants instantly detected and killed. I then put some taken from large nest into a bottle strongly perfumed a very with assafootida, and after an interval of twenty-four hours them returned to their home; at first threatened they were to recognised and allowed soon by their fellows, but were ITence each ant certainly recognised, independently of pass. odour, its fellow; and if all the ants of the same community have not some countersign or watchword, they must present to
each
The
other's
senses
some
distinguishable character.
or
sisters of the
same
family,
in
and
1
'
of
Des
capsule,
Smith,
ment in
may
be
part
Jacintlies,' "S:c, AmsterDes 1768, p. 4.3; Verlot. the 86. On "e.. Varietes,' p. Tonr in see Linnaeus, reindeer,
dam,
'
vol.
i. p.
'
herds of Dr.
regard is given
Weinland.
]Laplaud,' translated
by
Sir
J,
E.
Chap.
XXII.
CAUSES
OF
VARIABILITY.
231
by the unequal blending of the characters of the two lees complete recovery or parents, and by the more through reversion of ancestral characters on either side; but thus only j)ush the difficulty further back in time, for we
what the the parents or their progenitors different ? Hence belief^ that an innate tendency to vary exists, dently indepenof external
seems differences,
accounted
for
made
sight probable. in the same the seeds nurtured But even jected capsule are not subto absolutely uniform conditions, as they draw their from different points; and nourishment shall see in a we future chapter that this difference sometimes suffices to affect of the future plant. The greater dissimilarity the character of the successive children of the same family in comparison
at
first
with
twins, which
mental
a
often
resemble
each
other
in external
so
pearance, ap-
disposition,and
constitution,in
ordinary extra-
that the state of the apparently proves of period of conception, or the nature parents at the exact the subsequent embryonic development, has a direct and pow^erfulinfluence on the character of the offspring. ISTeverreflect on the individual when differences between we theless,
manner,
organic beings in
animal
2
state mate
knowing its
'
as we
shown reflect
ce
by
on
every
wild
the infinite
a
Miillor's
Physiology,'
ii. p.
de
frere
alors
Vienne,
'
1G62. With respect to the similarity of twins Dr. in constitution, William Ogle the tract has me follov^ing exgiven Trousseau's Professor from Lectures ('Clinique'*- Medicale,' ous curitorn. i. p. 52.3), in which a " J'ai is recorded: case freres soins deux doDue mes ii deux si extraortons jumeaux, dinairement ressemblauts qu'il les m'etait de reconimpossible I'un moins de les voir a naitre, k c5te Cette de I'autre. ressemblance s'eteudait plus physique loin: ils avaient, permettez-moi
translation,
vol.
J'ai effet" en qui lui ecrivait dois tu la mon avoir ophthalmie, tienne.' Quelque singulier que ceci le fait n'eu puisse paraitre, est I'a pas pas
vu
moins
raconte,
d'autres Ces aussi
exact: je I'ai
on
ne
me
ai
analogues
deux deux tons
et vu, dans
j'en
ma
"
pratique.
etaient
jumeaux
asthma-
efde
pu
vent,
ces:
sans
similitude
pacore. en-
remarquable
d'eux
a
Aiusi
I'un neothermes
que rhiimace
je
n'en epronvaient il leur mieux. a Bien Paris. Toulon suffisait de pour gagner de leurs etre attaques gu^ris de
jamais
etre ils
pris
de
leurs
ac-
voyais
malade tisraale
aux
Paris
ment mo-
Marseille.
et dans tons
Voyageant
pays pour
sans
cesse
d'une
me mon
ophthalmie En disait,
'
leurs
faires, af-
frere
comme
ophthalmie
et
comme
'
montrait
une
que 6taient leur certaines il3 dans d'autres funestes, que de tout etaient pU6exempts
nomene
ils
avaient localites
remarqu6
d'oppression."
49
232
CAUSES
OF
VARIABILITY.
Chap. XXII.
diversity of the
we
many
varieties be inclined
of
to
may
well
domesticated
ultimate be looked at as an believe,that Variability must fact, necessarilycontingent on reproduction. Those authors who adopt this latter view would probably exciting deny that each separate variation has its own proper seldom the precise relation trace can cause. Although we between and effect,yet the considerations presently to cause be given lead have
its
own
to
the
conclusion
cause,
that
each
modification
must
we
distinct
and
is not
to
has been following striking case born by Dr. William Ogle. Two girls, me all respects extremely alike, had their little The
crooked;
and
in
both
children
the
second side in
in
a
bicuspid tooth of the second dentition, on the right the upper misplaced; for,instead of standing jaw was
the
line with
others, it
grew
from
behind
members
Neither
the parents
any
other
any
exhibited known to have family were of one of these girls had similar peculiarity; but a son tooth same similarly misplaced. Now, as both girls
in
the
were
affected
at must
once
exactly the
and
some
same we are
manner,
the
idea
of accident that
is
there
which, if
it had
occurred
hundred
given crooked
fingers and
It is of
course
to
children. misplaced bicuspid teeth to a hundred have been due to possible that this case may some long-forgotten progenitor, and this would
the
weaken of the
value
of the argument.
I have
been
led to
probability of reversion, from having been told of twin girls born with their case by Mr. Galton of another from little fingers slightly crooked, which they inherited
their maternal We will
now
grandmother.
consider the
general arguments, which pear apin favour of the view that to have to me great weight, variations of all kinds and degrees are directly or indirectly of life to which each being, and caused by the conditions especiallyits ancestors, have been exposed. more doubts that domesticated No one productions are more have never been removed variable than organic beings which
234
CAUSES
OF
VARIABILITY.
Chap. XXII.
sudden
return
appearance to
a
of
moss-rose
on
Provence-rose
is
former
no
of the
observed
to
in
natural
species;
laciniated
the
same
variegated and
of nectarines
on
the
principle of reversion.
concern
But
occur
bud-variations far
more
more
ly immediate-
frequently on plants which have been highly cultivated during a length of time, than on other and less highly cultivated plants ; and very few well-marked have been observed instances with plants growing natural conditions. under I have strictly given one of an instance ash-tree growing in a gentleman's pleasureand be seen, on beech grounds; and occasionally there may other trees, twigs leafing at a different period from the other forest trees in England branches. But our hardly be can considered as living under strictlynatural conditions; the raised and seedlings are protected in nursery-grounds, and often be transplanted into places where wild trees of must It would be esteemed the kind would not a naturally grow. prodigy if a dog-rose growing in a hedge produced by budwild bullace or wild cherry-tree variation a or a moss-rose, yielded a branch bearing fruit of a different shape and colour if be enhanced The prodigy would from the ordinary fruit. found these varying branches capable of propagation, were by seed; yet analogous not only by grafts, but sometimes of our with many have occurred highly cultivated trees cases
us,
as
they
and
alone
render
variability of
every
directly or
under of life. Or, to put the case other anchanged conditions all the individual possible to expose point of view, if it were of a species during many generations to absolutely be no variability. of life, there would conditions uniform
On
the
Nature
of
the
Changes
induce
to
in
the
Conditions
of Life
which
Variability.
present
as
From and
remote
period
as
the
circumstances
different
Chap.
XXII.
CAUSES
OF
VARIABILITY.
5435
domestic
of
have
varied.
We
and
see
this with
the
many
races
quadrupeds gold-fishand
various Africa the
belonging to different orders, with silkworms, with plants of many kinds, raised in
of the world. In
birds
quarters
the
deserts
of northern
has
yielded thirty-eightvarieties; in
it is notorious how
in
many
a
varieties
host
of other
plants exist;
of
the
single Polynesian
of the
bread-fruit,the
varieties
number
are
and
twenty-two
the
arum,
by
in
the
natives;
many
mulberry-tree in
serving
as
India
and
varieties
food
silkworm;
are
China
innumerable of almost
others which
any
"
that
change
to
cause
kind
the
of life suffices
variability different changes acting on different organisms. attributed the variation of both animals Andrew Knight abundant and plants to a more supply of nourishment, or to a favourable climate, than that natural to the species. A more the genial climate, however, is far from more necessary; and kidney-bean, which is often injured by our spring frosts, peaches, which require the protection of a wall, have varied in northern in England, as has the orange-tree much Italy, overlook the where it is barely able to exist.^ Nor can we with fact, though not immediately connected our present shells and of Arctic that the the plants regions are subject, that a eminently variable.^ Moreover, it does not appear less genial,is one of the more or change of climate, whether of variability;for in regard to plants most potent causes
^
'
^ On Annals
1854,
Vogel,
Hist.,'
ties, varie-
Dr.
Hamilton,
'Transact.
On Linn. Soc.,' vol. xiv. p. 296. varieties cultivated in hiti,, Tathe in don's LouDr. see Bennett, of N. Hist.,' vol. v., Mag. Also 1832, p. 484. Ellis, sian Polyne' '
ii. p. volume Chinese Empire,' 307. " of Culture the Treatise on .3. the "c., Apple,' p. ^ RiTeoria della Gallesio, Veg.,' p. 125. produzione 8 See Memoir on Hooker's Dr.
' ' '
Arctic
in
'
Linn.
act.,' Trans-
xxiii.
a
375.
Researches,' On twenty
and
vol.
i.
pp.
370,
Woodward,
can
Pandanus Marianne
Islands,
vol.
see
Miscellany,'
the bamboo
i.
p.
in
China,
quoted,
mollusca
speaks
of
the
'
Arctic
236
CAUSES
OF
VARIABILITY.
Chap.
XXII.
Alph. De
repeatedly Geographie Botaniqiie,' in most of a plant, where shows that the native country cases it has yielded it has been longest cultivated, is that where Candolle, in his
in the nature of the food
variability. Scarcely any domesticated the pigeon or the fowl, but than animal has varied more their food, especiallythat of highly-bred pigeons, is generally cattle and sheep have been subjected the same. Nor can our in all these cases But to any great change in this respect. less varied in kind than that which the food probably is much consumed was by the species in its natural state."* induce of food, which Of all the causes excess variability, whether not changed in nature, is probably the most or held with regard to plants by was powerful. This view held by Schleiden, more Andrew Knight, and is now cially espefood.^" elements of the In the in reference to inorganic food it suffices in most order to give a plant more to cases it separately,and thus prevent other plants robbing its grow It is surprising, as I have often seen, how vigorously roots. selves, wild planted by themspecies flourish when common our land; separate growth though not in highly manured We the converse see is,in fact, the first step in cultivation. lowing of food induces variabilityin the folof the belief that excess statement by a great raiser of seeds of all kinds : " desire to keep a It is a rule invariably with us, when we it on land kind of seed, to grow stock of any true one poor for quantity, we act conwithout we trary, dung; but when grow ing have dearly to repent of it." Accordand sometimes has had also to Carriere, who great experience with en general les plantes de flower-garden seeds, " On remarque le mieux celles qui conservent leurs sont vigeur moyenne
potent
cause
of
"
caracteres."
In
"
the
case
of animals
'
the
want
169.
'
of
See
proper
also
amount
Braun.
of
in
Bechstein,
der
schichte
s.
some 238, has his that He states this subject. in varied cauarv-birds colour, food. uniform kept on though 10 Tjjg Schleiden, Plant,' by translated 1848, p. Henfrey, by
'
Alex.
Bot.
"
Memoirs,'
Ray
Soc.,' 1853,
and
p.
313. Messrs.
in
Hardy
'
Maldon, 1856, p.
tion
et
Gard.
Son, of Chronicle,'
'
1865, p.
Produc-
Variet6s,'
Chap.
XXII.
CAUSES
OF
VARIABILITY.
237
pendently perhaps played, indeof any lar particuin an important organ, part causing variability. We can in a vague see the organised and manner that, when trient nufluids of the body are used during growth, or by not the wear and tear of the tissues, they will be in excess; and growth, nutrition, and reproduction are intimately allied as this superfluity might disturb the due and processes, proper of the direct effects of the disuse action of the reproductive organs, and character of the future offspring. But neither
an excess
exercise, as
Bechstein
remarked, has
consequently affect
it may
the
be argued that
superfluity in the organised fluids of the body necessarily induces variability. The goose and the turkey have been well fed for generations, yet many
nor a
of food
have which
varied
are so
very
little.
Our
fruit-trees
and
culinary plants,
an more
variable,have been cultivated from period, and, though they probably still receive
than
in their natural
ancient
ment nutri-
state, yet
they
must
have
received
during many generations nearly the same and it amount; be might thought that they would have become habituated to the excess. the whole. Knight's view, that JSTevertheless, on
excess
of food
as
is
as
one
of the most
can our
potent
causes
of
variability,
appears,
far
or
I
not
judge, probable.
various cultivated been all have
are
Whether
in excess,
kinds.
Fruit-trees soils.
grafted
seeds of
to
different stocks,
in various
The from of
plants
last century used have been the
are
carried
place
our
the
rotation
crops
greatly changed. often suffice to induce variability. Slight changes of treatment The simple fact of almost all our cultivated plants and domesticated animals having varied in all places and at all times, leads to this conclusion. from Seeds taken mon comtheir native climate, under English forest-trees, grown otherwise not treated, yield artificially or highly manured extensive in every be seen seedlings which vary much, as may seed-bed. I have shown in a former chapter what a number of well-marked and (Cratccgus single varieties the thorn oxycantha) has produced; yet this tree has been subjected to I carefully examIn Staffordshire hardly any cultivation.
238
ined
CAUSES
OF
VARIABILITY.
Chap.
XXII.
plants,namelj Geranium vated. have been highly cultiand pyrenaicuin, which never phwum These plants had spread spontaneously by seed from garden into an open plantation ; and the seedlings a common varied in almost single character, both in their flower every I have and foliage,to a degree which seen exceeded; never great change in yet they could not have been exposed to any
a
large number
of two
British
respect to anim_als,Azara
whilst the feral of three
has horses
remarked
on
with
much
are
that, surprise,^^
the
Pampas
form colours, and the cattle always of a unithe unenclosed bred on colour, yet these animals, when can hardly be called estancias, though kept in a state which
always
one
apparently exposed to almost identically play when conditions the same as they are feral, nevertheless disSo again in India several a great diversity of colour. fish are only so far treated artificially, species of fresh-water that they are reared in great tanks; but this small change is
domesticated,
and sufficient to induce Some facts
on
much the
variability.^^
effects of
grafting, in regard
to
the
Cabanis that asserts variabilityof trees, deserve attention. w^hen certain pears are grafted on the quince, their seeds of varieties than do the seeds of the yield a greater number variety of pear when grafted on the wild pear." But same distinct species,though so closely the pear and quince are as related that the one be readily grafted and succeeds mirably adcan the other, the fact of variabilitybeing thus caused on is not surprising; as w^e are here enabled the cause, to see different nature of the stock and namely, the very graft. Several North American varieties of the plum and peach are well known to reproduce themselves ing truly by seed ; but Down" that when asserts,^^ of these graft is taken from one a and another trees stock, this grafted tree is placed upon of producing the same found to lose its singular property like all other worked trees ; variety by seed, and becomes
"
"
12
'
Quadrupedes
guay,'
Sageret,
43.
'
Pom. fituto-
This
not
is
believed
vol.
x'x.
part
ii., 1839,
266,
rpj,^
Fruits
of
America,'
268, 313.
1845,
p.
5.
Chap.
XXII.
CAUSES
OF
VARIABILITY.
239
Another highly variable. case Lalande is worth giving : variety of the walnut-tree leafs between 15th, and its seedlings inApril 20th and May variably inherit the same habit; whilst several other varieties leaf in June. of the walnut JN^ow,if seedlings are raised the May-leafing Lalande from variety, grafted on another May-leafing variety, though both stock and graft have the yet the seedlings leaf at various same early habit of leafing,
the
that
times,
are
even
at
late
as
the 5th
on
of June.^" obscure
Such and
facts
as
these
w^ell fitted to
show
what
slight causes
depends. variability
I may
here of first
just allude
and
seems
to of
a
the
fruit-trees
and
Avaste
valuable
places,
In covered dis-
sight
considerable
number
of
this has occurred in woods; and " that improved varieties of our
"
Piteau
rarely
no
originate with
instance and with wood of Mr. of
a
hand,
recorded
Rivers
that Bess
This
he
knows
of
was
only
instance
in
tries couna
Poole, which
difference
between
France,
made
for by the more part accounted from the chiefly great number in the
a
climate from
seedlings whicli
case a
spring up
remark
I infer
that
this is the
by
French
a
who gardener,^^
calamity
that
such
they have
varieties
have to of
are ceived re-
of
they
cannot
exposed
cause
ruptly ab-
changed
conditions,
doubtful.
^^
whether These
this
kinds
their
varieties, however,
from
circumstance
in
'
Avill account
of Rivers information.
M.
Cardan,
Dec.
Rendus,'
'
1848,
Gard. Chronicle,' i'^ M. mentions Alexis Jordan in four found excellent pears alludes in France, to woods and others de Acad, (' INIem Lyon,' torn. Poiteau's ii. 1852, p. 159). in is quoted Gardener's remark f^er, Ma^.,' vol. iv.. 1828, p. 385. Gard. 1862, p. 335, Chronicle,' for another of a new riety vacase in of found the a pear in Also for hedije France. other anEnLondon's see case,
' ' '
cvclop.
Mr.
p.
901.
has
similar
18
Duval,
Hist,
du
Toirier,'
p. 2. fact 19 is the this that I infer statement CArMons' Van from i. p. 18.35, tom. Fruitiors,' bres woods in the linds he that 446) the all resemblinc: seedlings
1849,
of Van those
both
Mons, wild
varieties
as
aborigiual species.
240
of
CAUSES
OF
VARIABILITY.
Chap.
XXII.
and
a
out
vast of
number the
of
varying
of
a
trees
there
will kind.
always
In
be
good
chance where
America,
the in
a
valuable
North
Washington
wood.^** With
pear
found
in
an
the
writers have spoken respect to wheat, some in be to found varieties event for new ordinary discovered Fenton wheat was growing certainly
detritus
as
if it
were
waste
on
in
probablj^
wheat wheat said that
receive
was
but
in
such
amount
ear
situation of
nutriment.
on a
found where
hedge;
was
by the
roadside
this
variety grew
Whether
our
domestic
to
productions would
the conditions
no
ever
become
which
means are
so
completely habituated
now
under
they
for
never
sufficient
productions
conditions, and length of time to uniform it is certain that our most anciently cultivated plants,as well gone as animals, still go on varying, for all have recently underIn few marked however, some improvement. cases, conditions. habituated to Thus, become new plants have
exposed for
great
Metzger,
numerous
who
cultivated
varieties
states
in
during
from
many
years
tries," coun-
different
that
in
some one
at
but
gradually,
after
interval
of twentythis
that and it does not appear five years, became constant; forms. constant resulted from the selection of the more On the
We
Accumulative have
Action
of changed
that
Conditions
of
Life.
"
the influence
duced changed conditions accumulates, so that no effect is proa species until it has been exposed during several on versal Unicultivation or domestication. generations to continued troduced flowers are first inexperience shows us that when new but ultimately into our gardens they do not vary; to a greater or less extent. with the rarest exceptions,vary all, of generations, as well the requisite number In a few cases
of
20
of in p.
22
'Qj^rrlener's
Chronicle,'
700; 1854.
p.
1841,
650.
s.
3S3;
23
"
1850,
^ie
p.
Transact. 412.
21
'
Hort.
Soc.,' 1847,
vol.
vi. 244.
Getreirlearten,'
1843,
p.
Chron.,'
p.
242
CAUSES
OF
VARIABILITY.
Chap.
XXII.
varied
^
quickly
But from
Dr. the
or
slowly when
Bachman
eggs
'^
first
subjected
he has
to
new
condi-
tions. raised
states
that
seen
turkeys
of the
wild
become
many
spotted with
j^ears
ago
Yarrell
on
informed
ducks been
true
the
ponds
a
in St. James's
Park, which
crossed, as
domestic
plumage
who and
generations. An
from that the there
obsei'ver,*"
wdld
has who
often
took
reared
of the be
no
bird,
crossing with domestic breeds, has given, as previously stated, full details on the changes which He they gradually undergo. precautions
found than that he could five
or
should
not
breed
"
these wild
as
ducks
true
for
so
more
six
generations,
The white broader
they then
the
more
proved
neck
of the
irregular, and white feathers appeared in the ducklings' wings." They increased less fine,and they lost also in size of body; their legs became their elegant carriage. Fresh then procured from were eggs Vv'ild birds; but again the same result followed. In these of the duck and turkey we that animals, like plants, cases see do not depart from their primitive type until they have been On subjected during several generations to domestication.
the other
much
hand, Mr.
Yarrell
informed
me
that the
Australian
invariably dingos, bred in the Zoological Gardens, almost in the first generation puppies marked with white produced and other colours; but these introduced dingos had probably been procured from the natives, who in a semikeep them domesticated It is certainly a remarkable fact that state. changed conditions should at first produce, as far as we can see, absolutely no effect;but that they should subsequently cause In the chapter on panthe character of the speciesto change. genesis I shall attempt to throw little this fact. a light on
Returning
now
to
the
causes
which
^^
are
supposed
that
'
to
duce in-
variability. Some
=""
"
authors
believe
^^
close
interConsan-
of the CharExamination of and acteristics Genera Species: ' Charleston, 1855, p. 14. ' 30 of Journal Mr. Hewitt,
Mariages
In two
same
conversaor
three
opinion.
Hort.,'
1863, p. 39.
CuAP.
XXII.
CAUSES
OF
VARIABILITY.
243
to
leads
the production
some new
of
In
the
seventeenth
chapter
facts
advanced, showing that monstrosities are, as it appears, be no occasionally thus induced; and there can doubt that close interbreeding causes lessened fertility and a weakened lead to variability: constitution; hence it may but I have
not
sufficient
evidence
on
this
head.
On
the
other
hand,
interbreeding, if not carried to an injurious extreme, far from tends to fix the character of causing variability,
close each It breed.
was
still held by some formerly a common belief, sons, perthat the imagination of the mother affects the child in is evidently not the w'omb.^^ This view applicable to the lower animals, which lay unimpregnated eggs, or to plants. Dr. William Hunter, in the last century, told my father that in a large London woman during many Lying-in years every asked before her confinement whether Hospital was anything had speciallyaffected her mind, and the answer written was instance could a down; and it so happened that in no one coincidence abnormal structure, belief in have be detected structure; she between when the woman's she
knew
answer
and
any
but
the
nature
cause.
of the The
fresh frequently suggested some of the mother's the power imagination from the children of
a
may
perhaps
bling resem-
arisen the
second
marriage
occurs, previous father, as certainly sometimes with the facts given in the eleventh chapter. accordance
in
as
a was
Cause
of Variahility.
"
In
a
an
early part of
other
to ralists natu-
it
""
and
few
maintain this in
means our
crossing.
that
new
spontaneously appear
are
domestic certain
for
races,
that they
from than
absurd;
the doctrine is littleless aboriginalspecies, like Italian greyit implies that animals hounds,
able to exist in
state
of nature.
the doctrine
the
may
something
Muller
has
crossing
couclusively
^^
'
Act.
Acadomie
gued
ments
Ele-
burg,'
"c.
1780,
part
vol.
1842,
p.
1405.
244
of distinct
CAUSES
OF
VARIABILITY.
Chap. XXII.
of of the first appearance species is the sole cause could not have new characters,and that without this aid man formed his various characters breeds. As, however, new have
by bud-variation, we may appeared in certain cases clude confor variability. with certainty that crossing is not necessary It is, moreover, certain that the breeds of various animals, such as of the rabbit, pigeon, duck, "c., and the
of several
of a plants, are the modified descendants single wild species. Nevertheless, it is probable that the both have forms, when one long been or crossing of two spring, domesticated cultivated, adds to the variabilityof the offor independently of the commingling of the characters the two derived from parent-forms; and this implies that characters not forget the actually arise. But we must new in the thirteenth facts advanced chapter, which clearlyprove varieties that the act of crossing often leads to the reappearance or in it characters ; and would of long-lost most cases
to
version re-
be
cient an-
impossible
characters.
new
distinguish between
and the
the
reappearance
of
characters
of
such been
liis he
once
on
not
in
the
in
offspi'ing any
which the sometimes
new
the
were
odd
characters
appeared as if new. crossed cultivated When, on plants, he that new characters admits appeared, but he is strongoccasionally ly their appearance to attribute inclined to ordinary variability, An not in any to the cross. opposite conclusion, however, apway pears the more to me probable. According to Kolreuter, hybrids and Mirabilis almost he describes in the genus new infinitely, vary the characters in the form of the and in colour of seeds, singular the anthers, in the cotyledons being of immense and size, in new highly peculiarodours, in the flowers expanding early in the season, in their closing at night. With lot of these and respect to one that they presented characters hybrids, he remarks exactly the been have from their of what reverse expected might parentage.^* effect in regard to Professor Lecoq speaks strongly to the same that of and the asserts this same hybrids from many genus,
^'^ 3*
'
parents
they
Bastarderzeugung,'
Nova
s.
249,
pages
307,
'
313,
316
1787,
page
255
35
295
'
407.
Acta,'
page
burg,'
1794,
St. 378
Peters;
^'s dq
p. 311.
la
Fecondation,'
1862,
1795,
Chap.
XXII.
CAUSES
OP
245
for distinct
Mirabilis
jalapa
and
adds
multiflora
that they differed in a greater degree than species,and the other M. jalapa. species of the genus, from Herbert, also, has described
^^
species." experience of floriculturists proves that the crossing and the recrossing of distinct but allied plants, such as species of Petunia, Calceolaria,Fuchsia, Verbena, "c., induces excessive variability; hence the appearance of quite new characters is probable. has M. Carriere^ this subject: he states lately discussed that Erythrina cristagalli had been multiplied by seed for many years, but had not then crossed with yielded any varieties: it was the
a
others, in
certain
as
being
"
as
unlike
all
separate
The
common
allied
E.
herhacea,
were
and
"
the
resistance flowers of
was
now
overcome,
and
varieties
produced
with
extremely
different
size,
form, and
From
belief that the general and apparently well-founded besides their crossing species, characters, commingling adds greatly to their variability,it has probably arisen that some botanists includes The have
a
gone
made
so
far
as
to
maintain when
cannot
^*
that, when
never
only proposition
true is
single species,this
so
cultivated be
broadly
admitted;
genera
but when
probably
that
the
variability of monotypic
generally less than that of genera including numerous this quite independently of the effects of crossing. species, and I have in my shown of that the species belonging Origin Species,' to small of varieties in a generally yield a less number genera
'
state
of nature cultivation
those
species of small
under
Hence the belonging to large genera. it is would, probable, produce fewer varieties the already variable species of larger genera. not at present sufficient evidence that the have
never
been
cultivated,
does
leads
occur
to
the with
in some degree variable already rendered Hence crossing, like any other change in the through cultivation. conditions of life,seems to be an element, probably a potent one, of distinBut have the means in causing variability. seldom we of really the appearance guisliing,as previously remarked, between evoked and of the characters characters, new long-lost reappearance instance culty I of the diffiwill give an through the act of crossing. be The in distinguishing such cases. species of Datura may with flowers white those divided into two sections, having green brown stems: now and stems, those having purple flowers with Datura Naudin Iwvis and belong to crossed ferox, both of which have been
^ "
'
of
new
characters,
this
apparently
Amaryllidaceae,'
in
'
1837,
p.
viii.
'
362.
3s
De
p. la
405.
in Puvia, Degeneration,'
his
worlc, 1837, p.
Abstracted
Chronicle,'
39
1860,
elder Die.
'
in
this discussed same tias 37, point. *" NovemRendus,' Comptes bre 21, 18G4, p. 838.
'
246
the white
CAUSES
OF
VARIABILITY.
Chap.
XXII.
section, and
had the
two
raised brown
from
stems of
205
hybrids.
section
so
Of
these
so
bore
purple flowers;
of
their he
own
species parents.
led that the
other
was
the
Naudin
much
both of D.
genus, astonished
this
and
fact, that
after
he
was
carefullyto
had pure dark
observe
cies, parent-spe-
mediately fcrox, imseedlings purple stems, extending germination, and the from to that this tint the young roots cotyledons, up round the the base of of remained afterwards stem as a ever ring shown in I thirteenth have the the plant when old. Now chapter the is so that retention or exaggeration of an early character under that it related to comes reversion, evidently intimately the same probably we ought to look at the purple principle. Hence
discovered
flowers due
to
and
brown
stems
as
of
a
these
return
hybrids, not
to of what the
as
new
characters of
some
variability,but
former
state
ancient
progenitor.
of the may
to
Independently
a
few
on
be the
new
from in
ing, cross-
fonner of the
chapters
characters
races are
unequal
and
transmission
parent-forms.
species or
crossed, the offspring of the first generation are erally genuniform, but those subsequently produced display an almost He who infinite diversity of character. wishes, says Kolreuter,*^
hybrids should cross is also much There them. and recross hybrids variability when with either absorbed or by repeated crosses or mongrels are reduced of and still a variability when higher degree parent-form; pure all when four most of distinct three species, are species,and ner,*crosses. blended Beyond this point Garttogether by successive statements the whose are made, never foregoing on authority Wichura united six distinct in effecting a union; but Max succeeded the The of into sex of willows a hybrid. single species the bility variaof in degree an inexplicable manner parent species affects a brid hyof hybrids; for Gartner** repeatedly found that when
to
obtain
an
endless
number
of varieties
from
''^
was or a
iised
as
father the
or
and
as
either the
one
pure
as as
parent-species,
more
third
species,was
when
used
same
mother,
was
offspring were
the the the raised
Max
variable either
than pure
from
hybrid
same
mother,
father:
and thus
D.
parent
the
third variable
species
crossed than
seedlings
latter insists
Diantlius
were more
barbatus
by
those
hybrid
from Wichura
cMnensi-barbatus
this
*^
hybrid
fertilised
on an
strongly
Gartner*'^ in
Again
differs
*i
'
asserts
by pure analogous result with his hybrid willows. that the degree of variability sometimes
from
the
D.
barbatus.
hybrids
Acta,'
raised
St.
reciprocalcrosses
**
'
between
the
same
Nova
p. 891.
Petersburg,
s.
Bastarderzeugung,'
Die
s.
452,
1794,
507.
"''
Bastarderzeugung,'
'
507,
s.
"
'
Bastardbefruchtuug,'
s.
516,
*3
572. Die
8.
56.
*"
'
BastardbefruclituDg,'
24.
Bastarderzeugung,'
423.
"C., 1865,
Chap. XXII.
CAUSES
OF
VARIABILITY.
^47
the
On
one
two
species;and
as
here
the
sole and
difference then
as
is, that
mother.
of is
new
spocies
wliole
is first used
we see
the
father
the
the
partly
the
from
two
cliiiracters of
their
unc(iual
ancient
such
characters
or
to
those
of
more
and
on
"
the Period
due
certain
they have
fected through the reproductive system being afin the former their formation; and before at case what period of growth or development the effect is produced. shall see in the two following chapters that various agenWe cies, abundant such as an ferent to a difsupply of food, exposure been
formed,
disuse of parts, "c., proclimate, increased use or longed during several generations, certainly modify either and it is clear at the whole organisation or certain organs; least in the been
case
of bud-variation
cannot
have
the reproductive system takes respect to the part which have in the in causing variability, we seen eighteenth chapter in the of conditions that even life able remarkhave slight changes a in causing a greater or less degree of sterility. Hence power not improbable that it seems being generated through a sj'stem so affected be should themselves fail to affected, or should easily With
inherit,
We know
in
or
inherit that
in
excess,
characters of
proper
to
their
with much
parents.
tions excepmore
certain group,
each
easily
and
affected
by changed
birds
conditions
more readily readily than pigeons; and this fact harmonises parrots more with and the apparently capricious manner ous degree in wliicli variof under domes^tication. and animals plants vary groups " struck Kolreuter the parallelism between the exwith cessive was and recrossed in of various crossed when variability hybrids loss these hybrids having their reproductive powers or more ways, affected, and the variability of anciently cultivated plants. Max ** of Wichura has gone one step farther, and shows that with many
" "
carnivorous
for
"
'
1766,
*8
'
s.
Fortsetzung,' Bastardbefruchtung,'
92:
see
"c.,
siib-
Hort"
"c., 1865,
also
the
Rev,
248
CAUSES
OF
VARIABILITY.
Chap.
XXII.
our
auricula, highly cultivated plants,such as the hyacinth, tulip, there is no to believe reason snapdragon, potato, cabbage, "c., which have anthers been the contain len-grai hybridised, irregular polmany in hybrids. He finds in the same also in cerstate as tain
wild
forms, the
a
same
coincidence of
between
as are
the
in not many
state
of
the
pollen
Rubus;
and
but
high degree
R.
variability,
idceus, which
in
ca'siiis and
It is also notorious that many vated cultispecies,the pollen is sound. and such the others as banana, pine-apple,bread-fruit, plants, so seriously previously mentioned, have their reproductive organs when affected to be generally quite sterile; and as they do yield of cultivated the large number seed, the seedlings,judging from in an extreme be variable which races exist, must degree. These
facts
not
indicate
conclude
that that
there
and
is
a
some
relation
to
between
the
state
we
of the
must
reproductive organs
cultivated
tendency
but variability;
is strict. of our the relation Although many have their in deteriorated a pollen plants highly may have previously seen, they yield more condition, yet, as we seeds, animals than the and are more our prolific, anciently domesticated The corresponding species in a state of nature. peacock is almost is believed to be less fertile under tlie only bird which tion domestica-
than small
in
its
native
state, and
these
not
it has either
varied it
to
in
would
remarkably
seem
From
considerations that
or sterility
to
to
both;
and
the
whole
it is
probable
likewise affect their reproduction would offspring thus generated. the causes The period of life at which obscure an subject, which act, is likewise various authors.*"
In
some
product,
"
that
is, the
that has be
induce
been
variability
discussed
of the
cases,
to
chapter, of modifications
conditions, which
causes are on
from
mature
the
inherited, there
the
or
can
doubt
that
the On
have other
acted
nearly
mature
animal.
the from
cannot be distinctly hand, monstrosities, which separated jured often caused lesser variations, are by the embryo being in-
in the
""
or women
in the
Geoffroy during
troubled
more
of
illegitimatechildren
their
in
conceal than
women
state,
easy
are
far
liable to
give
of
birth
the
circumstances.
treated placed upright or otherwise eggs monstrous chickens. It would, unnaturally frequently produce that complex monstrosities induced quently freare more however, appear during a rather late than during a very early period of some one partly result from part, embryonic life; but this may which has been injured during an early period, affecting by its fowl when
Lucas has P. a given of tliis subon history opinion iect: 'H6red. Nat.,' 1847, i. p. 175.
*^
Dr.
^^
'
iii. p.
Hist, 499.
des
Anomalies,'
torn,
250
CAUSES
OF
VARIABILITY.
Chap.
XXII.
on
life, but
been
results
from
the
conditions of
any
to
which
in the
the
parents
have
of
exposed.
extremely
Excess
Changes
slight
of
cause.
kind often
conditions
to
most
cause
life,
even
changes,
is
suffice
the
variability. single
be variable but
nutriment
perhaps
and
cient effito
exciting
for the
an
Animals
plants
their
are
continue
first
immense
period
to
after
cation; domestinever
conditions
constant.
which
In the
so
they
course
exposed
of
time
long
be
quite
to
they
less
can
certain
changes,
that when
as
to
become domesticated
able; vari-
is
possible
even more
first than
at
they
There
lates; accumu-
may
have
been
variable
power
or
present.
conditions
must
is
good
evidence
so
that two,
the
of
more
changed
that
new
three,
generations
any
be
posed ex-
to
conditions distinct
in
before which
effect
is
visible. become
to
crossing
of
forms,
the
have the
already
increases
offspring
tendency
of of
new
further characters
by
the and
two
the
unequal by
the
commingling
reappearance
the
of
parents, the
are
long-lost
characters. of
or on
characters,
Some ing surroundparts
by
appearance
of
absolutely
the
direct
variations
induced
on
by
whole
action
the
conditions
the
organisation,
appear
to
certain
alone; through
is
other the
the
variations
be
induced
indirectly
as we
reproductive
case
system
various
being beings,
become
affected,
which sterile. when
know
often
with
removed The
causes
from which
their induce
natural
conditions
act
on on
variability probably,
effected.
the sexual
mature
organism,
before
on
the
embryo,
and,
has
the
elements
nation impreg-
been
Chap.
XXIII.
CONDITIONS
OF
LIFE.
251
CHAPTER
DIEECT AND DEFINITE
ACTION OF
XXni.
OF LIFE. THE
EXTERNAL
TIONS CONDI-
Slight modifications
"
in plants from the definite action of changed tions, condiin size,colour, chemical properties, and in the stiite (jf the tissues Local diseases Conspicuous modifications from changed climate of birds aflected or food, etc." Plumage by peculiar nutriment, and of poison" Land-shells" by the inoculation Modificatiojis of organic beings in a stivte of nature through the definite action of external conditions of American and Comparison Is European trees" Crjil
" "
"
of parasitic fungi" Considerations opposed to tlie belief in the of changed external conditions" potent infiuence Parallel series of varieties of variation Amount does not correspond with the Effects
"
Monstrosities
degree produced
why this or tliat character has been modified under domestication, we are, in most cases, lost in darkness. utter Many naturalists, especiallyof the French to the " monde school,attribute every modification ambiant," that is, to changed climate, with all its diversities of heat and cold,dampness and dryness, light and electricity, to the
we
If
ask
ourselves
nature
of the
term
soil, and
to
varied
as
kinds used
in
and
this
many
amount
of food.
mean
By the
an
definite action,
a
chapter, I
action
same
of such
nature
that, when
individuals
of
the
variety are exposed during several generations to all or nearly particular change in their conditions of life, any all the individuals, are The in the same modified manner.
effects of habit,
organs,
or
use
and
disuse this
a an
of various but
it
might
have
included
this
under
head;
action another
will be convenient
discuss
subject in
I
mean one see
By the
causes one
term
indefinite
to
as
action
in
individual another
way,
vary
we
way
and
in
often
with
some
after
they have
laws of
been
subjected for
But
to
we
changed
causes
conditions
of life. of variation
know
a
far too
and
make
sound
classification.
to
The
action
leading
definite
252
indefinite
DEFINITE
ACTION
OF
THE
Chap.
XXIII.
from results, is a totally distinct consideration the effects of selection; for selection depends on the preservation of certain individuals, or on their survival by man
or
under
no
various
variation.
give in detail all the facts which I have been able to collect,rendering it probable that climate, food, "c., have acted so definitely and powerfully or the organisation of domesticated sub-varieties or races our productions, that new
have
been I thus
formed then
without
the
aid of selection
by
man
or
nature. to
as we
give the facts and considerations posed opthis conclusion, and finallywe will weigh, as fairly
the evidence
we on
will
can,
both
sides.
races
When
distinct
in
of almost
all
our
mesticat do-
in each formerly even strongly inclined to attribute their origin to the definite of the physical conditions of each country; and this
each
has
been
the
conclusion that
man
of many
authors.
to choose
But
we
should animals
bear shall
in mind
annually has
that both
be We
which
be
slaughtered.
lection se-
methodical
unconscious
formerly
most
practised, and
races,
occasionally
greater
tent ex-
practised by the
than
to
barbarious been
to
much
might
have
anticipated. Hence
in the in
it is difficult
judge how
the
conditions
districts
England,
have
sufficed
to
It may have been reared in each. modify the breeds which be argued that, as numerous wild animals and plants have ranged during many throughout Great Britain, and still ages retain the same tween becharacter, the difference in conditions
several
districts
could native
not
races
have
modified
in
horses.
the
ternal ex-
is encountered
still
closely allied species inhabiting two countries, America such North and do not differ as Europe, which of soil, natural "c., for in this case greatly in climate, nature
compare
Chap.
XXIII.
CONDITIONS
OF
LIFE.
253
rigorously have acted during a of long ages. Prof. Weismann has suggested ' that when a variable cies speenters and isolated country, although the variaa new tions
succession
may
selection
will
inevitablyand
be of the that
same
general
nature
as
before,yet
it h
in the same they occur proportional After a longer or shorter period, the species will tend to become in character nearly uniform from the incessant crossing of the varying individuals; but owing to the proportion of the individuals varying in different ways not should
numbers.
improbable
being the
In
same
in the two
two
cases,
the
the
other. an-
production of
cases
forms
somewhat it would
conditions
had
certain
definite
falselyappear as as wheremodifications,
if the
only excited indefinite variability,but with the in slightly different proportional numbers. variations This view throw some light on the fact that the domestic may animals which fonnerly iiihabited the several districts in Great Britain, and the half wild cattle latelykept in several British parks, differed slightly from another; for these one
animals and
were
they had
prevented from
wandering
have
over
the whole
try coun-
crossed
freely within
far
changed conditions
it will
be
have
to
definite
as
modiiications
of
as
structure,
advisable
possible,showing that extremely within the differences same slight country, or during different ties certainly produce an appreciable effect, at least on varieseasons, in which unstable condition. Ornamental an are already flowers are good for this purpose, as they are highly variable, and that cerAll floriculturists are unanimous tain are carefully observed. in differences the nature varieties are affected by very slight in which and of the artificial compost by the they are grown, well as natural soil of the district, as Thus, a by the season. where and Picotees,* asks skilful judge, in writing on Carnations be Admiral Curzon seen can possessing the colour, size, and Flora's Garland Where it has in Derbyshire? can strength which do Where be found high-colouredllowequal to those at Slough? in no Yet and at Woolwich revel better than Birmingham? ers varieties attain an two equal degree of these districts do the same of be of excellence, although each receiving the attention may give large
a
body
of facts
*'
'
Urung
Ueber auf
den die
Einfluss
der
Iso-
'
-
Gardener's
Chronicle,'
1853,
Artbildimg,'
1872.
p.
183.
254
DEFINITE
ACTION
OP
THE
Chap.
XXIII.
the
most
to
skilful
endeavour
cultivators."
to
The the
same
writer kinds of
then
recommends
manure, of
plants hope of eral genSo it is with the Dahlia: will be vain." the Lady success near London, but does admirably in other Cooper rarely succeeds holds districts; the reverse good with other varieties; and again, there are others which succeed situations. equally well in various A skilful gardener that he procured cuttings of an states old and well-known from ing havvariety (pulchella) of Verbena, which been propagated in a different situation presented a slightly
to
cultivator
keep
for
suit
respective appetites
attention
the
you
are
dealing with,
dili'erent shade
of colour; the
two
varieties
were
afterwards
plied multi-
by cuttings, being carefully kept distinct; but in the second in the third year no and hardly be distinguished, year they could could one distinguish them.
The varieties
nature
of
next
the
season
has
LS41
an
especialinfluence
varieties
two
were were
on
certain
of the the
amateur
untrue
Dahlia: year
^
in
two
same
good, and
A
came
these
that
"
famous
so
asserts
in 18G1 that it
not
was
many seldom
amateur"
varieties entertained
states trusses of
them,
and
hardly
possible to
that
was
had lost his tally." The same grower two-thirds of his Auriculas produced such
seasons season
central
flowers, and
trusses
keep true; and he adds that in some certain varieties of this plant all prove good, and the next the all prove reverse bad; whilst exactly happens with
are
liable not
to
other tended
sorts
varieties. how
to do
assume
In
1845
the
was
'
Gardener's
^
'
remarked
singular it
a
tubular their
not
acquire
in; whilst
occurs.
other
varieties have
character beautiful
sets
as
this
Analogous
asserts
^
facts
observed
with
leaves: six
Mr.
Beaton
he raised Shrubland, during twenty years, had the Punch Pelarg'onium, and not one seedlings from in at but or even one-third, Surbiton, Surrey, variegated leaves; a variety were greater proportion, of the seedlings from this same district in Surrey soil of another less variegated. The more or from formatio inhas a variegation, as appears strong tendency to cause Verlot^" that states the given me by Sir F. Pollock. in a as long as grown variegated strawberry retains its character loses it when planted in fresh and humid dryish soil, but soon for his success in cultivating is ^^"ell known soil. Mr. Salter, who that
at
thousand
Mr.
Wildman,
Feb. 7.
'
Floricultiiral
"
'
Journal
of
Hort.,'
1862,
Soc.,'
*
184.3.
reported
'
in
p.
83.
'
Gard. * Mr.
Chron.,'
Robson,
1843,
in
86. p. .Tonrnal
of p.
Horticulture,'
122.
5
'
Feb. of
13th,
1866,
1861,
Journal p. 24.
Horticulture,'
Gardener's 1845, Chronicle,' 660. " Ibid.. 1863, p. 628. " of Hort.,' 1861, pp. Journal 64, 309. " Des Vari6tes,' "c., p. 76.
'
p.
'
'
Chap.
XXIII.
CONDITIONS
OF
LIFE.
255
strawberries
and at
variegated plants,
planted
distances
and
me
that
rows
of
wero
in in
his
one
garden
row,
1859, in the
case more
usual
way;
what
made
but
row
These preciselythe same manner. plants were during the three succeeding- years other plants in became
row
in
removed,
the
same
variegated,
aflected.
and
in
no
instance and to
were
the of
plants
are
in any often is
adjoining
The modified said
not
chemical
by
to
tissues
us
plants
The The culture. of the
slight.
Tlie
root
yield conicine
of the suit facts have of the is
Scotland.
naiJeUus
Pistacia climate in
becomes lentiscus
must
properties
frigid climates. Digitalis are easily affected by grows abundantly in the South
it, but
the could been it be
yields
no
mastic.
to and
The
Europe
similar
loses
odour
proper that
it in
North
America."
Many
would The in
given, change
they
in
it
might
been wood
thought
definite either
have
quality
or
quantity.
grown
Locust-tree
{liohinia)
when
nearly worthless, as is that of the Oak-tree when at the of Good and Cape I hear Hope.^^ Hemp flax, as grown from Dr. Falconer, flourish and yield plenty of seed on tlie plains of India, but their fibres are brittle and useless. Hemp, on the oilier hand, fails to produce in England that resinous matter which is so largely used in India as an intoxicating drug. The fruit of the Melon is greatly influenced by slight differences in culture and climate. Hence it is generally a better cording plan, acto Naudin, to improve an old kind than to introduce a into any The of seed the Persian Melon new one locality. duces profruit inferior to the poorest market Paris kinds, but at near Bordeaux yields delicious fruit.^^ Seed is annually brought from Thibet to Kashmir," and produces fruit weighing from four to ten pounds, but plants raised next year from seed saved in Kashmir to three two give fruit weighing only from pounds. It is well known the that varieties of American tive Apple produce in tlieir naland brightly-coloured fruit, but these in magnificent and In Hungary there England are of poor quality and a dull colour. remarkable for the of the kidney-bean, varieties are beauty many that their of their M. J. Berkeley^'* found seeds, but the Kev.
"
England
Engel,
rles
'
Sur
les
cales 2.5.
On
Plantes,' in changes
Prop. 1860,
Medipp.
"
Hooker,
'
Flora
ludica,*
p.
see ExperiInquoted by Beckman, ii. vol. .344; and ventions,' p. Bull, Sc. des Nees, in Ferussac, With i. p. 60. Nat.,' 1824, tom. the to "c., see rhubarb, respect also Gardener's Chronicle/ 1849, p. 355; 1862, p. 1123.
plants,
the Dalibert's
odours
'
10. of
32.
dos Sc. Annalos Naudin, torn, xi., Nat.,' 4tii series, Hot., ChronlGardener's 1859, p. 81. cle,' 1859, p. 4("4. " "c., Travels, Moorcroft's
^^
' ' '
ments,
'
vol. p.
ii.
p.
143.
"'Gardener's
1113.
Chronicle,
1861,
'
256
could
DEFINITE
ACTION
OF
THE
Chap.
XXIII.
beauty
cases
hardly
was
ever
be
preserved
what
a
in
England,
have and
seen
and
in
some
the
colour
greatly changed.
to to
We
in the effect
ninth
trans-
wheat,
the the south
remarkable
of France,
conversely, produced
the
weight
can
of
grain.
perceive no change in plants or animals climate to different have which been or exposed to a new sometimes change. insects can perceive a marked treatment, Canton, Manilla A cactus has been imported into India from
When
man
Mauritius, and
a
from
the hot-houses
kind
of Kew,
was
and
so-called South
native
which
formerly introduced
to
from
America;
all these
plants belong
but
on
the
same
the
cochineal
it thrives
"
insect
which white
giously.' prodiin
Humboldt torrid
zone
that with
men
born
impunity in the same where a European, recently landed, is exposed to apartment of the Pulex the attacks penetransJ^ This insect, the too therefore be able to perceive what well-know^n chigoe, must delicate chemical the most analysis fails to discover, namely, and the blood or tissues of a European difference between a ment the discernborn in the tropics. But those of a white man of the chigoe is not so surprising as it at first appears; of men the blood with different for according to Liebig emits a country, complexions, though inhabiting the same
walk
'^
different
Diseases
odour.
be here
peculiar to certain localities,heights,or climates, may stances brieflynoticed, as showing the influence of external circumthe human of confined to certain races on body. Diseases of the race do not concern man play us, for the constitution may determined and this have been the more important part, by may The Plica Polonica unknown stands, in this respect, in a causes. habit innearly intermediate position ; for it rarely affects Germans, who the neighbourhood of the Vistula, where Poles so are many
Russians,
the Poles/" of
who The
are
as
district
'
often
governs
appearance
der
diseases; in
'
Protlnctlve Reof India,' p. 59. sources ^^ Personal En?. Narrative,' 101. This vol. v. translat., p. been statement has confirmed Kenntzur (' Beitrag by Karsten
Royle,
'
Mosothers.
Eng.
of
translat.,
^^
1st Prichard,
p.
369.
Hist,
Phys.
vol.
Mankind,'
1851,
i. p.
155.
258
DEFINITE
ACTION
OF
THE
Chap.
XXIII.
the
to
species by the
the The colour and
flowers of the
alone. Vilmorin
Many
could
and
similar be
facts
with
respect
and and other
size of flowers
abundant
given.
on a
experiments
prove effect the that
on
Buckman
carrots
parsnips
inheritable
nutriment
roots, with
definite in
the colour of the plant. Alum directly influences flowers of the Hydrangea.'^ to favour seems the Dryness generally of hairines found that or villosity plants. Gartner hybrid Verbascums became in Mr. Masters, extremely woolly when pots. grown
parts
of
on
the in
other with
a
hand,
states
that
the hairs
none
Opimtia
when of this
leucotricJia
"
is
^*
well
clothed but
beautiful
white exhibits
grown
heat,
dry
heat
in a damp peculiarity."
of many kinds, not worth Slighj.variations specifying in detail, retained in certain are soils, of only as long as plants are grown which instances from his own gives some Sageret experience. insists strongly on the permanence of the varieties of Odart, who
'^
the in
*^
some
varieties, when
in
grown
a
under
ferent dif-
treated
differently, vary
the
authors
denied
slight degree, as in and the of period ripening. Some the slightest difference even grafting causes
is sufficient in size the the of in and evidence that the fruit in
scion; but
there in
is sometimes
slightly
the be in
no
flavour, the
leaves first
duration,
There that instincts
are a
and
can
flowers
appearance.^'
facts
in
doubt,
given
in the
ter, chap-
European
but
a
dogs deteriorate
that in
India,
not
structure;
of such
they may
case
reversion
In
to
India how
turkey
over
becomes beak
reduced
size,
with
^^
the We
parts of pendulous
have
seen
appendage
soon
enormously
when direct
or
developed."
changed
of
in
a
the the
duck,
the
domesticated,
action
loses
its true
or
acter, char-
from
effects of abundant
food,
humid size in
from the
taking
and wise like-
little exercise.
climate
pasture the horse rapidly decreases poor I have information which From Islands.
to
Falkland
seems
received, this
with
be
a sheep case definitely influences the hairy covering of animals; in Indies a great change is produced in the fleece of sheep,
the
to
certain
extent
in Australia.
three
of
generations.
Hort.
on
Dr.
Falconer
states
facts.
^^
that
Andrew
Hort.
so
the
Thibet
i. p.
26
.Journal 100.
See
Soc.,' vol.
(in
'
Lecoq.
the
Villosity
torn.
'
Bas-
on Masters, tarderz.,' s. 261; Mr. in icle,' ChronGard. the Opimtia, 1846, p. 444. 27 Pom. Phvs.,' p. 136. 28 1849, Ampelographie,' p.
" '
corded
Transact,
ii. p.
160)
goes
far
as
tain main-
that
few
varieties
are
lutely abso-
when
permanent propagated
Blvth,
in
by
'
character buds
or
grafts,
30
Mr,
in
Annals
xx.,
and
19.
29
Gartner,
has
606,
'
s. re-
Hist.,'
vol.
1847,
History
Review,'
Chap.
XXm.
CONDmONS
OF
LIFE.
250
tho
Air. to lliinnlriya
mastiff
goat, when
their
fine
brought
wool.
have fine At
down
from
Kashmir,
attributes
shepherd-dogs and
silky
the removed lustre
into to
cats,
hot
thickness the
of the
summers.
fleece to
winters,
its
Burnes Even
wool
states
positively
fleeces
that
when
Karakool I have
peculiar black
within of two the
curled
country.
flocks
the breeds
limits
of
land, Engslieepwjis
of
ties.** being pastured in diflerent localiasserted on It has been good authority ^^ that horses kept of Belgium become during several years in the deep coal-mines like that the mole. with covered These on velvety hair, almost in the natural stand close relation to cases change of probably
slightly changed
by
the
coat
and
summer.
Naked related
of
several
no reason
domestic
to lieve be-
animals
to
is
exposed.^" size, the sight probable that the increased and of our altered forms the to fatten, early maturity tendency improved cattle, sheep, and pigs, have directly resulted from their This is the opinion of many abundant competent supply of food. far as form is true. But to a great extent as judges, and probably
which It appears
at
nature
of the
climate
is
concerned,
use on
we
must
not
overlook
and
the
more
potent
moreover,
a
influence
as
of
as
lessened
size is
the
limbs
that
lungs.
is
We
see,
far
powerful of for thus for account can food, we supply large only agent of Mr. and remarked to the the existence, as me by Blyth, largest fowls smallest breeds of sheep in the same countr3^ of Cochin-China and small Bunt Tumbler all of and large pigeons, kept Bantams, nourishment. Nevertheless together and supplied with abundant
more
concerned,
a
selection
apparently
than
there
the
can
be little doubt
to
that
our
domesticated
or
animals
use
have
of
been
modified,
independently of the
which
increased
have
lessend
parts, by
the aiil subjected, without that the bones For instance, Prof. Riitimeyer " shows of selection. of domesticated quadrupeds can be distinguished from tluxse of wild It is animals by the state of their surface and general appearance. ** an.l Nathusius's excellent read Vorstudien,' to scarcely possible abundant races' of the pig, doubt that, with the highly improved of the the general form food has produced a conspicuous eff"ect on the teeth. and on and of head even the face, body, on the breadth Berkshire of a purely bred i)ig, the case rests much Nathusius on conditions
they
been
'
32
cal
33
'
of
Travels
^^
Azara
on
has du
an
remarks
rnpedes
3?,7. Sre
"
'
151. 34 See
account
of
faniily
Knjr-
marshy Godron,
22
also, on pastures
'
influence
the torn. ii.
of
of
wool,
p.
18,)b,
L'Espece,'
p.
Pie
Faun.i
s.
, der
,.,
, ,, Pfahlhau-
'35 Isidore
laire, p. 438,
'
Hist.
Nat.
ten,'
^s
"
18"1,
15.
Schweineschhdel,
I8b4,
s,
99,
200
when
and
DEFINITE
ACTION
OF
THE
Chap.
XXIII.
which organs,
two
was
months
old for
became observation
diseased until
in
its
digestive
months
of the
preserved
nineteen
old; at this age it had lost several breed, and had acquired a long, narrow
to
characteristic
features
and in in this ease body, and elongated legs. But acters charcertain others that, because some we ought not to assume of under course one reversion, are lost, perhaps through at first directlyproduced by that they were treatment, therefore
its small
an
opposite treatment.
In
the
case
of the
we are
rabbit, which
at
has
become
feral
to
on
island
the of
of
Porto
and
Santo,
"
first
strongly tempted
size, the
it has
in
attribute
whole
change
the of the
cases
the
loss
greatly
of certain
to
more
reduced
to
altered
"
the
in to
fur,
all
characteristic which
less
marks
been
to
definite
action
new we
conditions
have
such
consider
or
addition
and
to
progenitors
finest shades of the
or
remote,
either
close
tion selec-
of the
of difference. sometimes in
some
nature
food
tain cer-
stands that
enormous
the
sheep of Siberia
their
certain
Erman^''
to
Orenburgh.
bullfinches has the of the of and communicated
same
that
hemp-seed
Mr.
causes
become
more
black. remarkable
nature.
The
the
region
with the
common
large beautifully variegated with red and In the Malayan archipelago, the natives of Gilolo yellow feathers. of another colours the parrot, namely, alter in an analogous manner
(Chnjsotis festiva, Linn.)
thus the
Lor ills
(jarruliis,Linn., and
These in
thus
produce
Islands
the and
Lori
rajah
ica, Amer-
or
King-Lory.
when
parrots natural on vegetable food, such as by the natives Mr. Wallace has, colours. rice and plantains, retain their proper S. Indians "The fact. (of still recorded*" more a singular also, colours the which art have curious they change a by America) of many birds. of the feathers They pluck out those from the part with the milky they wish to paint, and inoculate the fresh wound
fed secretion brilliant from the skin
colour does not
the
Malay
South
of
a on
small
toad. fresh
The
feathers
groAV
of
again
of the
without entertain
operation."
from seclusion that any light affects, at least temporarily,the colours of cage-birds. affected by are that the shells of land-mollusca It is well known Isidore districts. in lime different Geoffroy of the abundance Bechstein" doubt
39
'
Travels
iu
Siberia,'
volume
'
Engi.
p.
on
the
Amazon
*^
'
and
Rio
Negro,'
p.
lish
trauslatiou,
*"
228. A. R.
Wallace,
Travels
Chap.
XXIII.
CONDITIONS
OF
LIFE.
2G1
has
to
Saint-Hilaire
been
*-
carried
and
from in this
case
of Eelix the
now
laden, which
of
recently
the Kio
to
South food
France
a
and
Phita,
but
both
countries resulted
presents
or
distinct
whether
from
climate
is not
appearance, known.
With
oyster, Mr. F. Buckland informs respect to the common me that he can generally distinguish the shells from different districts; and laid down in beds where oysters brought from Wales young in the short space of two natires are months indigenous, begin
" "
to
assume more
the shells
"
native
from
once
"
character.
case
M.
same
Costa
**
has
recorded
much young
remarkable taken
at
of
the
the
altered
shores
their
Mediterranean,
Mediterranean forms of it is well known either themselves in colour.^* how
It
namely, that of England and placed in the of growth and manner formed
on
nature,
rays,
The
like
same
those before
the
shells
of
the
oyster.
that
individual
a on
shell, showing
food
proper both
exhibited
society in Paris.
different
or
Lastly,
ing differ-
caterpillarsfed
different
sometimea
acquire a
colour
produce moths
travelling beyond my proper limits here to discuss are definitelymodified organic beings in a state of nature of In conditions. Species I have given a Origin by changed my have shown this point, and of the facts bearing on brief abstract of residence of birds, and of light on the colours near the influence the of the lurid tints succulency of insects, and on the sea on ^^ Spencer has recently discussed with much plants. Mr. Herbert stance, subject on general grounds. He argues, for inability this whole
would be
far
' '
that
with acted
all animals
on
the
external
and
internal
tissues
are
the
surrounding
structure.
conditions, and
they
well
as
occupy
differentlycircumstanced
consequence admits, it is most the which effects of accumulation
are
respect
Mr.
to
the
action the
of
physical conditions
of and inherited which have
through
serviceable the
natural
selection
variations
arisen
organism,
mat.,'
independently of
42
'
definite
tom.
action
iii.
of these
conditions.
viii.
Hist. Bull,
tom.
Nat. de
Gen.,'
torn.
p.
402.
"
'
climat.,'
"
d*Ac-
son's
Gregacconnt an the Ahraxus on experiments Proc. Eutomolog. grossulnriata, periments ex1862: these 6th, Soc.;' Jan.
Sec
'
I":jhllM"m analogous wood's West see Hvmenoptera, on vol. Insects.' of Class, Modern Moiler. L. Dr. also See 98. ii.
facts
' '
p. from
-)6.^
For
p. Die
45
Abhiingigkeit
s.
*
der
^
lusecteu,'
", , .
1867,
vol.
70.
have
been
in
'
confirmed
Proc.
by
the
Mr.
of
ters
Soc.,'
effects ous curia
in
rend
Mr.
so
July
of
*
1862.
bv la
For
the
see
work,
able
as
food
caterpillars,
M. Soc.
to I
account
Michely,
been of It
probably
Bull,
de
Imp.
d'Accli-
have
done.
2^2
DEFINITE
ACTION
OP
THE
Chap.
XXIIl.
Although
action
we
are
not
concerned
on
with
the
in
a
definite
state
of the
I
may
conditions
state
organisms
evidence has
of
nature,
that
years
been
gained
subject. In the United States, for instance, it has been clearly proved, more cially espediffer by Mr. J. A. Allen, that, with birds, many species in tint, size of body and of beak, and in length of tail,in that proceeding from the JSTorth to the South; and it appears
during
last few
this
the
these
differences
must
be
attributed
to
to
the
direct
action
of
what plants I wdll give a someMr. Meehan,^' has compared twentyanalogous case: of American with their nearest nine kinds trees European in all close and under as allies, proximity nearly as grown In conditions. the American species he possible the same
With temperature.'**
respect
exceptions, that the leaves fall earlier in and assume the season, before their fall a brighter tint; that they are less deeply toothed or serrated; that the buds are finds,with
the
rarest
trees
are
more
diffuse
the
in
growth and
are
have
"
branches;
seeds
smaller
all
corresponding European species. Now considering that these corresponding trees belong to several distinct orders, and that they are adapted to widely ences different stations,it can hardly be supposed that their differin the IsTew and Old of any special service to them are have been worlds; and if so such differences cannot gained be attributed to the through natural selection, and must action of a different climate. long continued class of facts, not relating to cultivated Anothei Galls. I allude to the production of plants, deserves attention. knows the curious, bright-red,hairy progalls. Every one ductions the various wild and the different galls on rose-tree, Some of latter the oak. the resemble fruit,with produced by face as rosy as the rosiest apple. These bright colours one service either to the gall-forming insect or to be of no can the tree, and probably are the direct result of the action the apples of Nova Scotia in the same of the light, as manner comparison
"
with
the
Weismann Professor comes with conclusion rethe same butcertain to European spect in valuable terfiies his essay, den Ueber Saison-DimorphisI might also refer to iDus"' 1875.
40
the
recent
on
to
authors
works the
to
of
several
'
other
present
for
unci
^^
instance,
schlechte
'
'
Proc.
PhiladelpWa,'
subject Gute
of
Chap.
XXIII.
CONDITIONS
OF
LIFE.
2G3
or
Canada
to
brighter coloured than English apples. According Osten Sacken's latest revision, less than fiftyno
are
*"
eight kinds of galls are produced on the several species of oak, by Cynips with its sub-genera ; and Mr, B. D. Walsh states
that he
can a
add
many
American
cies spe-
of of
humilis, bears
spring from
ten
distinct kinds
galls. The
completely in shape from the natural leaves. The young shoots of junipers and firs, when tured punccertain by insects,yield monstrous growths resembling flowers and fir-cones; and the flowers of some plants become the same from Galls cause wholly changed in appearance. are produced in every quarter of the world; of several sent to me were as by Mr. Thwaites from Ceylon, some cal symmetriflower when in others smooth and as a bud, composite sphericallike a berry; some protected by long spines,others of long cellular hairs, others clothed with yellow wool formed with galls the internal regularly tufted hairs. In some is simple, but in others it is highly complex; thus structure has figured in the common M. Lacaze-Duthiers ink-gall no concentric layers, less than seven composed of distinct tissue, intermediate, namely, the epidermic, sub-epidermic, spongy, of curiously thickened and the hard protectivelayer formed the central mass, abounding with and, lastly, woody cells, starch-granuleson which the larvae feed. Galls are produced by insects of various orders, but the by species of Cynips. It is impossible to greater number discussion and doubt that the poiread M. Lacaze-Duthiers' sonous the secretion of the insect causes growth of the gall; how virulent is the poison secreted by knows and every one with Cynips. and bees, which belong to the same group wasps with extraordinary rapidity,and it is said that Galls grow they attain their full size in a few day -^ it is certain that they are almost completely developed before the larva? are extremely are gall-insects hatched. Considering that many minute; small, the drop of secreted poison must be excessively
*" '''
English willows
exD. "Walsh's Mr. B. See P]ntomoin ' Proc. eellent papers Dec. 1866, log. Soc. Philadelphia,' wilto the With respect p. 284. low, see ibid., 1864, p. 546.
48
des Nat.
Galles,'
Bot.,'
p.
in
'
Annal.
"lt's toui.
. .
So.
3rd
series,
xix.,
,, Kn-
1853.
273.
*"
See
Uis
admirable
'
Histoire
Spence
vol. 1.
P-
4..U;
Ibid., p. -ia4,
51
264:
it
DEFINITE
ACTION
OF
THE
Chap. XXIII.
probably
acts
on
one
or
two
cells
"
of selfstimulated, rapidly increase by a process division. remarks, afford good, constant, Galls, as Mr. Walsh and definite characters, each kind keeping as true to form does any comes as independent organic being. This fact behear that, for instance, still more remarkable when we of galls produced on of the ten different kinds out seven Salix humilis are formed by gall-gnats(Cecidomyidce) which " though essentially distinct species,yet resemble one other anit is difficult, and in closelythat in almost all cases most cases impossible, to distinguish the full-grown insects For in accordance from the other," with a wide-spread one sects safely infer that the poison secreted by inanalogy we may in nature; differ much not so closely allied would ferent widely difyet this slight difference is sufficient to induce In some results. few cases the same species of gallbe cannot gnat produces on distinct species of willows which distinguished; the Cynips fecundatrix, also, has been known the Turkish to produce on tached, oak, to which it is not properly atoak.^^ kind of gall as on the European exactly the same These latter facts apparently prove that the nature of the poison is a more powerful agent in determining the form of the character of the tree which is acted on. gall than the specific As the poisonous secretion of insects belonging to various of affectingthe growth of various orders has the special power of the poison plants ; as a slight difference in the nature suffices to produce widely different results; and lastly, as we that the chemical know compounds secreted by plants are eminently liable to be modified by changed conditions of life, believe it possiblethat various parts of a plant might we may
so
"
be modified
of its own altered secretions. through the agency and viscid calyx of a mossCompare, for instance, the mossy which suddenly appears through bud-variation on a rose, Provence-rose, with the gall of red moss growing from the inoculated leaf of
a
wild
a
rose,
with
each
filament
cally symmetri-
like
Proc.
Philarlelphia,'
"
Mr.
B.
18G4,
180G.
"
pp. p.
also
Duthiers.
633, and
"Mr.
Dec,
B.
Lncaze-Duthiers,
"
ibid.,
ibid.,
"""
2m
and such
DEFINITE
ACTION
OP
THE
Chap.
XXIII.
differences
with
we
feel at
first inclined
to
attribute,
rounding sur-
probably often
there
conditions.
But
it must
be
borne
in
mind
that
exist many animals and plants which widely and range have been exposed to great diversities of climate, yet remain in character. uniform Some authors, as previously remarked,
account
for
the
varieties
of
our
culinary and
plants by the definite action of the conditions have been exposed in the different parts of Great Britain; in every which but there are about 200 plants found are and these plants must have been exsingle English county; posed for an immense considerable differences of to period climate and soil,yet do not differ. So, again, some animals and plants range over a large portion of the world, yet retain
"^
the
same
character.
Notwithstanding the facts previously given on the occurrence and of highly peculiar local diseases the strange modifications on in plants caused of structure the inoculated by poison of insects, and tions"such other still there multitude of variaare a analogous cases;
as
the
modified
skull
of the
niata
ox
and
bulldog, the
solid-hoofed
long
horns of the
of Caffre
of the
of Polish
fowls, the
"
which pouter-pigeon, and a host of other such cases crop the to attribute definite in the before we can sense action, hardly conditions of life. No doubt in every specified,of the external there must have been but merable innucase some as we see exciting cause ; and individuals to the one same conditions, exposed nearly alone it has
is
affected,
is of far
we
may
conclude
that than
to
the the be
one
constitution conditions
a
of
to
the
individual been
higher importance
It seems, have
which
out
can
exposed.
indeed,
been
conspicuous variations occur of millions, though all may to the same judge, nearly marked variations graduate led by the same train of are
much
more
rarely,and
conditions.
in
individual far
most
exposed,
As
the
strongly
to
innate definite
same
constitution, however
surrounding conditions. by considering the cases, varied and have formerly alluded to, of fowls and pigeons, which will no doubt varying in directlyopposite ways, though kept go on conditions. Some, during many generations under nearly the same for instance, are born their beaks, wings, tails, legs, "c,, a with little longer, and others with these same By parts a little shorter. of such the long-continued selection differences slight individual
caused,
We
to
are
than
the
of the
led
to
the
67
Hewett
C.
Watson,
'
Cybele
p. 11,
Chap.
XXIII.
CONDITIONS
OF
LIFE.
2C7
which
could
as
occur
in birds
kept
in the
and
certainlybe formed;
result, does
to
we
is the
the
variations
whidi
that
domesticated
animals treated
as
number the
of
particulars, though
hand, there
and
are
in vary unifornilv
an
as
possible. On
both
other
instances
of
animals' and
exposed to very ditVorcnt conditions, domestication, have varied in Mr. manner. lie has that nearly the same Layard informs me observed amongst the CafTres of South Africa a dog singularly like arctic an Esquimaux dog. Pigeons in India present nearly the wide diversities of colour in Europe; and I have as same spcn barred and with and blue and chequered pigeons, simply pigeons from Sierra Leone, Madeira, England, ami white India. New loins, varieties of flowers are continually raised in diflferent parts of of these Great found Britain, but many are by the judges at our
under nature
plants, which,
though
they have
been
exhibitions of in North
new
to
be
almost these
identical and
with
old
vast
ber num-
fruit-trees America:
as
culinary vegetables
differ from
has
been
produced
same
European
raised
in the
general manner
one
the
no
several
one
varieties
ever
another;
has
and which
pretended
American
given
to
the
can
by previously
to
they
and
advanced
respect
affirm
course
recognised. Nevertheless, from the on authority of Mr. IMeohan be European forest-trees it would
in the
two
many be
varieties
general
the
with rash in
varieties
assume
raised
a
^*
would
Dr. M. he
not
the has
distinctive
character.
on
Masters
raised
recorded and
striking fact
bearing
subject:
collected
numerous
from
in South
Carolina been from leaves leaves We of the from series both and and
exposed
have the parent-plants must Holy Land, where considerably different conditions; yet the seedlings
localities
broke less
into
two
similar
strains,
the other
one
with
obtuse
purple
more
or
crimson
flowers, and
flowers.
with
elongated
or
may, the of
pink prepotent
definite the
of the
constitution
of
organism
several
the
action
conditions
of to be
life,
varieties,"
chapters
kinds
parallel
more
Sub-varieties
several
a
of
extent
wheat,
subto
of the
or
either
to
difi'er from In
another
cases,
a
in
parallelmanner.
a
other
distinct
one
species:or
from
the
varieties these
to
cases,
resemble doubt
common
another. result
Although
reversion in other
of two
often
the
former
new
eliarai-ters
of
progenitor; yet
68
when 1857, p.
characters
first
'Gardener's
Chronicle,'
G29.
268
DEFINITE
ACTION
OF
THE
Chap.
XXIII.
the
resemblance
and
must
be
attributed
to the
inheritance
of
consequently to a tendency to vary in We same manner. see something of a similar kind in the times in the monstrosity^ appearing and reappearing many Masters has remarked species of animal, and, as Dr. Maxwell
constitution,
in the
same
to
me,
speciesof plant.
least
of modification conclude, that the amount under mesticat doanimals and plants have undergone which does not correspond with the degree to which As we they have been subjected to changed circumstances. We
may at
know
most
the parentage
of domesticated
we
birds
far better
than
of
glance through the list. The than almost other in Europe more any bird; yet it is a native species,and has not been exposed to fowl The has extraordinary change of conditions. any varied equally, or almost equally, with the pigeon, and is a the peacock, a native Neither of the hot jungles of India. the guinea-fowl, an inhabitant native of the same country, nor of the dry deserts of Africa, has varied at all, our. or only in colThe turkey, from Mexico, has varied but little. The duck, on the other hand, a native of Europe, has yielded some quadrupeds, pigeon has varied
will well-marked have habits been
than
races;
and
as
this far
even
is
more
an
aquatic bird, it
serious
must
nevertheless fowl, which have varied in a much higher degree. The goose, a native of Europe and aquatic like the duck, has varied less than any other domesticated bird, except the peacock. Bud-variation of view.
same
change
in
its
the
our
present
eyes
same on
point
the
In
some
when
all the
on
tuber
or
tree, varied
the
plant, have
plumsuddenly
tion might be argued that the variahad been definitely caused tions by some change in the condithe to which plants had been exposed; yet, in other such an admission is extremely difiicult. As new acters charcases, sometimes by bud-variation, which do not occur appear allied species, in the parent-species or in any we ject, remay the idea that they are due to reat least in these cases, version. it well worth while is reflect Now to maturely on of bud-variation, for instance that of the some striking case
manner,
in the
Chap.
XXIII.
CONDITIONS
OF
LIFE.
209
peach.
by the million in parts of the world, has been treated differently, grown its own and roots grafted on various stocks, planted
against sub-variety keeps
of
a
This
tree
has been
cultivated
ous varion as
a
standard, trained
of each
at
wall, or under
to tree
a
true
long intervals
this
time,
of
England,
afterwards
or
under
the
Virginia, produces
ever one
single bud,
bc.-arsnectarines.
yields a
branch
which
ISTectarines
in
so
differ, as
size, and
botanists So
every
knows, from
that
peaches
their
smoothness,
some
flavour; and
have maintained
are
the dift'erence is
great that
they
are
distinct. specifically
permanent
the
characters
thus
tion suddenly acquired, that a nectarine produced by bud-variahas propagated itself by seed. To guard against the fundamental tween distinction besupposition that there is some bud that and seminal have
variation, it is well
been
to
bear
in
mind
produced from the stone of the peach; and, reversely,peaches from the stone of the is it possible to conceive tions condinectarine. Now external closely alike than those to which the buds on the more tree are same exposed? Yet one bud alone, out of the many thousands borne by the same tree, has suddenly, without any is even But the case produced a nectarine. apparent cause, flower-bud has yielded a than this, for the same stronger fruit,one-half or one-quarter a nectarine, and the other half eight varieties of or or three-quarters a peach. Again, seven the necnectarines: the peach have yielded by bud-variation tarines other; anthus produced, no doubt, differ a little from one there must Of course nectarines. but still they are internal or external,to excite the peach-bud to be some cauise, change its nature ; but adapted to force on
w^e
nectarines
likewise
I cannot
our
imagine
the
are
minds
conviction
in many
what
conditions
of life
quite
parison insignificantin relation to any particular variation, in comof the being with the organisation or constitution
which
Saiiil-llilaire,
eggs
recently from
those
others, that
chickens.
of
in
part with
monstrous
Now
270
BEFIXITE
ACTION
OF
THE
Chap.
XXIII.
may
be said to be
directlycaused
thus
by such
are
induced
of
An
excellent
remarks Dareste,''*
are
that
the various
not
determined the
by specific causes;
of the
agencies
embryo act development modify in the normal causing a perturbation a perversion the result to what we development." He compares
"
which
solely in
course see
of
in illness:
sudden of
or
alone
out
many,
individual chill, for instance, affects one matism, causing either a cold, or sore throat,rheuof the
inflammation
in
an
lungs
or
pleura. Contagious
We
may
matter
more
acts
analogous manner."*
:
take
still
specificinstance
"
seven
pigeons
were
struck
;
some
some
suffered
from
convulsions
coagulated, in others it was perfectly fluid; some the tines, showed heart, others on the intesecchymosed spots on visible lesion in any "G. ; others again showed no in drinking causes ferent difthat excess It is well known organ. diseases in different men ; but in the tropicsthe effects of intemperance differ from those caused in a cold climate; of opposite in this case the definite influence and we see The conditions. foregoing facts apparently give us as good idea as we likely for a long time to obtain, how in are an nitely, external conditions act directly, though not deficases many of structure. in causing modifications
blood
"
doubt, from the facts given tions in this chapter, that extremely slight changes in the condiof life sometimes, probably often, act in a definite manner of action the domesticated productions; and, as our on Summary.
"
There
can
be
no
changed
conditions
so
in
may
causing
be with
indefinite their
variability is
cumulative, ac-
it
Hence
considerable follow
5"
'
and
probably
from
Meinoire
altered
siir
acting during
cal 483.
*'i
long series of
1853,
vol. i.
p.
la
Pathology,'
'
Ax'tificielle
des
'
Mon?itrnosites,'
Reclierches
1862,
"S:c.,
p. of
chez An in p.
les abEx-
om
Ven-
Jan.,
6.
son.
1861,
^-
is
given
bv
'
Geoffroy's 1847,
on
his 21"0.
Mitchell, p. 67. in British Sedgwick, and Foreign ReMedico-Chirurg. view,' July, 1863, p, 175.
by
Dr.
Mr.
'
Surgi-
Chap.
XXIII.
CONDITIONS
OF
LIFE.
271
few instances a marked effect has been generations. In some produced quickly on all,or nearly all,the individuals which have been exposed to a marked change of climate, food, or This has occurred other circumstance. with European men in the United States, with European dogs in India, with horses in the Falkland mals Islands, apparently with various aniat Angora, with foreign oysters in the Mediterranean, climate with maize and to another. transported from one that the chemical have seen We compounds of some plants affected and the state of their tissues are by changed readily A relation conditions. certain apparently exists between characters and certain
conditions,
"
so
that
if the
latter be
changed the character is lost as with the colours of flowers, the state of some culinary plants,the fruit of the melon, the the peculiar fleeces of other tail of fat-tailed sheep, and sheep. The production of galls,and the change of plumage in inoculated fed on peculiar food or when by the parrots when what to us great and mysterious poison of a toad, prove be the definite result and colour, may changes in structure
of chemical We
state
now
changes
almost
may to
in the nutrient
fluids that
or
tissues.
in
a
certainly know
be modified which and
in
organic beings
definite ways
of nature conditions
case
various been
by
in
the the
they have
other
long exposed,
in the northern
trees
as
animals
and
southern with
States, and
of American
in
comparison
cases
their
is most
But
in many
it
changed
selection
accumulation
have
through
natural
instead of an profiteda plant to inhabit a humid might possibly arid station,a fittingchange in its constitution If it result from
we
of the environment,
have
no
kind
would
a
grounds for believing that variations frequently with plants inhabiting more occur
little
more
station
humid
than
the station was plants. Whether variations adapting the plant in a occasionallyarise,as we have good habits of life would what actually see in other cases. we to believe from reason
other with usual, than unusually dry or lunnid, posite slightdegree for directly op-
272
The acted the
DEFINITE
ACTION
OF
THE
Chap.
XXIII.
is of the being which organisation or constitution than is generally a much important element more on,
of the
nature
changed
We
conditions, in
have evidence modifications modifications
determining
of this under
under in
the the
nature appearance
of the of
variation.
nearly similar
of different
different
conditions, and
apparently
of We have still better evidence conditions. nearly the same this in closely parallel varieties being frequently produced distinct distinct races, from even species; and in the or
frequent
recurrence
of also
the
seen
same
monstrosity
the
not to
in
to
the which
same
species.
We
have
that
degree
stand
birds with
the
have
amount
varied, does
of
in any
close
change
which
they have
When
we
been
subjected.
To
on recur once
again
of buds bud has
to
bud-variations.
many
we
reflect
the
millions
one
which
trees
are
have
some
varied,
of each
lost in
can
to
call re-
what
the the
precise cause
case
variation
be.
given by Andrew
Knight
of the old
tree
bonum plum, an yellow magnum stocks for a very various has been propagated by grafts on America, and on long period throughout Europe and North bonum. which single bud suddenly produced the red magnum a of the We and
even
should distinct
also bear
"
in
mind
that
distinct
varieties,
of peaches, nectarines, species, as in the case though aland camellias, and apricots, of certain roses of generations from any separated by a vast number versifi diunder and although cultivated progenitor in common, closely conditions, have yielded by bud-variation
"
"
analogous
varieties.
When
we
reflect
on
these
facts
we
come be-
deeply impressed wdth the conviction that in such cases tions of the variation the nature depends but little on the condithe plant has been exposed, and not in any to which special manner
on on
its individual
nature
or
character, but
of the
in in
much whole
more
the
inherited
constitution
group
the
plant
that
question belongs.
most
cases
We
thus of
driven
to
a
conclude
the
any
life
play
subordinate
like
part
which
a
in
causing
the
nature
modification;
mass
that
spark
"
plays, when
of
of
combustibles
bursts
into
flame
the
27i
LAWS
OF
VARIATION.
Chap.
XXIV.
CHAPTER
LAWS OF VARIATION USE
XXIV.
"
AND
DISUSE,
ETC.
Nisus
of the organisation On the forma tivus, or the co-ordinating power habits of and disuse of organs eflects of the increased Changed use methods and Various animals with life Acclimatisation plants by of development Arrests which this can be eiiected Eudimentary
"
" " "
"
"
organs.
following chapters I shall discuss,as of the subject permits, the several laws well as the difficulty the be grouped under which Variability. These may govern and disuse, including changed habits and aceffects of use climatisatio correlated variation of development arrest of multiple the variability of homologous parts the cohesion 'U'ith the position of buds compensation of growth parts tion. analogous variarespect to the axis of the plant and lastly, another several subjects so graduate into one These
In
this and
the two
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
is often
arbitrary.
be convenient
first
brieflyto discuss
that
a
nating co-ordi-
or
in which is common, reparative power lower degree, to all organic beings, and which was nisus formativus. designated by physiologistsas
and
higher
ly former-
Bhimenbach
and
others
have
insisted
that
the
principlewhich
cut into fragments, to develop itself into Hydra, when is the same with two that which more animals, or causes perfect in the higher animals to heal by a cicatrice. wound Such a cases evident! j'' analogous to the spontaneous that of the Hydra as are division wise or fissiparousgeneration of the lowest animals, and likeof plants. Between to the budding these extreme and cases cicatrice we that of a mere have gradation. Spallanzani,^by every of cutting off the legs and tail of a Salamander, got in the course three months six crops of these members; that 687 perfect bones so animal At whatever were season. reproduced by one during one and the limb cut the deficient was off, was no point part, more, diseased bone has been a removed, a exactly reproduced. When
permits
'
An
Essay
translat.,
on
Eng.
'
Lectures
p.
'
on
Animal
Re-
translat.,
1769,
79.
i. p.
209.
Chap.
XXIV.
NISUS
FOP.MATIVUS.
275
regular form,
as
new
one
sometimes
'
"gradually
of muscles,
assumes
the
nml
all
as
the
attachments
This
ligaments,
"e., become
complete
belore."
of re-growth does not, however, always act iicrpower the tail of lizard differs in the form a fectly; reproduced of the from the normal tail: with certain scales Orthopterous insects the large hind legs are reproduced of smaller size: * the wiiitc^ cicatrice in the higher animals which unites the edges of a deep wound is not
formed
of
"
long
afterwards.^ Its
perfect skin, for elastic tissue is not produced till The activity of the iiisus foriiuitifus,'^ says
"
Blumenbach,
is in
an
inverse also
ratio
to
the
age
of the
organised
greater with animals, the lower they power animals stand in the scale of organisation; and low in the scale to the correspond with the embryos of higher animals bcIdiiLriiig observations" afford illustiation of class. a same good Newport's that whose for he found this fact, myriapods, highest development generate rebeyond the larvae of perfect insects, can scarcely carries them
body."
is
"
limbs
and not
so can
and
antennse
up
true
to
the
time
of
their
in
last
moult;
"
the
mature
larvae
of
larvae
in
one
order,
both
so
in the the
insect.
or
correspond
developnu'nt
the juries. inare
with
mature
possess
tadpoles to a large
tailless When
extent
power
Batrachians. often
a
Absorption
absorbed ends
and
plays
an
repair of
the
bone
is broken that
unite,
ends
false
for
itself
new
new
socket. into
veins
excavate
channels
comes
against
Virchow
absorption press. growth of bones; parts which are solid during the normal for the medullary tissue as the out hollowed during youth become wellthe many understand to In increases in size. bone trying sliould member rewe aided by absori)tion. of re-growth when adapted cases whilst retaining all parts of the organisation, even that almost that a so part constant renewal; the same form, undergo would be liable to absorption. renewed is not which formatinis, the so-called "/.s-//.s under classed Bome usually eases,
they
remarks,
distinct
structures
head;
are
for
not
only
are
old after
formed. with
"
Thus,
inflammation
"false and
nerves,
membranes,"
are
furnished
or a
blood-vessels,
lymphatics,
developed;
the
fa^tus
Fallopian tubes,
Carpenter's Physiology,' Comp.
3
and
'
falls into
abdomen,
^
of Principles 1854, p. 479. ^ Charleswortli's 'Ma:? of Nat. Hist.,' vol. i.. 1837, p. 145. 5 Surgical Lectures on Paget, vol. i. p. 239. Pathology,' 'Comp. "Quoted by Carpenter,
'
on
.lis.Missl..u
.m a
o-a.laptM
male,'
also 257.
1873, Paget,
chapter
Lectures,
in.., p,
Phya.,'
p. 479.
276
LAWS
OF
VARIATION.
Chap.
XXIV.
which
forms of
are
itself into
and
organised
f(Etus is the
new
blood-vessels,"
cases
the
time.
In
certain in the
hydrocephalus
open
dangerous
interlock
spaces
the
skull
by perfect serrated
bones,
gists, physiolo-
now Continent, have given up the belief in " maintains Virchow that plastic lymph or blastema, and every is formed the o f new or old, structure, proliferation pre-existing by false membranes, like cancerous cells. On this view other or tumours, are developments of normal merely abnormal growths; on especially
and
we
can
thus
;
understand
how
a
it is that
"
they
membrane
resemble
adjoining
the
serous
structures
for
instance, that
false
in
cavities
covers
become those No
acquires a covering of epithelium exactly like that which of the iris may adhesions the original serous membrane; black like apparently from the production of pigment-cells
uvea." the
^"
of the doubt
reparation, though not always perfect,is for admirable an provision, ready for various emergencies, even at time.^^ intervals such of Yet this is as occur only long power and of than wonderful the growth not more development every of those which are single creature, more propagated by especially fissiparousgeneration. This subject has been here noticed, because is either greatly increased infer that, when we part or organ may any variation and in size or tinued conthrough suppressed wholly of the organisation will selection, the co-ordinating power continually tend to bring again all the parts into harmony with
power
one
of
another.
On
the
Use
and
Disuse
of Organs.
It is that
shall
increased
sense-organs,
"c.; and
them. It has the flow
disuse,
is
the
other
hand, by
weakens
experimentally proved
Eanke'"
any
that
part which
increase
'"
part is at rest.
vessels
greatly increased towards the is performing work, and sinks again when Consequently, if the work is frequent, the
of blood
in
size
and
the
part
is better
Paget
which
8
also accounts
for the
even
occasionally grow,
cases are
children,
near
These
given
'
by
on
Bhimenbacli
in
pp.
his
Essay
der
Generation,'
"
'
42, 1860,
54. trans.
by
10
Pathology,'
pp.
Lectures on Paget, gy,' vol. i.,1853, p. 357. " Paget, ibid., p. 150.
441. Patholo-
27.
"c. Die Bhitvertheilung, by as 1871, quoted Organe,' Sachen In Darwin's,' Jaeger, also See H. Spencer, 1874, p. 48. vol. of Biology,' The Principles 3-5. ii. 18G6, chap.
' '
"
'
1853, vol.
Lectures i. p.
on
Pathology,'
71.
Chap.
XXIV.
EFFECTS
OF
USE
AND
DISUSE.
277
standing inflamed
flow of blood
spur
surfaces
to the
or
fractured
When which
bones
by
an
creased in-
part.
Hunter
is well
inserted the
of
cock
into
grew
the
in
comb,
one case
in
not
another touch
case
that
the
could
the
ground
According
a
the of
interesting observations
one
Sedillot,'* when
an
tion por-
of the bone
bones
animal
a
is
bones, of which
exhibited
in
is best
dogs
in
which
removed;
ftirm size is at
on
the companion
not
bone, which
size of the
naturally almost
soon
acquires a that of the tibia. equal to or greater than Now, it first difficult to believe that increased weight acting bone could, by alternately increasing and straight
the
pressure,
cause
and
one-fifth the
other,
diminishing
more
permeate
the
bone.
the blood
to flow
Nevertheless
the
observations
adduced bones
the strengthening of the bowed on by Mr. Spencer,^" of rickety children, along their concave sides,leads to
possible.
stem
rocking of the
the Prof. Sachs
of
tree
increases
in
marked
are signs, asre-
pressure
of the bark
IT.
being
in such
to
an
parts, and
not
Knight and
Spencer
tain, main-
increased
of flow of sap caused by the movement withbe developed out hard woody tissue may
we see
with
cases,
it is very action
H.
difiicult to
distinguish
and
or
effects of
the
long-continued selection
of the part,
knowledges ac-
those which
follow
some
from other
increased
Mr.
as an
directly from
this
trees
cause.
Spencer"
the
instance
we
tli^ms
on
and
the
Here
have
any
ii. p.
extremely
movement,
200: Snch**.
hard
1*
'
woody
Cnmptes
1S64.
H. p.
tissue without
Rendus/
539.
'
the
of possibility
i"
'
Sept. Principles
Ibid.,
26th,
15
of
The
Text-book 734.
^^
vol. of vol.
Botnuy,'
ii. p.
1S";", p.
ii. p.
243.
Ibid.,
2i3.
278 /
LAWS
OF
VARIATION.
Chap.
XXIV.
/
and
cause;
without, as far
and the
as
as
we
can
see,
any
other
directlyexciting
the hardness
may
to
plant, we
of these parts is of manifest ice servlook at the result as probably due to variations.
epidermis on the hands; and when hear that with infants, long before birth, the we epidermis is thicker on the palms and soles of the feet than other part of the body, as was observed with admiration on any we are by Albinus,^* naturally inclined to attribute this effects of long-continued use to the inherited or pressure. We view even to the hoofs of are tempted to extend the same how far natural quadrupeds ; but who will pretend to determine
have aided in the formation selection may such obvious importance to the animal?
That artisans
use
Every
one
of structures
of
strengthens the
follow the
muscles
may
be and
seen
in the
a
limbs
of is
are
who
different
trades;
when
to
muscle
strengthened,
the
not
attached, become
blood-vessels
of bone likewise
they
case a
^\ith is
On
the
other when
hand,
the
limb
used,
nervous
as
by
Eastern
with So
power
is
nerve fanatics, or supplying it wither. effectually destroyed, the muscles is the becomes optic nerve destroyed eye
even
in
the the
course as
of well
was
few
as
months.^^
The
Proteus Schreibers
branchiae
with
lungs:
to
and in
found
animal
compelled
live
were deep water, the branchiae developed to thrice their ordinary the other size, and the lungs were on partially atrophied. When, the animal live in shallow to was hand, water, the lungs compelled became vascular, whilst the branchiae larger and more disappeared in a more less complete degree. Such modifications these are, or as of little for value do not actually however, comparatively us, as we know that they tend to be inherited.
In various But
many
cases
there
is
reason
to
believe
that
the
lessened
in the
use
of
affected the corresponding that this ever good evidence of a single generation. It appears, in the as that several generations variability, changed habits for any appreciable result. have and almost lost, not only ducks, geese do of flight; for we in the race, their power organs there is
has
no
18 Paget, thology.' vol. 1^
'
parts
case
offspring.
course
follows of be
must
in the
general or
subjected
definite into
domestic individual
a
fowls,
but
young
fowl,
of the
on
Patrans-
Miiller's
pp.
lat,.
has
the
of of
Reed and
a
Auat.
Researches,'
p.
10)
curi-
Chap. XXIV.
EFFECTS
OF
USE
AND
DISUSE.
070
Ht-nco
when
led and
pheasant.
of wihl
was
the
and
same
bones
in
the
the
parent-species' As
of
chapters I
here
weights w^ere fully given in the earlier only recapitulate the results. With domestic
the
tail
as
the length of the sternum, pigeons, the prominence the length of the scapuhe and furculum, the lemrlh of
measured
from
tip
to
all reduced
rehitivefv to
the
same
parts in the
are
pigeon. wings
exercise in the
of the
or
The this
wing
may the it has
however,
a
length, but
and have
with
tail,as
which
dog with
feet often of
amount
The is
pigeons, except
fowls the
or
long-beaked
are^-educed
in size.
With
crest
distorted
monstrous;
lighter relativelyto the leg-bones, and shorter in comparison with those of the
hankli-a.
same manner
apparently
the
little (!uUns
in
parent-form,
is
a
With
as are
ducks,
in the all
the
crest
of the
sternum the
fleeted
the
foregoing cases:
in
scapulee
the of the in the the
reduced
and
weight
are
skeleton:
bones the
of the whole
wings
shorter
the
and
legs longer
wild-duck.
relativelyto
bones, in
other,
the
same
The
cases,
foregoing
of
decreased
the of
to
reaction
the
weakened
the
tame
bones.
and
I failed
wild
the feathers of the compare but Gloger^^ asserts that in feathers also reach duck
on
wings
the end
of
wild of
tlie
tips
of the in
almost
to
the
tail, whilst
the
He remarks they often hardly reach to its base. the greater thickness of the legs, and ming that the swimsays between domesticated the
toes
is reduced; the
but
was
not
abk-
to
difference. rabbit
body, together with the whole skeleton, is generally larger and heavier than in the wild animal, and the leg-bones are heavier in due proportion; but wliatcver lli"' of standard comparison be taken, neither the leg-bones nor in length proportionally with the increased scapulae have increased
diniensions marked results We of the
rest
of the
skeleton.
The the
skull that
has
become of
narrowness
on
in
manner
narrower,
we
and,
from
measurements this
its
may size of
conclude,
the
brain.
consei|Uent
tlie
animals. by these closely-confined have which that silk-moths, eighth chapter from been centuries closely confined, emerge kept during many often their cocoons with their ^ings distorted, incapable of flight, in size, or rt'lages. ipiite according to (Jiiaf even, greatly reduced be largelyowing to rudimentary. This condition of the wings may
mentally
inactive
seen
"i
Das
Abandern
der
Vogel,* 1833,
s.
74,
280
the
same
LAWS
OF
VARIATION.
Chap.
XXIV.
often affects wild Lepidoptera monstrosity which be in part due from reared the cocoon; it may when or artificially is the of many inherent females to which to an common tendency, in less have their to a more or rudimentary wings Bombycidae, to long-continued be attributed state; but part of the effect may kind of disuse.
From
our
can
be
no
doubt
that with
or
creased animals, certain bones have inin size and weight owing to increased decreased or but they have not been modified, as shown decreased use;
anciently domesticated
in the earlier
chapters, in shape
would
to
or
structure. to
With
severe as
animals
tition compe-
living
an
occasionally exposed
tend have
to
the
be greater,
it would
be
perfluous su-
advantage
part
on
them
saved.
With
mals, ani-
the
nor
other
any to
hand, there
to
to
be
no
economy
of
growth,
details.
tendency
this
the
elimination
of
superfluous
subject I shall recur. to more general observations, l^athusius has Turning now of the pig, the shortened that the improved races shown legs and of the articular condyles of the occiput, snout, the form and the position of the jaws with the upper canine teeth projecting
But
in
a
most
manner
in
front
not
of the
lower
canines,
travel
in
may
be
these
parts the of
having been
races
fully exercised.
search
the
nor
highly-cultivated
root up
do with
not
food,
These
ground
their which
ringed
are
muzzles.'^
modifications
structure,
all
so
breeds,
domestic
several strictly inherited, characterise that they cannot have been derived from stock. With
improved
any
single
Tanner
respect
to
cattle, Professor
has remarked
lungs and liver in the improved breeds " found to be considerably reduced in size when are compared "^^ with those possessed by animals having perfect liberty; of these organs affects the general shape and the reduction of the reduced The cause of the body. lungs in highly-bred animals which take little exercise is obvious; and perhaps
Nathusius, 18G0, Schweines,'
22
'
that the
Die
s.
Racen
53, 57;
'
des Vor-
'
Der
^^
"
des
Maskenof p.
schweines,'
studien
....
Sehweineschadel,'
130,
and Von 133. Prof. extends the Nathusius:
1804.
s.
Lucae conclusions
103, supports
of
Higliland
321.
See.,'
282
countries have
use
LAWS
OF
VARIATION.
Chap. XXIV.
dependent
their
ears
ears.
"With
to
wild catch
animals, which
every
like funnels
ascertain
passing
it
especially to
is not,
as
the
direction
whence
Blyth has remarked, any species with pacity the incadrooping ears except the elephant. Hence is certainly in some to erect the ears the result manner of domestication; and this incapacity has been attributed by various authors to disuse, for animals protected by man are their Col. not Hamilton to use compelled habitually ears. in Smith that ancient of the dog, " with the states effigies exception of one Egyptian instance, no sculpture of the earlier Grecian era produces representations of hounds with completely half pendulous are drooping ears; those with them missing in the most ancient ; and this character increases, by of the Roman also degrees, in the works period." Godron has remarked that the pigs of the ancient Egyptians had not their it is remarkable But ears enlarged and pendent.'' that the drooping of the ear is not crease accompanied by any dein size; on the contrary, animals different as fancy so certain Indian breeds of the goat, our rabbits, petted spaniels, blood-hounds, and other dogs, have enormously elongated
Mr.
'* ^* ^"
there
ears,
so
that
it would
appear
as
if their
weight
had
caused
them
to
droop, aided
of the skull. tail of
no
With rabbits,the perhaps by disuse. has affected even the elongated ears
to me animal, as remarked by Mr. of dogs have races pigs and some Blyth, is curled; whereas This curled. their tails much deformity, therefore,appears
The
wild
to
be
the
result with
of domestication,
the
but
whether
in
any
way
connected The
one
lessened
on our
use
of the
is
tail is doubtful.
epidermis
hands
In a knows, by hard work. have " horny callosities that defend their habit of kneeling arise from
knees, and
to crop
which
short
the
herbage, and
2*'
this
as
flocks from
those
Youatt
Livingstone, on Sheep,
'
by
p.
Hodg-
Asiatin Soo. of in Journal son, vol. of xvi., 1847. p. Bengal,' the other On "c. "c lOOn. Wilckens Dr. argues hand. belief that Strongly against the
the is the of enrs der Jahrbnch disuse: 1860. Viehzuoht.' deutsehon =9 'Naturalist's Library,' Dogs, 104. vol. ii.. 1840, p. ^o torn. dq i., I'Espece,' the
drooping:
of
result
'
"
1859, p. 367.
Chap.
XXIY.
EFFECTS
OF
USE
AND
DISUSE.
283
stated whether
of other
this
"
but
it is not
The
membrane
the
which skin
stomach
is
tinuous con-
with
not
external
body; tlierefore
it is
surprising
of the
that
should
food
consumed,
follow. stomach
a
changes likewise
muscular w^hich had
coat
Hunter of
long
a
ago
observed
that the
of the
been
fed for
to Dr.
year
and, according
occurs
Edmondston,
in
similar
in
change periodically
stomach
in
the
Shetland
the
of the
fields corn-
Larus
argeniatus, which
and feeds great
on
the
seed.
careful of
a raven
observer which
an
has had
change In the been long fed on vegetable food. grallaria), similarly treated, Menetries
a
noticed
in the stomach
case
of
owl the
(Strix
form
states coat
that
was
changed,
w^ould known.
the
inner
being leathery,
of generations
in size.
^^
Whether
in
these modifications
course
digestive
inherited
organs
the
become
is not
or
The
which
increased
diminished from
length of the
changed diet, is
a
intestines,
more markable re-
apparently
case,
results
because
it is characteristic
of certain
must
animals be
in
their
domesticated The
condition, and
absorbent
are
therefore the
herited. in-
complex
muscles,
system,
blood-vessels,
together necessarily all modified with the intestines. According to Daubenton, the intestines of the domestic one-third cat are longer than those of the wild cat of Europe; and although this species is not the animal, yet, as Isidore Geoffroy parent-stock of the domestic has remarked, the several species of cats are closelyallied so increased The that the comparison is probably a fair one. cat being less strictly to be due to the domestic length appears stance, wild feline species; for incarnivorous in its diet than any ily kitten eating vegetables as readI have seen a French
nerves,
and
as
meat.
According
to
Tenstate-
of the do-
.T. E. Sir bv Cevlon,' 1859, vol. H. p. 531. '2 the For foregoinfr Hunter's see ments, Essays
31
'
nent,
'
and ii. p.
Observations,'
1861,
vol.
as (inutnl Edniondsloii, 329; Dr. I^ritisli Rinls.' in Macgillivniy's as Menotries. 550: vol. v. p. (Joscbichto in Broiin's quoted der Natur,' b. ii. s. IIU.
'
284
mesticated the wild
an
LAWS
OF
VARIATION.
Chap.
XXIV.
opposite nature, and probably results from rabbit.^^ food given to the tame
the nutritious
Changed
far
as
and
inherited
powers
the mental
Habits
only
remind
the
reader
"
of such
the
tameness
of
"
our
domesticated
animals
the pointing
mals retrieving of dogs their not attacking the smaller aniand forth. How much of these kept by man so habit, and how much changes ought to be attributed to mere
"
to
the
selection
manner,
of individuals
which the
have
varied
in the
sired de-
irrespectivelyof
they have
been
special circumstances
seldom
may
under
We
a
which have
kept, can
animals
be told.
be
already
seen
that
habituated
to
additional instances may be given. changed diet; but some In the Polynesian Islands and in China the dog is fed exclusively on vegetable matter, and the taste for this kind of inherited.'* Our food is to a certain extent sporting dogs will not touch the bones of game birds, whilst most other dogs devour them with greediness. In some parts of the world hog is sheep have been largely fed on fish. The domestic fond of barley, the wild boar is said to disdain it; and the disdain is partiallyinherited, for some wild pigs bred young in captivity showed aversion for this grain, whilst others an of
some
the
same
brood
relished
a
it.^^ One
sow
of
my
relations
bred
young
pigs from
in
Chinese
by
so
wild
to
the
tame not
touch
devoured
to
by the other
an
when
during youth, dislikes its proper had long lanzani with a j^igeon which found to be the case Individuals of the same been fed on meat. species take to
new
effected only
food
with
statements
different
on
degrees of readiness;
in-
one
horse, it
vol. ii.
33 These testines
the
'
tory
p.
are
taken
from
Geoffroy
Nat. toire 427. 441. ^* Gilbert
Saint
Hilaire,
torn.
'
Gen.,' White,
of 121.
Selborne,'
'
1825,
^s
Bnrdnch.
ii. p.
torn. P.
Liicas,
388.
'
Natural
i. p.
Chap.
XXIV.
CHANGED
HABITS
OF
LIFE.
285
it stated, soon
learned
to eat
meat, whilst
another
would
have
perished from hunger rather than have partaken of it." The of the Bomhyx caterpillars hesperus feed in a state of nature the leaves of the Cafe diahle,but, after having been on reared the would on Ailanthus, they touch the Cafe diahle,and not died of actually hunger." possible to accustom marine fish to live in fresh water; but as such changes in fish and other marine animals have been chiefly observed in a state of nature, they do not properly belong to our present subject. The period of gestation and of maturity, as shown in the earlier chapters, the season and the frequency of the act of breeding." have all been under greatly modified domestication. Willi the Egyptian goose the rate of change with respect to the
"
It has
been
found
season
has
been
recorded.^** The
drake
is
wild
drake
pairs with
Certain The
paces
one
female, the
of fowls have
domestic
polygamous.
breeds of tlie
of tlie
of incubation.
horse, and
have
the been
of
flight of certain
breeds
and are inherited. pigeon, Cattle,horses, and pigs have learnt to browse under in the St. John'.^ water River, East Florida, w^here the Vallisneria has been largely modified naturalised. The
cows were
observed
"
by Prof.
differs
Wyman
from
in
to
keep to thirty-fiveseconds."
kinds and of fowls and others
their heads
immersed
^'^
for The
period varying
voice Some and varieties
common
fifteen
tain cer-
much
are
pigeons.
the
ous clamoror
silent, as
Call
one
duck,
how of
or
the
Spitz and
the
pointer dog.
one
Every
another
knows
the breeds
of
in their
manner
hunting,
vermin.
and
of game
plants the period of vegetation is easily changed and winter wheat, of summer and is inherited,as in the case barley, and vetches; but to this subject we shall immediately Annual come beacclimatisation. under plants sometimes return
With
perennial under
Hooker
5"
new
climate,
stock and
as
hear
from
in
Dr.
is the
and
case
with
other
'
the
cases
mignonette
viii.,
'
Taspage
This
several
tion,'
563.
^^
torn,
ISGl,
de
70.
are
given
des
by
Colin,
Comp.
tom.
'
Animaux 426.
Quatrefages.
Hnmaine,'
"
TTnit6
p,
I'Es-
pece
^9
1S61,
The
Ap.
1874,
p.
American 237.
Naturalist,'
286
mania.
as
LAWS
OF
VARIATION.
Chap.
XXIV.
On
the other
become
nuals, an-
with
*'
the Ricinus
England,
and
as,
according
to
varieties of the heartsease. Captain Mangles, with many Von from of Verhascum raised seed Berg phxniceum, is usually a biennial, both annual which and perennial varieties. Some Rice India which deciduous bushes become
evergreen
in hot
one
tries." coun-
requires much
can
variety in
rieties va-
be
grown
Certain irrigation.*^
are
and
of
our
soils." Endless
and
similar
facts
given
in
the
cause vegetable kingdoms. They are noticed here bethey illustrate analogous differences in closely allied such natural changed habits of life, species,and because due
or
whether
to
habit,
or
to
the direct
action
of external be
ditions, con-
to
so-called
spontaneous
of structure.
would variability,
apt
to
lead to modifications
Acclimatisation.
"
Erom much
naturally led
There from
are
to
the
the
two
same
distinct
questions: Do
varieties
descended
of living under species differ in their power different climates ? And secondly, if they so differ,how have thus adapted ? We have seen that European dogs they become the
do
not
succeed
well in India,
in
and
it is
that asserted,^^
no
one
succeeded
it may
northern
keeping the ISTewfoundland long alive; be argued, and probably with truth, that breeds distinct from the naare specifically tive
flourish in India.
to
dogs which
made
with
to
The
of
"
same
remark
may
be
cording ac-
respect
the
different
one
breeds
sheep, of which,
torrid
brought a the But out year," Zoological Gardens. capable of some sheep are degree of acclimatisation, for Merino sheep bred at the Cape of Good Hope have been found far better adapted for India than those imported from
climate
lasts
not Youatt,*^
from
second
in
England.*"
*"
'
It is almost
certain
that
"
all the
R.
breeds
'
of
the
Flora,' 1835, b. ii. p. 504. de Candolle. GeoAlph. ii. p. 1078. graph. Bot.,' torn. " of Illustrations the Royle, of the Botany Himalaya,' p. 19. *3 'Gardener's Chronicle,' 1850, 204, 219. pp.
"i
'
As. 10.
^^
Everest,
of
Bengal,'
on
vol.
Journal iii. p.
p.
'
Sheep,
1838,
491.
**" 'Prod. Royle, India,' p. 153.
Resources
of
Chap.
XXIV.
ACCLIMATISATION.
2s7
fowl which
are
descended there
from
one
is good from
reason so
Mediterranean,*^ though
suffers
more
species; but the Spanlsli breed, to believe originated near the fine and vigorous in England,
any
other
breed.
The
Arrindy
Bengal, and the Ailanthus moth from the temperate province of Shan Tung, in China, belong infer from their identity to the same as species, we may and mature in the caterpillar, states ; cocoon, yet they differ
*^
silk moth
introduced
much
warm
in constitution
form
"
will flourish
only in
latitudes,"the
rain.
are more
withstands
cold and
Plants The latter
strictlyadapted to climate
domesticated Avithstand such
than
are
animals.
great diversities of find nearly tlie same in perate climate, that we species tropical and temwhilst the cultivated countries; plants aie widely dissimilar. for inquiry in regard to the acclimatisaHence tion a larger field is open It is no of plants than of animals. exaggeration to say that has long been Avith almost cultivated, varieties plant which every
exist which
are
when
endoAved
to
Avith constitutions
fcAV
fitted
more
for very
dilVerent
as
climates;
AA^ould be
trees
I Avill select
tedious been
of the North
strikingcases,
numerous
it
In lists
severe
America
fruit-
have
raised,
in the
horticultural
are
in that
are
by Downing, Many
American
oAvn
best
able
States
and
are Avas
varieties
succeeded
Though
ours,
American
summer
varieties Avith
Avithstand
severer
hot
enough.
here
do
Fruit-trees
not
originated
much The
and
in
Europe
pear is the and
and
different
constitutions, but
tliey are
areas.
noticed, because
Forelle this of
France
nurserymen
supply
floAvers
served, ob-
Avhen
have
the
Just set,
both in
a
period, they
Avithstand
been
England,
even or
Avith
complete
the of
kinds
impunity
frost
18"
flowers, Avhether
fully expanded
Avhich
killed
pears.^*^This poAver in the not invariably depend, as producing fruit does good authority,^^on general constitutional vigour.
nortliAvard, the
"
floAver of
resistingcold
afterwards
know
on
In
number
'
of
varieties
the
p.
Avhich
'
are
found
proceeding capable of
184S,
p. and
Tegetmeier,
p. Dr.
Poultry
in
Bot.
a
Book,'
paper of Soc.
Gardener's
'
Chronicle,'
,
1866,
*8
102.
R.
5.
"o
Paterson,
to
communicated
038.
"'J.
Gard. Romnrks
from dc
Chronicle.
1S(.0,
by
of
Kditor
the
'
Reader,'
in
quotation
'
Docnisno.
Jon^die.
IjrussolsIn
18o7,
p. ")1-.
See
remarks
by
Editor
Gard.
Chronicle,
LAWS
OF
VARIATION.
Chap.
XXIV.
in the be seen rapidly decreases, as may of the can list of the varieties cherry, apple, and pear, which Near cow, MosStockholm.^^ of in the cultivated be neighbourhood Prince Troubetzkoy planted for experiment in the open ground climate several varieties withstood
other of
the
the
pear, of cold
but
one
alone,
We
the
see
Foire that
sans
our
winter.^*
same
thus
species of the
in
their
constitutional
differ
climates. often
plants, the adaptation to climate is that proved by repeated trials very for vation cultiof wheat varieties if are of the English adapted few any is at first only in this case but the failure in Scotland; in the quantity, though ultimately in the quality, of the grain from India wheat-seed produced. The Rev. M. J. Berkeley sowed would ears," on land which the most certainly and meagre got In from wheat.^^ these cases have a English good crop yielded
With the varieties close.
Thus
of many it has
been
"
"
"*
"
varieties the
reverse
have
been case,
as
carried
"
from
Avarmer was
to
cooler
climate; in
when Indian
wheat
France barren
while Here
into
the
or
West seed
Islands,
it
imported produced
directly from
either
wholly
**"
spikes
West is
a
either climate
true
as
with seeds, only two or three harvest." by its side yielded an enormous mate; of close adaptation to a slightly cooler clianother case used be in England may which kind of wheat indifferently under the warmer sown or summer a winter variety, when if it had been a in behaved as of Grignan, exactly France, furnished Indian wheat." believe that all the varieties
in
miserable
winter Botanists
belong to the America, in proceeding same species; and we have seen in each zone produce their northward, the varieties cultivated shorter periods. So shorter and flowers and ripen their seed within in do not succeed varieties that the tall,slowly maturing southern in the New New England varieties do not succeed England, and"^
of maize that North Canada. varieties the
I
are
have
not
met
with
or
actually injured
varieties the been
and learn
can
that
the
southern which
degree
of cold
northern
but
withstand of considered
probable;
varieties
Hence
production
to
be
deserves
form
to
it has further
as we
found from
has
according possible,
northwards evidence since in the the
maize
further
America. end
.'' of
Europe,
also,
the
given by Alph.
On
culture
of maize
extended
of its former
Bot. 26.
boundary
^"
the
authority of
of
Ch.
'
Cotes
63
'
On
Journal
Gand,'
1859 396
"
quoted
p
in
I'Acad. Gard.
'
p. Hort.
quoted
p.
'
the in
authority
'
Gard.
Chron.,
^
de
Chron.,' 1851,
p.
"
235. MM.
Annal.
^^
'
5*'' Gard.
Chronicle,'
p. 235.
Bot
torn.
p.
22.
Geograph.
Bot.,
p.
Ibid., 1862,
290
does
on a
LAWS
OF
VARIATION.
Chap.
XXIV.
not
^
ripen its
"it
late in the
season,
a
even
when southern of
wall;
very A
a
hot
I will
brieflygive
by
that
few M. which
other
cases.
variety
can
Magnolia
several With
1860
grand
iflora, raised
Roy,
withstands other
in
temperature
resist. One
of
degrees
camellias
lower of In the
than
is
there
and
much
any diHereuee
variety
hardiness. the
severe
particular
of the there which other settes." Noimon comare are
variety
"
rose a
"
frost but
untouched
destruction
New the
quite hardy,
may add
is liable of
that
potato
as
for warmer,
have been found plants as yet mentioned capable of unusual resisting an degree of cold or heat, when fully The refer to plants whilst young. following cases grown. In a large bed of young Araucarias of the same growing age, close together and after observed,''^ equally exposed, it was the unusually severe winter of 1860-61, that, in the midst of the dying, numerous individuals remained which the on frost had absolutely made kind of impression. Dr. Lindno ley, after alluding to this and other similar cases, remarks, the lessons w^hich the late formidable winter has "Among in their power dividual of resisting cold, intaught us, is that, even of the same ent." species of plants are remarkably differ!Near Salisbury, there w^as a sharp frost on the night of May 24th, 1836, and all the French garis) beans (Phaseolus vul"
The
in
completely
but
two
bed
in
rows
the
year
1864, there
of scarlet-runners
390
thirty, which month, day of the same frost in Kent, and was severe a (P. muUiflorus) in my garden,
about
one
in
containing
were
plants of the
and killed
"
same
age
and about
all blackened
an
except
of Fulmer's dwarf garis), bean adjoining row (P. vulfrost one single plant escaped. A still more severe four days afterwards, and of the dozen plants wdiich occurred
Gard, 271. 1865. p. *^ For ttie magnolia, Lousee don's 'Gard. Mag.,' vol. xiii.,1837, For 21. camellias and p. roses, Gard. see .384. Chron.,' 1860. p. For Journal of the Hort.,' yew, March For 3rd, 1863, p. 174.
"56
In
Decaisne,
quoted
in
'
sweet
potatoes,
in
The p.
'
see
Col.
von
Siep.
Chronicle,'
bold,
822.
^s
Gard.
Chron.,'
'Gard.
1855,
Editor,
'
Chron.,' Mag.,'
vol.
1861,
^^
"
239. London's
p.
'
xii., 1836,
Gard. 378.
Chap.
XXIV.
ACCLIMATISATION.
291
previously escaped only three survived; these were not or more vigorous than the other j^oung plants,but they the tips of their leaves escaped completely, with not even It was browned. impossible to behold these three jihiiits, with their blackened, withered, and dead brethren all around, and not see at a glance that they differed widely in constitutional of resistingfrost. power This w^ork is not the proper place to show that wild plants of the same species,naturally growing at different altitudes different latitudes, under become to a certain extent or matised, accliis as proved by the different behaviour of their seedlings
taller when raised
in
had
another
to must
some
country.
cases,
In
'
my
Origin
add
many
of
Species
others.
states
'
I have
alluded
and
I could
instance
G rigor, of from
is the
Forres,'"
forests of
one-
seedlings
seed from
of
fir (Pinus
and
sylvestris)^
raised
the Continent
"
two-year-old seedlings; but the the second effects of the winter formly year's growth almost union make those from the Continent quite brown, and so of March saleable, they are quite undamaged, that by the month
so
The
in
difference
perceptiblein
while the
same
the
plants from
and rather
can
the native
Scotch
pine, under
siderably conso
treatment,
standing
stouter
alongside, although
and from
shorter, are
the from been beds the of the
one
quite
the
green,
that
seen
be known
a
other
when facts
distance with
of
mile."
Closely similar
have
observed
seedling larches.
would alone
be
Hardy
whilst be
varieties but
valued
or
in
tender
varieties, requiring
such the often
elm
more
warmtli,
Thus
Europe, genernlly
descii])es
nnd that of
occasionally arise.
which killed
evei-green,
by
frosts,
some
so
its
the
is of little value.
more are more
Horticulturists
than than others: thus
that
varieties
of
much
tender tender
varieties
is much
foniid
ni a
broccoli
"
cabbages;
difference
ness
dilTerfrn-Mt
lin i.nt or tnoni
.
^0 Gardener's isnr.. p. Chron..' Mr. 699. G. Maw gives (' Gard. of Chron.' 1S70, p. 895)' a nnmber home he bronght striking cases; northand from southern Spain Africa several ern plants, which in he cultivated alongEngland northern from gide specimens
districts;
lie
only
tlie
of
tli.-ir Iimt.
dnring
tiohavionr
the
''^
'
winter,
some
the
during
snnuner.
_
Arhorct_nm
et
^. Frutioetnm,
^
292
this
LAWS
OF
VARIATION.
Chap.
XXIV.
ence
in
respect in the
kinds
are a
broccoli;
white thermometer tender much
the
pink
falls
and
"
but
purple they
24" and
little hardier be
Cape broccoli,
than the
are
not
"
to
depended
varieties
after
below
;
are
the
Walcheren
broccoli
which
is less
Cape,
cold than
raised
several
severer
than
Walcheren.'''^
one
with
Queen
various With
Whites,''* were
found
may under
be
much
more
other
would
seedlings.
succeed
is
It
be
a
presumed
climate that hot-house certain
that
warmer
varieties
better
well
ours.
fruit-trees, it
known
in
a
better
of the peach, stand varieties, for instance than this shows either others; and constitutional difference. The
ing forc-
bility plia-
same organisation or some forced, has been observed cessive during succherry-tree when its to of F ew change vegetation.'^'^ gradually period years Alba of but resist the heat a Multiffora stove, pelargoniums can stand skilful gardener asserts, will, as a most pine-apple top and heat the whole bottom drawn winter, without looking any more if it had than in a common and Blanche Fleur stood greenhouse; for growing in winter, if it had been made as on seems purpose There like many can bulbs, and to rest all summer." hardly be a must the have doubt that Alba a Midtiflora pelargonium widely
of
individual
"
^**
different
from
that withstand
of
most
even an
other the
"
varieties and
of
this
plant;
We
probably
that been
equatorial climate.
vine West
two
according
to observed at
to
Labat
wheat
quire re-
in order
succeed
in the
:
Indies.
lar Simi-
Madras
Europe, the of below that temperature is much at the same time: both sown they vegetated equally all died off a few favourably, but the former days after they appeared above ground; the latter still survive, and are vigorous, healthy plants." So again, tiirnipand carrot seed saved at Hyderabad to answer found better at Madras than seed from are Europe from the Cape of Good Mr. J. Scott of the Calcutta or Hope." Botanic that seeds of the sweet-pea {Lathyrus Gardens, informs me odoratus) imported from England thick, produce plants, with blossom and rigid stems and small leaves, which never rarely yield seed blossom seed; plants raised from French sparingly,but all the flowers are sterile; on the other hand, plants raised from sweet-peas near Darjeeling in Upper India, but originally derived from grown be successfully cultivated the plains of India; for England, can on
other
direct
from
the
mean
"
"
Mr.
'
Journal
23.
of
'"'
Mr.
Beaton,
March Mab
in
'
Pottage
of the Bonavla, Report 1866. See. of Agri.-Hort. Oudh,' ^* Cottage Gardener,' 1860, April 24th, p. 57. "'Gardener's Chronicle,' 1841,
'
'
Dr.
1860, p. 377. staud will also Queen stove See heat. Gardener's Chronicle,' 1845, p. 226. ^7 Q^rdener's Chronicle/ 1841, p. 439.
' "
Gardener,'
20th.
p. 291.
Chap. XXIV.
ACCLIMATISATION.
293
they flower
dent.
to me,
and
seed of the
and profusely,
their
as
stems
are
hix has
to
and
scan-
In the
some
foregoing
may
eases,
Dr.
be
Hooker
remarked the
seeds
greater
more
success
perhaps
a
attributed
fully ripened under this view but can hardly be extended plants, which, from being cultivated
their native
one,
having been
more so
favourable
cliiiiiite;
to under
become
to
still hotter
can
climate.
certain colder
We
extent
may
come betin-ir
therefore
safely conclude
a
plants
either have
to
a or
accustomed
own;
hotter
more
than
been
frequentlyobserved.
acclimatisation of varieties the effects of
that
consider
the
means
by which
appearance
may
be
having
habit.
a
different
In
evidence
change
in
in
any
of with
the
offspring necessarily
of the climate that it is certain
stands
direct
relation On
the nature
inhabited
by the parents.
tender varieties New
to
the contrary,
same
hardy and
same
of the
country. fitted
varieties
slightly different climates in two different either as seedlings or have the power, they may ; firstly, ways cow when full-grown, of resisting intense cold, as with the Moskinds of of resistingintense heat, as with some or pear, withstand frost, as severe Pelargonium, or the flowers may become with the Forelle pear. adapted Secondly, plants may from flowering to climates widely different from their own, In both and fruiting either earlier or later in the season.
these
cases
the the
power
of
acclimatisation
by
man new
consists varieties. of
simply
But
a
in
selection
any
and
preservation of
on
without hardier
direct
intention
his
part
be variety, acclimatisation may seed, and by effected by merely raising tender plants from occasionallyattempting their cultivation further and further
securing unconsciously
northwards,
as
in
the
case
of
maize, the
to
orange
and
the
peach.
How habit is
a or
much
custom
more can
influence
in the
ought
be
attributed
of animals
many
come
to
inherited and
acclimatisation
plants
natural
much
difficult
question. In
failed to have
cases
selection
hardly have
weather and
It is notorious
storms
of
snow
294
lowland
LAWS
OF
VARIATION.
Chap. XXIV.
breeds; but
from
been
then
mountain
sheep have
all delicate
been
thus
exposed
will with have
the
time
immemorial,
and
individuals So
can
destroyed, and the hardiest preserved. and India; who Arrindy silk-moths of China
far natural of the
two
selection
races,
may
have
are
taken
now
share
in the
which
fitted for
such the
It
so
seems
are
and
poor
winters
under when
of North
our we
habit; but
unless
mere
with their America, in contrast climate, have become adapted through reflect on the multitude of seedlings and that
none
annually raised
born habit On bred Good
a
in that country,
a
would
succeed
with
may
fitting constitution,
done
it is
possible that
Merino
have
nothing towards
when
we
the other
no
hand,
hear
during
Hope
"
great number
some
of generations cooler of
at
that
European
the
plants raised
parts
much
few
generations imported
to
in
India, withstand
than
must
same races
the hotter
or some
better
we
sheep
seeds
directly from
habit. We
are
^^
England,
that the
attribute conclusion of
influence
we
led to the
when
hear
from
JSTaudin
melons,
have long been cultivated in squashes, and gourds, which ISTorthern Europe, are comparatively more precocious, and ties less heat for maturing their fruit,than the varieneed much of the same speciesrecently brought from tropicalregions. of summer and winter wheat, barley, In the reciprocalconversion into each vetches and other, habit produces a marked few generations. The of a very same effect in the course of the varieties with maize, which, thing apparently occurs States of America, or into the Southern carried from when
Germany,
soon
became
to
accustomed
the
to their
new
homes.
With which
vine-plants taken
are
West than
Indies
from
Maderia,
in
said to succeed
nee,
we
better
some
Era
have
degree of acclimatisation
dividual in-
varieties
by
common
is of experience of agriculturists
Asa
some
value,
1865,
Quoted
by
Gray,
in
'
Am.
Joiirn.
of
Sci.,'2ncl
series, Jan.
p. 106.
Chap. XXIV.
ACCLIMATISATION.
205
in trying llin
ancient
to be cautious they often advise persons in another. productions of one The country
and
a^'ri-
cultural
writers
of China
recommend
the
preservation and
cultivation the
of the varieties
Durinj;
pecus
classical
Vernaculum
I
or
am
aware
plants has
in most
attempt
deserves
to be thus
new
called,if made
dependen inwith
of the
a
production of
With
varieties endowed
different
constitution.
rarely produces any generations. The laurel, bay, through successive seminal the Jerusalem laurestinus, "c., and artichoke, which are tender as propagated by cuttings or tubers, are probably now first introduced; and this appears to be in England as when until recently was seldom with the potato, which the case plants propagated by seed, and multiplied by seed. With unless with animals, there will be little or no acclimatisation either intentionallyor unconindividuals the hardier sciously are vanced kidney-bean has often been adpreserved. The dier harhas not become instance of a plant which as an
habit since its first introduction
on
into
Britain.
some
We
excellent
from
that authority,^"
very
abroad, produced plants " which blossomed most nearly all abortive, whilst plants grown profusely, but were
English seed podded abundantly;" and this lish degree of acclimatisation in our Engapparently shows some plants. We have also seen that seedlings of tbe kiilneyof resisting with a marked bean occasionally appear power far as I can separated hear, has ever frost: but no as one,
alongside from
hardy seedlings,so as to prevent accidental crossing,and after then gathered their seed, and repeated the process year It may, however, be objected with truth that natural year. selection ought to have had a decided effect on the hnrdin(^s3 have of our kidney-beans; for the tenderest individuals must spring, and the hardier presevere been killed during every
such
^"
For
China,
see
les Chinois,' torn, p. Carlier, is quoted Columella by ia ' Jour, de Phys.,' t, xxiv., 1784.
Rur
so
"
Mossrs.
Ilnnly
niiil
Son,
In
00.
Gardeuer's 589.
Cbrouicle,'
1S50,
p.
53
296
served. increased But
LAWS
OF
VARIATION.
Chap.
XXIV.
it should
be borne
in
mind
that
the
result
of
simply be that gardeners, who are their would sow always anxious for as early a crop as possible, seed a few days earlier than formerly. Now, as the period of the soil and elevation of each district, on sowing depends much
hardiness would and often been varies with
the
season;
and
as
new
varieties
have
feel sure that our we imported from abroad, can hardier ? I have not been able, kidney-beans are not somewhat this question by searching old horticultural works, to answer
satisfactorily.
given show that,though habit towards does something acclimatisation, yet that the appearance of constitutionally different individuals is a far As no single instance has been recordeffective agent. ed more ing either with animals plants of hardier individuals havor been long and steadily selected, though such selection is of any admitted to be indispensable for the improvement has done little other character, it is not surprising that man
On
now
the whole
the facts
in the acclimatisation
of domesticated
animals
and
cultivated
nature
new
plants. We
races
need
not,
however, doubt
become
that under
and
new
species would
ent differ-
Arrests
of Development:
of structure
as
Rudimentary
from
to
and
Aborted
Organs.
so
Modifications
or so
arrested called
development,
are
great
not
serious
to
deserve
be
monstrosities,
frequent infrom
animals, but, as they differ much structure, they require only a passing notice.
may limbs be
domesticated
Thus
head the
sometimes
represented by a soft nipple-like tion, projecof limbs rudiments by mere papillae. These in a dog." inherited, as has been observed
appear
arrest to to be
Many
What the
case
lesser anomalies
cause
due
to arrested seldom
development.
except in
does not
cause
the
of the
at
of direct
act
injury
an
know,
the
That
generally
infer
early embryonic period we may being wholly aborted, a rudiment ears are being generally preserved. The external sented reprein in another Chinese breed of and a vestiges by mere sheep ;
from the affected
organ
"
extremely
"
to
little button,
'
suffocated Transact.,'
in
man-
Hist torn.
"
Isid. Geoffrov Saint-Hilaire, Nat. des Anomalies,' 1836, 11. pp. 210, 223, 224, 395;
Pliilosoph.
1775,
p.
313.
298
LAWS
OF
VARIATION.
Chap.
XXIV.
laws
govern
the
changes
in the
which
natural of
species and
artificial varieties
of the Comone undergo, species to the abortion of the be traced positae,a tendency pappus may to the centre in of the disc as extending from the circumference the so-called of the same doubling of the liowers in the members is only family. Thus, according to A. de Jussieu,** the abortion in C. lanatus; for extended creticus, but more partial in Carthamus three of the central seeds in this species only two furnished or are the seeds either with or a surrounding being quite naked pappus, furnished the vrith a few hairs; and lastly in C. tinctorius, even central seeds destitute of pappus, and the abortion is complete. are under animals and when With domestication, an plants organ has the loss disappears, leaving only a rudiment, generally been
that
Carthamus,
sudden,
be ranked the loss has with have
as
with
as
hornless
and
breeds;
But
and
such few
cases cases
inherited
monstrosities.
and has
in of
some
been
gradual, rudimentary
that the
effected Avattles
partly by selection, as
certain birds of fowls. have the
combs
also
seen
wings
domesticated
slightly
in certain aided
reduced
the
great
reduction
wings
been
rudiments
left, has
probably
by
disuse.
With
state
of nature,
organs
;
are
rudimentary
organs
are
Such have
naturalists
observed
regulated
by natural
The become
liable to reversion.
parts which
We do
not
and they are less selection, more or rule certainly holds good with same rudimentary under domestication.
what
through
steps under
nature
tary rudimen-
passed in being reduced to their present condition; but we incessantly see in species of the same group the finest gradations between in and an a rudimentary organ must perfect state, that we are led to believe that the passage have been extremely gradual. It may be doubted whether a change of structure so abrupt as the sudden loss of an organ would be of ser\'^ice to a species in a state of nature ever ; for the conditions all organisms to which are closely adapted did suddenly usually change very slowly. Even if an organ individual disappear in some by an arrest of development, one intercrossing with the other individuals of the same species would tend its that its to cause partial reappearance; so final reduction could only be effected by some other means. The rudimost probable view is, that a part which is now
organs
*"
'
Annales
du
Museum,'
torn.
vi. p.
319.
Chap.
XXIV.
ARRESTED
DEVELOPMENT.
to
same
200
hal)its of
mentary,
used
was
less and
changed
time
life,
reduced
disuse, until
But
as
last it became
or
by superHuous.
into action action
in size
most
an
parts
their
organs
not
or
brought
decreased
during
not
will
at
a
lead
reduction
age; ages
same
until
the
organism
will
arrives
somewhat
at to
advanced
and
from
the
the
or
stage of growth.
the As rudiments.
The
part
as a we
will
to be
thus
case
retain
embryo,
soon as
know
the
with
part becomes
will
come
useless, another
into
growth,
an
play, as
to
severe
organism
of
exposed
any
the
velopme de-
useless
part;
a
individuals
having the
over
slight advantage
others.
justly remarked, as soon as a part is much reduced, the saving from its further reduction will be be effected by natuutterly insignificant ral ; so that this cannot selection. This holds if the part be manifestly good formed of mere cellular tissue,entailing little expenditure of
as
But,
Mr.
Mivart
has
nutriment.
How
can
the
further
reduction That
of
an
somewhat
part be effected?
Nature
organs
this has
repeatedly
which
merest
is shown
in
a
'*''
by the many
exist between
perfect state
His
:
much
can
far
are
as what some-
it
be
given in
when it is
a
few
words, is
in
as
follows round
all parts
variable
and
fluctuate
size
average
cause
point.
to
Now,
great
part has
direction
very
crease, deas
should
be
in the
of diminution; have
not
previous reduction
favourable for its
'
shows
circumstances whilst
wouUl,
three to
development;
'
there
owinp:
hut
is nothing
to intcrrrossdrcroase. comuuinirn-
89 I suffgestecl in Nature (vol. with viii. pp. 482, 505) that organunfavourable isms to subjected would all the conditions parts that tend towards and reduction,
tion
In
slowly inj,',
tions
stcailily
subsequ"'nt
April
Romanes
0.
under
such
circumstances
was
not
kept
natural
up
any to
TJ, 'Nature' (.Mai"'h Mr. and .July L\ is.lt. his luipruved gives
view,
size
by
selec-
300
check
the
LAWS
OF
VARIATION.
Chap.
XXIV.
variations
in
the
opposite direction.
greater
If
this
be
so,
long
an
with
individuals
furnished
degree towards
decrease
steadily lead
absolute
to its diminution.
abortion
in
or
which will be discussed principle, the chapter on into action. pangenesis, probably comes With animals and plants reared by man there is no severe the principle of recurrent struggle for existence, and of
a
part,
distinct
economy
an
come
into
action,
So few
so
that
the
reduction
of
organ
thus in
be aided.
some
being the
that
instances
which
are
naturally rudimentary partially in the domesticated descendants. Thus redeveloped cows, other ruminants, properly have four active and two like most but in our domesticated rudimentary mammae; animals, the latter occasionally become considerably developed and yield milk. The atrophied mammae, which, in male domesticated have in some to full animals, including man, rare cases grown The size and secreted milk, perhaps offer an analogous case. of a fifth toe, hind feet of dogs naturally include rudiments in certain mentary, and large breeds these toes, though still rudibecome considerably developed and are furnished
become parent-species,
with
in the
claws.
In
the
in
common
Hen,
breeds
the
spurs
and
comb
are
rudimentary, but
of age stallion has
independently disease of the ovaria, well developed. The or of has only traces canine teeth, but the mare
certain
these
become,
the alveoli,which,
Mr.
as
am
informed
by the eminent
arian veterin-
irregular frequently contain minute become of bone. These nodules nodules, however, sometimes developed into imperfect teeth, protruding through the gums and coated with to a enamel; and occasionally they grow in the third of the length of the canines fourth even or a whether the redevelopstallion. With ment plants I do not know of rudimentary organs occurs more frequently under be culture than under nature. Perhaps the pear-tree may wild it bears thorns, which consist in point, for when a case
G. T. Brown, of branches
in
a
rudimentary
the
tree
condition
and
serve are
as
tion, protec-
but, when
into branches.
is
cultivated,they
reconverted
Chap.
XXV.
CORRELATED
VARIABILITY.
;.,,|^
CHAPTER
LAWS OF
XXV.
"
VARIATION,
of term
Continued
correlated
varlvbility.
Explanation
tions lated
correlated variation
Between the skin and dermal Between tlie appendages of and Correlated modifications sight hearing in tlie organs organs of plants Correlated monstrosities Correlation between the skull and and Skull of feathers crest Skull ears and horns Correlation of growth effects of natural complicated by the accumulated tion selecColour correlated with constitutional as peculiarities.
" " " "
correlation" Connected with development MtMlificuwith the increased decreased or size of parts" Corn-of homologous Feathered feet in birds assuming parts of the Correlation between the liead ami wings thu
"
" "
"
"
"
"
"
All
are
to
may
certain
extent
nected con-
be
so
slight that
it
at
or
the buds on the animals compound or Even in the higher animals tree. various parts are not all closely related; for one be wholly suppressed part may
rendered
monstrous
without
in
some
any
other
when
one
part of the
body
being affected.
other
vary;
But
cases,
always, or nearly always, simultaneously tion. they are then subject to the law of correlated variaThe whole body is admirably co-ordinated for the peculiar
parts
of life of each of
may
be said,
as
Argyll insists in his Reign of Law,' to be correlated for this purpose. of animals Again, in large groups certain structures always co-exist: for instance, a peculiar form of stomach tures with teeth of peculiar form, and such strucmay
cases
in
no
one
sense
be said
to
be correlated. with
we
But
to
have
necessary
connection
the
not
law know
in the initial
any way
or
present
chapter; for
of
do
that the
were
primary
related:
variations
the
several
parts
in
was
ences individiinl differor slight modifications and then in another have been preserved, first in one may part, until the final and perfectly co-adnptod stru(^tiire acquired; but to this subject I shall presently recur. in many
groups
Again,
of animals
the
males
alone
arc
fur-
302
nished and with
LAWS
OF
VARIATION.
Chap.
XXV.
weapons,
or
are
ornamented
with
gay
colours;
tion sort of correlamanifestly stand in some for when with the male the latter reproductive organs, shown destroyed these characters are disappear. But it was in the twelfth peculiarity may chapter that the very same these characters become attached
at
any
age to
to
either
same
sex,
sex
and
at
a
afterwards
be
exclusively transmitted
age.
the
corresponding
by both
sex
In
age
;
cases
we no
have
reason was
inheritance for
limited
and
cause
have
of
variation
organs,
or
reproductive
In
cases see
the age of the affected being. correlated sometimes variation, we are of the connection
; but
with
able to
in most
cases cases.
it
is hidden
and
We
can
which
parts whether
first
the
ries, va-
and
are
two
the
an
some
Correlated
variation
important subject for us; for when one part is modified either by man under selection, through continued or nature, other parts of the organisation will be unavoidably modified. From this correlation it apparently follows that with our domesticated animals fer difand plants,varieties rarely or never from another one by a single character alone. is that a modiof the simplest cases of correlation fication One which arises during an early stage of growth tends to the subsequent influence development of the same part, as of other well as and intimately connected parts. Isidore that this may states Geoffrey Saint-Hilaire constantly be in the animal with monstrosities observed kingdom ; and Moremarks, that, as with plants the axis cannot quin-Tandon it in some without become monstrous affecting the organs way subsequently produced from it, so axial anomalies are almost in the alw^ays accompanied by deviations of structure zled appended parts. We shall presently see that with short-muzof the dog certain histologicalchanges in the basal races
is
^ ^ ^
'
iii. p.
plies oonnting
though
torn. ap-
tem
on
for
the
in acprinciple remarkable,
normal,
of
arrangement
in
the
sys-
in his paper Molhisca, of the Morphology Cephain TransIons Phil. Mollusca, act.,' ^853, p. 56. ^ Elements de Teratologie Veg.,' 1841, p, 13. the
' "
in
the
Chap.
XXV.
CORRELATED
VARIABILITY.
303
elements
of the
this
bones
them,
and
affects the
veloped molar
insects.
too
teeth.
development and shorten position of the subsequently duIt is probable that certain modifications
arrest
their
would
of the
ture ma-
must
be careful
course
this view
far, for
pass
during
the normal
an
of
development,certain
species
whilst
other
through
of structure.
simple
decreased
case
of correlation
is that
with
or
the
creased in-
dimensions
organs
are
body,
of any diminished in
are
otherwise
modified.
selecting pouters
their vertebras
are
that in
generally increased
bodies, and
their
not
only
and
number,
and
Tumblers
ribs
have
selected
primary
Fantails with tails,
are
wing-feathers
have been
numerous
increased for
in
size and
number.
their
Carriers tongues
the
becr)me
longer, but
In
with
length of beak.
ber num-
in others
the toes
than
in tlie breeds be
with
small
feet.
Many
similar
could
given.
In
Germany
it has
been
observed
that the
period of gestation is
our longer in large than in small breeds of cattle. With highly-improved breeds of all kinds, the periods of maturity with respect to the age of and of reproduction have advanced the animal; and, in correspondence with this, the teeth are developed earlier than formerly, so that, to the surprise now the ancient rules for judging of the age of of agriculturists, an
animal
by the
state
of its teeth
are
no
longer trustworthy.
Parts."
manner;
Correlated
are
Variation
been
on
of Homologous
in the
same
Pavt^ and
are
which
this
is
homologous tend
might
Prof J. B.
to vary
what
"
"
have
expected,for
the
such
Ox,
parts
Sheep,
identical
In
Simonrls,
Age
of
the
"c., quoted
Gard.
Chronicle,'
1854,
p. 588.
304
LAWS
OF
VARIATION.
Chap.
XXV.
in
form
and
structure
are
development, and
conditions. The
during exposed
an
symmetry,,
womb of
to
similar
animals, of the
the right and left corresponding or homologous organs on in point ; but this symsides of the body, is the simplest case metry with sometimes rabbits having only one as fails, ear, or horn, or with many-horned one stags with sheep which sometimes heads.
With
carry
an
additional which
in
horn
on
one
side
of
their
flowers
vary
have
same
the flowers, for symmetrical pattern, on instance, of the Chinese pink; but with irregular flowers, though the petals are of course homologous, this symmetry often
the
in
the
fails,as with
or
or
dragon, snap-
that
variety of the
the
kidney-bean (Phaseolus)
and hind limbs
are
which
has
standard-petal.
Vertebrata front ogous, homolsee
In
in the
they tend to vary in the same as we manner, long and short legged, or in thick and thin legged races
horse and
of the
dog.
Isidore
Geoflroy* has
remarked
on
digits in man tendency of supernumerary the right and left sides, but on the on
Meckel the
arm
to appear, upper
not
only
tremities. ex-
and
lower
has
insisted
that, when
the muscles
of
from their proper or depart in number arrangement always imitate those of the leg; and so type, they almost conversely the varying muscles of the leg imitate the normal muscles of the
arm.
pigeon and fowl, the legs and the two outer toes are heavily feathered, so that in the like little wings. pigeon they appear trumpeter In the " " the boots feather-legged bantam or feathers,which grow from the outside of the leg,and generally from the two outer the excellent to toes, have, according authority of Mr. Hewitt,'been seen to exceed the wing-feathers in length, and in one case were actually nine and a half inches long! As Mr. these leg-feathers resemble to me, Blyth has remarked the primary wing-feathers, and are totally unlike the fine
*'Hist. i- P- ^"5'4.
"
of the
des
Anomalies,'
Isid. 635.
torn.
'
Quoted
torn.
by
1. p.
Geoffroy,
W. 250.
tj^^ B.
Ponltrv
Tegetmeier,
Book,' 1866,
by
page
ibid.,
306
selected
LAWS
OF
VARIATION.
Chap.
XXV.
point, the
creased incase
some
kind
of correlation
is
seen
to exist between
the
feet and
beak:
several
specimens have been sent to Mr. Bartlett at and fowls, and I ducks times, as hybrids between these were, as might be expected, ordinary one;
a
in
semi-monstrous between
in all the
condition, and
the beak
toes
was was narrow
in
all of
them
or
quite deficient
and
in
the increased
in
length, but likewise the orifice of the But the increased nostrils. length of the orifice of the nostrils perhaps stands in closer correlation with the development of the corrugated skin or wattle at the base of the beak, the eyes, the eyelids are wattle round there is much for when in length. doubled greatly increased or even tween in colour becorrelation There is apparently some even
the head and
or
the
on
Thus is
with
horses
blaze
feet." With
on
co-exist
the
tips of the
and
on
the
feet.
spots dogs of different breeds, tan-coloured feet almost tan-coloured and invariably go the eyes over be of connected latter cases colouring may together. These due either to reversion or to analogous variation, subjects to but this does not necessarily which I shall hereafter return, Mr. H. the question of their original correlation. determine
"
"
W.
Jackson
informs
me
that
he
has
observed
many
or
white-footed
more cats, and he finds that all are the front of with white marked on
the
chest. of the immense ears lopping forwards and downwards of fancy rabbits seems partly due to the disuse of the muscles, have and partly to the weight and length of the ears, which generations. ISTow, been increased by selection during many not size and changed direction of the ears with the increased become changed in outonly has the bony auditory meatus The
9
'
vol. who
Naturalist,' and Farrier The A gentleman i.. 1828, p. 456, this to attended point, has
tells me of white
that
faced
legs.
Chap.
XXV.
CORRELATED
VARIABTTilTY.
OA'r oq
"
greatly in size, but the whole skull has been slightlymodified. This could be clearlyseen in half" in that rabbits with only one is, lops ear lopping forward for the opposite sides of their skulls were not strictly metrical. symThis seems to me curious instance of a correlation, hard bones and organs between soft and flexible, so well as as under so unimportant a physiological point of view, as the external The result no doubt is largely due ears. to mere
"
"
line, direction,and
mechanical
same
ears,
on
the
principle
by
skin
human
infant
is
easily
modified The
pressure.
and
the
appendages
over
of
homologous
colour
so
knows
vary
that
the
of the that
skin
usually
the skin
together ;
the mouth should
not
and be
tongue
black, lest
of the
purely white.
emitted
even
The
colour
hair, and
said^** to
the
odour
skin,
men.
be
connected,
the
same
race
of
all over the Generally the hair varies in the same way and curliness. The same rule holds body in length, fineness, with the laced and frizzled see good with feathers, as we breeds both of fowls and pigeons. In the common cock the the neck and loins are feathers always of a ])articulnr on in the Polish breed, both sexes are shape, called hackles : now characterized correlation of hackles.
by
The
tuft of feathers
on
thr()nn:h
the form
these feathers
in the male
always
assume
parts
or
not
short
case
tail-feathers, though arising from homologous, vary in length together; so that long winged pigeons generally have long or short tails. curious, for the wing of the Jacobin-pigeon is more wing
and
are
remarkably
with
in
correlation
are
often born
of
^^
'
with
negro.
twisted
'
like that
Sur
the head
torn.
pcculiarPuraguay,'
lOGodron, U. p. 217.
I'Espece,'
Quadnipedes
ii. p. 333.
torn.
308
LAWS
OF
VARIATION.
Chap.
XXV.
But
are manes
what
is remarkable
is that the
a
mule."
also of their
shorter
than
so
in
length;
as
that
shortness
of the hair
"
here,
apparently correlated. remarks that With respect to the horns of sheep, Youatt " multiplicity of horns is not found in any breed of much value; it is generally accompanied by great length and Several of the fleece." tropical breeds of sheep coarseness most alhair instead of wool, have horns clothed with which are Sturm like those of a goat. expressly declares that in
with the negro,
"
different
horns
are
races
the
more
the
wool
is curled
the
more
the
in the third chapWe have seen ter, spirallytwisted. where other analogous facts have been given, that the for its fleece, had breed, so famous parent of the Mauchamp The inhabitants of Angora assert peculiarlyshaped horns. the fleece in have horns wear that only the white goats which much the long curly locks that are admired; those which so From horned not having a comparatively close coat." are
"
these tend
cases
we
may
or
wool
and who
to vary
in
are
manner.^^
the whatever
Those
hydropathy
water
aware
that
stimulates
to increase
tends the
is well
abnormal Professor
growth
Low'^
of the
a
surfaces. different
on can
Now,
races
is convinced
skin
of British
the thus
first
12 "
humidity
see
which
how
humid
might
and
"lang
act
the horns
"
in the
place directly on
'
skin
hair, and
secondly by
"c.,
1*
'
142.
Kreuzungen,'
in from Conolly, Indian 1859, Field,' Feb. ii. p. 266. vol. 15 I have third In the chapter horns hair and said that the each to related are so closely that other, apt to vary they are Dr. Wilckens (" Dartogether." vrin's Jahrbuoh der Theorie." 1. Dentschen 1866. Viehzucht,' into words translates Heft) my
Qiioted
The
solThiere und grobhaarige iind len sein, lange geneigter and Horner viele zn bekommen," he then osition; justly disputes this propI have but what really the with thorities ausaid, in accordance I quoted, may, just
be trusted. of Animals Domesticated the British Islands,' pp. 307, 368. Dr. Wilckens (' Landargues Wochenblattp Nr. 10, 1869) wirth. effect with to the same respect to in domestic animals Germany.
"
think,
i"
'
'
Chap.
XXV.
CORRELATED
VARIABILITY.
300
absence of horns,
as
correlation
moreover,
on
the
in
horn".
the
case some
The of
presence
or
both
sheep
and
cattle,acts,
on
"
will
presently be shown, by
respect of the teeth deficient
in
a
sort
of correlation Yarrcll
"
the skull.
With
to hair
and
teeth, Mr.
hairless
found
many
in three The in
on
hairless suffered
one
all the
teeth, except
deficient.
the
With
large tubercular
man
molar
each have
side, were
been recorded"* of iidicrited striking cases baldness with inherited deficiency, either complete or partial, I may of the teeth. give an analogous case, communicated to me by Mr. W. Wedderburn, of a Hindoo family in Scinde,
in
several
which
ten
men,
in
the
course
of four
generations,
were
furnished,
and
men
in both
jaws taken
teeth have and
very
together,with
little hair
on
only four
small
weak
thus
incisor affected
with
the
bald weather
early
in
life.
from
excessive has
It is remarkable
that
no
instance and
occurred
daughter
much
women.
being thus
more
fected; afmen
how than
never
liable
in
bald
are
Though
has
the
mit trans-
family
they affected,
case
the tendency
a son
to
transmitting
in alternate
and
no
occurred
appears
of
affection thus
only
is
a
generations,or
between
rare cases
longer
and
intervals.
There
to
similar
connection
in those
teeth, according
the hair has
Mr.
Sedgwick,
in
a
in which
"
been
renewed
by
old age, for this has usually been remarked I have of the teeth." renewal
that boars the
accompanied
in
a
former
great reduction
diminished and
probably stands in close relation with of protecdue to a certain amount tion; bristles,
have
of the tusks in boars, which that the reappearance ably feral and are fully exposed to the weather, probbecome
add, of the bristles. I may depends on the reappearance with our connected present point,that an though not strictly their little hair on that "pigs with asserts agriculturist'"
"
'
Proceedings
113
'
Zoolog.
Brit, and
Soc.,'
For-
1833 p ^s'
elgn April,
^^
'
Medico-Chlnirg.
18(53. Gard.
p. 4.'.:',.
Review,'
p.
Sedgwick,
Chrou.,' 1849,
205.
310
bodies of the
LAWS
OP
VARIATION.
Chap.
XXV.
are
most
weakness
It may be prevented by crossing tegumental structure. with a more hairy breed." In the previous cases deficient hair, and teeth deficient in In the following number size, are apparently connected. or hair, and teeth either deficient or cases abnormally redundant Mr. Crawf urd at saw redundant, are likewise connected. Court the Burmese thirty years old, with his whole a man, body, except the hands and feet, covered with straight silky five inches in and the shoulders on spine was hair, which covered. He did not length. At birth the ear^ alone were arrive at puberty, or shed his milk teeth, until twenty years old; and at this period he acquired five teeth in the upper canine, and four incisor jaw, namely, four incisors and one small. This man teeth in the lower jaw; all the teeth were
'"
had
daughter who
soon
was
born
over
with
her
ears
and
^^
the hair
extended
Captain Yule
up;
nose
visited the
a
Court, he found
appearance
girl grown
even
and
she presented
ered cov-
strange
her
densely
furnished with father,she was incisor teeth alone. The bribed a King had with difiiculty teen to marry man her, and of her two children, one, a boy fourmonths old, had hair growing out of his ears, with a beard and moustache. This strange fore, peculiarity has, therebeen inherited for three generations, with the molar teeth deficient in the grandfather and mother; whether these Like teeth told. A with
case parallel
with
soft hair.
would
likewise
fail in
the
infant
could
not
then
be
of
man
their faces
Dr.
covered Brandt
son,
in
Russia.
case,
Alex.
account
of this
specimens of the extremely fine hair from The the cheeks. is deficient in teeth, possessing only man four incisors in the lower and two in the upper jaw. His
son,
together with
about
three
years
as an see
old, has
Dr.
arrest
no
teeth
except four
in in
lower
cisors. in-
case, to
Brandt of
remarks
his the
letter,no
is due
We
here
to
how
Court
Embassy
vol.
the
Ava,'
i. p. 320.
Court
N.irrative of Ava
of in
Mission p. 94.
to
1855,'
Chap.
XXV.
CORRELATED
VARIABILITY.
311
of
ditions Eussian
as
such of
a
arrests
must
native
of Burmah
ditferent
possible."
Here
to
is another
me
and
somewhat
on a
different
case
cated communi-
by Mr.
Julia
Wallace
dentist: fine
Pastrana,
but
was
the
woman,
she had
thick
masculine
and her
beard
and
photographed,
stuffed
skin
show; but what concerns us is, that she had in both the upper and lower jaw an irregular dcniblc set of -teeth, one row being placed within the other,of wliich Dr. Purland took a cast. From the redundancy of teeth her mouth and her face had a gorilla-likeappearance. projected, These and those of the hairless dogs forcibly call to cases mind the fact, that the two orders of mammals namely, the
at
a
"
exhibited
Edentata dermal
and
Cetacea
"
which
are
the most
abnormal
in their
abnormal either by covering, are likewise the most deficiency or redundancy of teeth. of sight and hearing are The generally admitted organs with one another and with various dermal to be homologous appendages; hence these parts are liable to be abnormally that in all affected in conjunction. Mr. White Cowper says of double cases microphthalmia brought under his notice he time defective has at the same with met develojiment of of blindness the dental system." Certain forms to be seem
"
associated and
a woman
with
of the hair;
man
with
black
hair
stitution, conwere
of sound
and
brown
amaurosis; iris,had
could various
that
coloured
Several relation
ears;
no
be
given, showing
affections of the of 241 the
that
eyes
exists
between
and
thus
Liebreich
states
out
deaf-mutes
rare
lin, in Ber-
less than
fourteen
suffered White
from
disease called
pigmentary retinitis.
remarked
"I cellent
owe
Mr.
to
that
to the
inability
kindness
of
M.
ex-
Chauman,
of
St.
Petersburg,
of
photographs
this
man
London.
312
LAWS
OP
VARIATION.
Chip.
XXV.
corresponding
Here
eyes,
are was
is
more
curious
case
white
I
rule
almost
heard
were
few
authentic
ceptions. ex-
relate to
English and Persian cats : T. Bree possessed a female, and he states, " that of the offspring produced at one and the same birth, such as, like the mother like her, were entirely white (with blue eyes) were, our invariably deaf; while those that had the least speck of coltheir fur, as invariably possessed the usual faculty of on The Rev. W. Darwin Fox informs that he hearing." me
""*
has
seen
more
than
dozen
instances
cats ; but
in
one
several other
common
times
observed, be
never was
"
cat cat
hand, I have
colour
that
white In
eyes
deaf."
years
France
Sichel
has
observed
case
during
twenty
similar
he adds of four
the remarkable
months,
to hear.
case
to
grow
of the iris
persons
maiwellous. blue
eyes
nothing unusual
we
in the
relation
tween be-
organs
white
have often
the cause the present instance slight arrest of development in the nervous
In
with
during the first nine to be completely closed, appear great clanging noise with a poker and
Kittens
taken male
cats
are
from
'
this in the must be a tion. generalisaSedgwick, hasty first recorded in The case July, Review,' Moflico-Cbirurg. Bree 455 to related ISGl, p. 198; April, 1863, pp. England by Mr. is quoted Fox and Liebreich and Mr. informs 458. female, a by Main his that he has bred kittens from Professor me Devay, white a female with blue 1862, p. 116. riages Consanguins,' eyes, -* he of Nat. which Loudon's was deaf; Mag. completely also has observed females 66, 178. other i., 1829, pp. Hist.,' vol. P. also See L'Her^d. in the Dr. condition. same Lucas, " the Zoi. p. 428, on heritance inAnnales des Sc. Nat.' torn. Nat.,' in cats. of deafness olog., 3rd series, 1847, torn, viiii Tait states Mr. ture,' Lawson (' Nap. 239. only 1873. p. 323) that
'
' '
These Mr.
statements
are
thus
affected;
but
'
314
the kernel
to
a
LAWS
OF
VARIATION.
Chap.
XXV.
are
purple." Pomologists
the
can
predict
of the
certain
size
and
appearance
nature
leaves
of their
Mons
seedlings, the
probable
modification
fruit;
erally gen-
for, as Van
in the in
flower, and
In
a
tortuous
plant, the
of the the other
peduncle
female
in
the middle
manner.
lobe On have
leaf, are
stems, of the
remarkable of
hand, several
varieties
as
Cucurbita, which
informs which flowers
me
dwarfed
same
produce,
Mr.
Naudin
Maw
peculiar shape.
scarlet
G.
varieties
or
Pelargoniums
contracted
its parent
"
contracted difference
"
imperfect leaves
"
have
"
the
between
instance
Brilliant of this.
and
Tom
Thumb
is
good
suspected that the curious case of a variety of the Orange which described by Risso,^" duces proshoots rounded leaves the with on winged petioles, young and afterwards elongated leaves on long but wingless with the remarkable petioles,is connected change in form which the fruit undergoes during its developand nature ment.
It may
be
In
the of the
form
on
and the have the colour following instance we petals apparently correlated, and both dependent of the
"
the nature
season.
An
writes,*^
Dahlia of which
"
noticed, during
the colour had
so a a
any
great
saw;
the
an
indentures inch
a
were,
in
instances, more
which
quarter of
deep." Again,
different colour and ing durformly unirieties, va-
Dahlias from
have of
petalstipped
are
with
the certain
'*
rest years
flower
or even
very
constant, with
flowers, become
several
coloured; and
that when and
28
it has
observed
gated elonmuch happens the petals grow lose their proper be shai)e. This, however, may
several other
^o
"
this
Verlot
'
gives
Des
Instances,
p. 72.
29
'
Varietes,' Fniitiers,'
1S65, 1836,
xx.
31
p.
'
du
Mus"um,* Chron.,'
p.
torn.
1843, p.
torn.
877.
32
204.
226.
i^i^
i845,
102.
Chap.
XXV.
CORRELATED
VARIABILITY.
in colour and
01-
due
form,
to
the
aborif^i-
In this discussion of
cases
on can
correlation, we
have
hitherto treated
nection; coneven
in which
we
but
I will
or can
now
conjecture,
the bond.
Isidore
only very obscurely see, the nature Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, in his work
of
(.n
" Monstrosities, insists,"' certaines anomalies que co-existent rarement d'autres entr'elles, frequemment, d'autres enfin la constamment, presque malgre difference, tres-grandc de leur et nature, quoiqu'ellespuissent paraitre completcmcnt indc-
pendantes
in certain
les
unes
des autres."
:
We
rare
see
something analogous
diseases
thus
in
the functions
are
and
in
hereditary syphilis,as
and the second Professor
are
hear
assume
from
a
Sir
J.
teeth
peculiar
a cular vas-
form.
sometimes
correlation other
cases
with
clubbed like acorns. finger-ends become explanation has been offered of these of correlated
can
of many
cases
disease.
than the intelligible the authority of Mr. Tegetmeier,
What fact
be
more
curious
and
less
previously given, on that young have pigeons of all breeds, which when mature dun-coloured out white, yellow, silver-blue, plumage, come or of the egg almost naked; whereas pigeons of other colours White when first born clothed with plenty of down? are in both observed England and Pea-fowls, as has been and as I have myself seen, are inferior in size to the France,^* for by be accounted coloured common kind; and this cannot tional is always accompanied by constituthe belief that albinism weakness; for white or albino moles are generallylarger
than To
"
'
the
common
kind.
to
more
turn
important
characters:
"
the
s.
niata
'
cattle
Ornti-
Dareste,
'
Conditions,'
torn. des Anomalios,' Cnmillo also See M. les Recherches sur "c., 1863, pp. 10, 48.
Dixon. 1S4S. mental rouitry.' ' Hist. Isidore (ieolTroy 211. i. torn. lies,' p.
ppy, r.
Ill; p. Auoiua-
316
of the
LAWS
OF
VARIATION.
Chap.
XXV
remarkable Pampas are upturned muzzles, and curved nasal and premaxillary bones
from lower
their
short
foreheads,
jaws. In the skull the much shortened, the maxilare from the laries are excluded junction with nasals, any to the plane of and all the bones are slightlymodified, even of the dog, hereafter the occiput. From the analogous case to be given, it is probable that the shortening of the nasal
and
adjoining
bones in the
is the
proximate
cause
of
the
other
skull, including the upw^ard curvature follow olit the steps by cannot of the lower jaw, though we which these changes have been effected. Polish fowls have a large tuft of feathers on their heads; and their skulls are holes, so that a perforated by numerous
modifications
pin
That the
can
be driven
this
into
the brain
without
some
touching
way
any
bone. with
geese
tendency
of feathers
of bone
is clear
is in
from
connected
tuft
tufted
The
case
ducks would
and
likewise be
having
perforated skulls.
by
In
some
probably
or
considered
authors
as on
one
of
balancement sho^vn
compensation.
with Polish
the
chapter
tuft
Fowls,
was
I have
that
probably at first selection it became larger, and then small; by continued it became still larger, rested on a fibrous mass as ; and finally, and more the skull itself became more protuberant until it acquired its present extraordinary structure. relation Through corof with the protuberance the skull, the shape and of the premaxillary and nasal the relative connection even of bones, the shape and orifice of the nostrils, the breadth the frontal bone, the shape of the post-lateral of processes the frontal and squamosal bones, and the direction of the ternal inThe bony cavity of the ear, have all been modified. configuration of the skull and the whole shape of likewise been altered in a truly marvellous the brain have
fowls the of feathers
manner.
After
to
this
case
do
more
than
in which
fowl
it would
be
manner
has
effected
of the fowl,
causing by correlation
protuberances, and
our
with
depressions on its surface. cattle and sheep the horns stand in close connection the size of the skull,and with the shape of the
Chap.
XXV.
CORRELATED
VARIABILITY.
'"
^j^
frontal
ram
bones; thus Cline found that the skull of a hornid weighed five times as much that of a hornless ram as of
age.
the
bones
same are
"
When
cattle
become in
hornless,the
breadth
""
frontal tho
not
bo
"materially diminished
the cavities between the do
towards
"
and
bony plates
are
they extend
It may be well here to pause and observe of correlated variability, of the increased use the accumulation natural We who
may
how
the cfTe('ts
of
of parts, and
of so-called spontaneous variations thron^di in many selection, are cases inextricably comniin^dcd. borrow
an
illustration the
one
from
Mr.
Herbert
Spencer,
ordinated co-
remarks
that, when
above
Irish hundred
elk acquired
its gigantic
horns, weighing
pounds,
numerous
"
ened
would have changes of structure been indispensable, thickened skull to carry the horns; strengtlinamely, a cervical vertebrie, with strengthened ligaments; enlarged dorsal vertebric
to
support
the
neck, with
powerful
fore-legsand feet; all these parts being supplied with proper and How then could these muscles, blood-vessels, nerves. modifications of structure admirably co-ordinated have been acquired? Accordiiig to the doctrine which I maintain, the horns of the male elk were slowly gained through sexual selection, that is, by the best-armed males concpiering the of descendants. worst-armed, and leaving a greater number
"
But
it is not
at
all necessary
that
the
several Each
same
parts
cf the
body should
individual which had
have
simultaneously varied.
stronger
necks,
secure
or
stronger
number greater
bodies, or
number
the
most
courageous,
would
the greater
does, and consequently have a greater of offspring. The inherit, in a offspring would ally occasionless degree, these same would qualities, or
with
one
of
intercross
another,
manner;
or
with and
other
individuals
varying
those
in
some were
favourable
of their
offspring,
tinue con-
which
in any
respect would
multiplying; and
in
35
"
one
direction, and
of Breeding 1829, p. 6. Domes-
sometimes
""
in another, towards
Yoiiatt
on
the
On
the
Cattle,
18.'{4, p.
tic
Animals,'
283.
318
LAWS
OF
VARIATION.
Chap.
XXV.
To make of the male elk. structure excellentlyco-ordinated in the this clearer, let us reflect on the probable steps, as shown and twentieth dray horses have race chapter, by which our could view arrived at their present state of excellence; if we the whole animals
a
forms
between
one
of these
early unimproved
of
vast
number
animals,
their
not
generation throughout
a
entire
little
on
more
in
one
yet
our
the
whole
race one or
another,
to
character
so
present
in
dray
for
horses, which
fleetness and
are
adinirably
other for
fitted
the
case
in
^^
the
draught. Although
the male inherited
natural
selection
would
thus
tend
to
give
to
structure, and
or
of the mutual
more
part, have
the and bones
equally
in
important.
horns
gradually increased
to
which
of the neck, with weight the muscles they are attached, would increase in size
these
parts would
the fact
react
on
the
body and
parts
of
overlook extremities
vary
that
certain
would,
in
a
judging
by
manner.
analogy,
The the
in
first to
increased
weight of the
same manner a
horns
as
would when
directly on
is removed
carry
skull, in the
the leg of
bone
from the But weight and hornless cattle,it is fact given with respect to horned probable that the horns and skull would immediately act on Lastly, the each other through the principle of correlation. of the augmented and tear growth and subsequent wear increased would and bones supply of muscles require an
"
dog, the other bone, which has to in thickness. of the body, increases
the whole
Mr. of
Hpi-bort
Spencer
a
Biology,'
takes
reason one
lSf)4. vol.
different remarks:
to think the
452,
and have
as
408)
in
seen
place
essential
as
producing
and
of
that,
mulin any number
fast
as
faculties
as
tiplv,
of
and
fast
organs
that
co-operate increases,
to constitution of that This ural natview conditions." do In little selection can prises surthe higher animals modifying man's lection seseeing that me, effected has undoubtedly domesticated much with our birds. and quadrupeds
general
fitness
Chap.
XXV.
CORRELATED
VARIABILITY.
319
blood, and consequently increased supply of food; and this of mastication, again would require increased powers tion, digesand excretion. respiration,
Colour It is between of the Thus
an as
with that
Constitutional
with
man
Peculiarities.
is
a
there
connection
some
complexions
best
and
constitution; and
believe
in
I find that
authorities
this to
'"
the
a
Dr.
between
eyes, army
that
the colour
*"
hair,
and
has
been
affirmed
which from
invaded the
intense
cold better
But
no
having a dark complexion southern the parts of Europe, withstood than those with lighter complexions from
doubt such
on
Russia, soldiers
the north. In
cases
statements
are
liable to
error.
the
second
chapter
with
Selection and
I have
given several
in
proving that
are
animals with
plants differences
correlated
by greater
the
attacks
differences, as from certain diseases, less immunity or of parasitic plants and animals, from
and from the action
one
constitutional
scorching by the
When all the
sun,
of certain
possess
poisons.
an
individuals
we
of this nature,
sort
of any do not
variety
when
munity im-
know
that it stands
in any
of correlation coloured
with
varieties other
species are
are
thus
acterised, char-
whilst
we
coloured
varieties of
a
thus
favoured,
must
correlation
of this kind.
purple-fruited plums of many affected by a certain disease than green far more kinds are other the hand, yellowyellow-fruited varieties. On or disease another fleshed peaches of various kinds suffer from
Thus,
much
more
than
sugar-canes
the
white-fleshed
are
varieties.
In
the i^Iauria
much
canes.
by
particular
verbenas
green-
than
most grapes Prosper
the
white
to
and
the
liable
mildew;
from
Spain
the
more
fruited
88
suffered
Lucas
in
the
""
'
vine-disease
British
433.
'
than
Ji.urnal.'
Dr.
apparent-
Medical
18^52, p.
"
Boudin
torn.
M6dlGjV)j:raph. 40b.
cale,'
1. p.
320
LAWS
OF
VARIATION.
Chap.
XXV.
other
coloured
are
varieties.
more
Dark-coloured
pelargonmms
than
to
more
and of
verbenas other
scorched wheats
by
are
the
sun
varieties hardier
colours.
Red
believed
were
be
than
white; and
one
red-flowered
in
hyacinths
Holland
injured during
coloured from
in
particular winter
With white white chickens
than
other
most
parasitic worm
their
cheae, tra-
pigs from scorching by the sun, and white cattle which of the silk-moth from but the caterpillars yield flies; in from the less France suffered white cocoons deadly parasitic fungus than those producing yellow silk.
The
cases
of immunity
from with
the
action
of certain
more
table vege-
poisons,in connection
and
are
colour, are
interesting,
already given remarkable Wyinstance, on the authority a ing of all the hogs, excepting those of a black colour,sufferman, severely in Virginia from eating the root of the Lachwheat tinctoria. nanthes According to Spinola and others,"buckjurious (Polygonum fagopyrum), when in flower,is highly into white white-spotted pigs, if they are exposed or to black pigs. but is quite innocuous to the heat of the sun, crispum in Sicily According to two accounts, the Hypericum is poisonous to white sheep alone; their heads swell, their wool falls off,and they often die; but this plant, according in swamps; it grows nor to Lecce, is poisonous only when how know is this improbable, as we readily the poisonous under by the conditions principle in plants is influenced
at
Professor
which
they
grow.
Prussia, published in Eastern and white-spotted horses being greatly injured by of white and honeydewed vetches ; every spot of skin eating mildewed and inflamed hairs becoming gangrenous. bearing white
Three
accounts
have
been
The about
Rev.
J. Rodwell
informs
into
me a
that
his father
turned
in
out
which
no
parts
were
swarmed
"
black
aphides, and
39) p. spotted
even
doubt
the following the to stated from taken a are very contrary, HenProfessor curious by paper fiir Wochenschrift in singer, 277. 1846. s. May, Heilkunde,' 1868, Settegast (' Die Thierzucht,' This fact when cases,
not
'
sheep
from
black
are
white-
piffs,
or
die
eating
or
whilst
dividuals affected.
not
322
LAWS
OF
VARIATION.
Chap.
XXVI.
CHAPTER
LAWS
OF
XXVI. continued
The
"
VARIATION,
SUMMARY.
The
fusion
of homologous
"
parts
"
gous homoloRelative
ovary,
parts Compensation of growth position of flowers with respect to the variation or Analogous as inducing
"
Mechanical
pressure
"
axis, and
of seeds
"
in the
parallel varieties
Summary
of
the
three
last chapters.
Parts. Geoffroy Saint-Hiof Homologous de laire formerly propounded what he called la loi de Vaffinite soi pour soi, which has been discussed and illustrated by his The Fusion
"
son,
Isidore, with
and
respect
to
monsters
in
the
animal
to
dom,^ kingparts
there mately inti-
by
Moquin-Tandon,
seems
with
respect
that unite. such
monstrous
to
imply
and then
homologous
No doubt
another
cases,
many
wonderful fused
in which
parts become
or
in monsters together. This is perhaps best seen with two to summit, united, summit heads, which are face to face, or Janus-like, back to back, or obliquely side side. In
a a one
to
instance
of two
heads
united
almost
face
to
face, but
one
side
developed, and on obliquely,four ears were by the manifestly formed perfect face, which was
little half -faces. Whenever
two
fusion
are
of two
bodies
or
two
heads
the line of on united, each bone, muscle, vessel, and nerve if it had sought out its fellow, and had as junction appears who become fully carecompletely fused wath it. Lereboullet,' in the development of double monsters studied fishes, heads in fifteen instances the steps by which two observed In all such cases it is into one. united gradually became of capable judges that now thought by the greater number each other, but that in the homologous parts do not attract "As union takes place before the the words of Mr. Lowne :
^ 1
'
Hist,
des
Anomalies.'
torn.
1832,
iii. pp. cal
"
Catalogue
Comptes
1855,
855, 1029.
Chap.
XXVI.
VARIABILITY
OF
HOMOLOGOUS
PARTS.
323
in
differentiation of distinct
organs
occurs,
these that
*
are
formed
He
case
adds become
organs
already
to
united
gous homolo-
M.
Dareste of
sot
does
not
speak
against
se
the law
pour
soi,but concludes
des monstres, si parfaitement compte de la formation les embryons qui se soudent Ton admet appartionucnt a que oeuf; qu'ils s'unissent en meme un meme tem])S qu'ils se forment, et que la soudure ne se produit que pendant la premiere la vie de celle les embryonnaire, ou periode ne organcs rend
sont
encore
constitues
means
que
par
homogenes."
By
whatever
the
cases are
abnormal throw
parts is effected,such
of organs which
light
double other
during
and
of
life in
lower
afterwards
organ.
a
unite In
Moquin-Tandon^ gives
long list of
showing
how
quently fre-
homologous parts, such as leaves, petals,stamens, of homologous and flowers, and parts, pistils, aggregates such as buds, as well as fruit,become blended, both normally into one another. and abnormally, with perfect symmetry
Parts. Variahility of Multiple and Homologous is repeated Isidore Geoffrey insists that, when part or organ any ble liaanimal, it is particularly times in the same many The
"
to
vary
both
in
number
and
structure.
With
respect
as
to
number,
the
proposition may,
I think, be considered
fully
established; but the evidence is chiefly derived from organic beings living under their natural conditions, with which we
are
not
or
here
concerned.
Whenever
such
parts
as
the
ver-
tebrse
the feathers in or teeth, the rays in the fins of fishes, seeds, are or pistils, the tails of birds, or petals, stamens,
numerous, to the
very
the
structure
so
number
spect generally variable. With rebility of multiple parts, the evidence of varia-
is
is not
decisive
but
on
the
fact,
as
far
as
it
may
be
Archives
p.
Jan., 1874,
6
'
de 78.
Zoolog.
Exper.,'
1. iii.
torn.
T6ratologie
Veg.,* 1841,
324
LAWS
OF
VARIATION.
Chap.
XXVI.
physiological importance
their
structure
has
been
selection.
This law, as Balancement. or of Growth and applied to natural species,was propounded by Goethe time. It implies at nearly the same Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire in building up is used much that, when organised matter
Compensation
"
some
one
part, other As
parts far
are
starved
and
become
in
reduced. this
Several others
law;
reject it. as can judge, good; but its importance has probably been exaggerated. It is scarcely possible to the supposed distinguish between effects of such tinued compensation, and the effects of long-conselection which lead to the augmentation of one may of another. how, Anypart, and simultaneously to the diminution creased be greatly inthere can be no doubt that an organ may of an without ing adjoincorresponding diminution any
part.
To
recur
occasionallyholds
to
our
former
illustration
of the
Irish of
elk, it
may
be asked
what
in consequence
the immense
development of the horns? ence that the struggle for existIt has already been observed domesticated does not bear hard on our productions, and of growth will seldom consequently the principle of economy into play, so that we ought not to expect to find with come We ever, of compensation. have, howthem frequent evidence describes such strous mona Moquin-Tandon cases. some veloped, the stipules were bean,^ in which enormously deand the leaflets apparently in consequence pletely cominteresting, as it represents the its stipules of of Lathyrns aphaca, with condition natural act to mere threads, which great size, and its leaves reduced aborted; this
case
is
as
tendrils.
De
Candolle which
**
has have
remarked small
that
roots
the
varieties
yield numerous seed containing much oil, whilst those with large roots are not productive in oil; and so it is with Brassica asperifolia. which bear large fruit yield The varieties of Cucurhita pepo
of
Raphanus
sativus
'
'
Teratologie
my book
Veg.,'
'
p.
See
ments
also
on
The
156. Move-
De
Museum,'
178.
Candolle, "c.,
'
Memoires
du page
torn.
viii.
Plants,'
and 2nd
Habits
Chap.
XXVI.
MECHANICAL
PRESSURE.
32oK
Naudin; whilst those producing small fruit yield a vast number. Lastly,I have endeavoured in the eighteenth chapter that with to show cultivated many unnatural treatment checks the full and proper plants action of the reproductive organs, and they are thus rendered more less sterile; consequently, in the way of compensation, the or fruit becomes greatly enlarged, and, in double flowers,the petals are greatly increased in number.
a
small
crop,
according
to
With which
found
are
yield much
well. With
the
milk, and
fowls and wattles
cows
tening fat-
large top-knots and beards comb reduced in are generally much size; though there are exceptions to this rule. Perhaps the of the oil-gland in fantail pigeons may entire absence be connected with the great development of their tails.
Mechanical
some
which
as reason
Cause
of Modifications. In
"
few
cases
to believe
that
mere
pressure
affected
that
certain
structures.
and
Weber
"*
maintain
the
is influenced
by the shape of the mother's pelvis. The kidneys in in form, and St. Ange believes different birds differ much of the pelvis,which that this is determined by the form
of doubt, stands in close relation with their power In snakes, the viscera are locomotion. curiously displaced, in comparison with their position in other vertebrates; and authors to the elongation of this has been attributed by some
again, no
their
bodies; but
to
here,
on
as a
in
so
many
previous
Godron
cases,
it is from
"
impossible
that that the
disentangle
natural
direct
result
of this kind
has
consequent
abortion
selection.
argued
the inner side of the flowers of the spur on in Corydalis, is caused by the buds at a very early period of
growth whilst underground being closelypressed against one botanists believe tliat Some and against the stem. another rolla, the singular difference in the shape both of the seed and coin
the interior
and
exterior
florets in certain
to
Composto
pn"re
iw.^ Dec,
itous
9
and
Umbelliferous
'
plants, is due
urelles,' 1st
827.
"
'
the
pressure
xix.
.
series, torn.
^ Rendus,
"
Comptos
p. 1039.
Annales
des
Sciences
18G4,
326
which the inner
LAWS
OF
VARIATION.
Chap.
XXVI.
florets
are
is
just given do
do
case: some
relate to domesticated
us.
tions, produchere
in
are
therefore
not
concern strictly
But
is
appropriate
races
H.
Miiller"
of the
has
shown teeth
short-
faced
in
a
of the
dog
molar
placed
other
in slightlydifferent position to that which they occupy dogs, especially in those having elongated muzzles;
as
and
of the
he remarks, any inherited change in the teeth deserves notice, considering their This difference facial bones
in
arrangement
classificatory
to
importance.
space;
position is due
and the from
a
the
of certain and
state
consequent
want
the
shortening
results
peculiar and
of the
Relative
Position
of Seeds
In
with respect to the Axis, and of Flowers in the Ovary, as inducing Variation.
the their
thirteenth
to
chapter various
was
peloric flowers
be due
were
described,
arrested the
to
and
Tandon
production
or
shown
to
a
to
either stand
more
to
de-
A^elopment,
has main of the
reversion that of
on a
primordial condition.
which
are on
remarked
stem
or
the sides
flowers branch
^^
lateral
;
liable
peloricthan
those of
the
and
he
adduces,
amongst
instances, that
Tcucrinm
plant grown by me, were always produced on not are usually borne. I have eral this occurs and when during sevis frequently peloric, truss is This central flower. the to be it years invariably observed of observer that one of such gives the names frequent occurrence of which the time, in every one ten varieties flowering at the same in flower than one flower was central peloric. Occasionally more must be ones the additional and then of course the truss is peloric, whole the how as flowers These showing lateral. are interesting In the common Pelargonium tlie upper is correlated. structure the flowerwith coheres sepal is produced into a nectary which from the in little diflfer a two shape petals peduncle; the upper
"
viz. the
In another campanulatum. flowers luteum, the peloric flowers of the stem, where the summit In Pelargonium, a single flower in the Galcohdolon
three
stamens
lower
are
ones,
and
are
marked
in all
with the
are
dark
shades
graduated
colour;
the
so
length and
upturned.
flowers, the
nectary aborts;
stamens
shape
and
12
"
and
in
become
"
straight,
that
the
whole
resembles
that
p.
Ueber
Wiirzbiirger
Bcbrift,' 1860,
Teratologie
Journal of
Veg.,'
'
Horticulture^
Chap.
XXVI.
RELATIVE
POSITION
OF
PAllTS.
30; oliungesis
its dark
but is
allied well
genus shown
for
Eiodium. when
in this
one case
The of the
the
correlation
two
between
not
tliese
upper
does
petals alone
loses
mark,
nectary
entirely abort,
usually
much
has
reduced
in
length.^"*
marvellous a fl(jwer of tlie flask-shaped inches in length, wliiih was almost pletely com^^
Morren
described
four
Calceolaria, nearly
it peloric;
grew
on
the
summit
of the
plant, with
nijrmal
flower similar
on
also has described '" three side; Professor Westwood which all peloricflowers, occupied a central positionon the In
has
each
flower-branches. flower
In
racemes ceous a
the
seen
Orchideous
to
the Phalajnopsis,
a
minal ter-
been
tree
become
peloric.
fourth
Laburnum-
I observed
part of the
produced
structure.
on
terminal These
w^ere
flowers had
paj)ilionaother
produced
all the
flowers
the
same
racemes
withered.
perfectly
with black striae petals, each marked The keel seemed to like resist the on standard-petal. the other petals. Dutrochet than has described an change more and I in believe these similar case the France, are exactly only
pelorisedexamples
those the
had
six
'*
two
instances
of
pelorism
remarks
a
in
the that
laburnum the
racemes
which
on
have
been
corded. re-
Dutrochet
properly produce
Galeobdolon)
which
no
terminal
their
positionas
are
this tree do not of the flower, so that (as in the case well as structure both anomalies, are
manner
doubt
in
some
related. central
Dr.
jMasters
a were
has
briefly described
clover, in which
or
another the
plant,'* namely,
flowers
species of
regular
In some of these plants structure. papilionaceous also the flow^er-heads proliferous. were ing havflowers, one Lastly, Linaria produces tw^o kinds of peloric all spurred. The simple petals,and the other having them the same not occur on Naudin plant, remarks,-'' rarely two forms, as the stands almost on invariably the spurred form but in this case of the spike. summit peloric The tendency in the terminal or central flower to become results from more frequently than the other flow^ers,probably
had
lost their
"
the
bud
which
stands
central
to
I'lt
of a shoot receiving the most siluate"l lower those than shoot into a stronger between pelorism and the connection discussed known mally norfew plants are some because
on
the
end
flower
difl'erent in
it.
structure Chroiiiole/
the
from
to trial worth be would pollen the same with fertilise of flowers lateral and the central other of or the pelartroninm,
Gardener's
012 For
p..
sec
PhaU-cnopsis.
~U des ^ r-{retnnx.
istjC.
,
p.
. . .
hi"?hlv
then and
in|them
cultivated of course
the
plants,
from
protectinsects:
1887.
1^p.
to sow observe
It ^st
i"
July
-''"",.^,. .nUnro
"""rt'^'ult"re.
, du
,.
"
Nouvelles
Anhlxes
-^ij"
Mu-
Vege-
Quoted
Journal
of
Hor-
Cell,' Eng.
ticluture,' B'eb.
55
328
lateral
we
LAWS
OF
VARIATION.
Chap.
XXVI.
ones;
see a
but
chieflyon
to A
account
of the
or
following case,
connected
states to
**
in
the
one
same
tendency position.
a
variability
bloom from it
to
reversion
that
of
throws but
character;
side
pretty
centre to to
some
sure or
keep its
the
as
heart
"
edging ought
as
be,
which
it is it
just
belongs."
in any This is so
in
one
properly
fact, that
florists
of flowers. Whether pinch off the central trusses trusses of the central the varieties departure improved due to reversion, type proper be the commonest insists that, whatever may this is in each generally exaggerated variety,
is I
do
not
Mr. of
imperfection
central blooms
to
me
Thus green
become
one
variety
excessive
"
sometimes of the
In
has
the
fault and
producing
sent
little these
floret in the
centre
flower,"
some
in central
central flower
blooms,
w^ere
Mr.
Dombrain,
organs have
of the of
structure,
further In
to out
or
of minute
size, and
would
change
case we
leaves.
this
which
mean
I may the
a clearly see tendency to prolificationa term for those to botany, attended who have never explain, of of branch or flowers, a flower, or head production
of another
flower. flower
in
on
Now
a
Dr.
Masters is of the
to all
-^
states
that the
the
central
to
uppermost
plant
varieties
generally the
most
liable
Thus,
proper
to due
the
a
Auricula,
character
to
and
arrested
development,
to
reversion
to
former
condition. in of
or
of maize
as
America,
three
and
he
and
found,
with
generations the
colour;
form,
expressly states respect first whilst in the lower the that generation, grains on each head their proper retained character, the uppermost grains already began character which in the third to assume that generation all the As know the aboriginal parent of the do not we grains acquired. in any these changes are cannot tell whether nected maize, we w^ay consize, and
with
In
he
reversion.
two
is reversion into play and comes following cases, determined by the position of the seed in the capsule. The Blue Imperial pea is the offspring of the Blue Prussian, and has larger its parent. Mr. and Now broader seed Masters, of pods than
the
Canterbury,
--
careful
H.
observer
Dombrain,
and June
and
raiser
of
new
varieties
Linn.
of the
in
'
1861, 25th,
83.
-"
'
Transact.
Horticulture,'
174:
xxiii.,
^4
"
234;
1862,
April
29th,
p.
208, 209.
330
distinct
ated
LAWS
OF
VARIATION.
Chap.
XXVI.
deeply-cut or lacinidistinct species of have their so-called into Erassica roots, enlarged globular stems, or is the offspring of the peach; and the varieThe nectarine ties masses. of peaches and offer a remarkable nectarines parallelism in in being clingstones the fruit being white, red, or yellow fleshed in the flowers in the freestones leaves or being large or small furnished with serrated reniform or or crenated, globose being that glands, or quite destitute of glands. It should be remarked has its character not derived each from a variety of the nectarine of the The several varieties of also peach. corresponding variety another a closely allied genus, namely the apricot, differ from one There is no to believe in nearly the same manner. reason parallel of these varieties have that any ters merely reacquired long-lost characthis and most of them not in the case. certainly is ; have Three of races species of Cucurbita yielded a multitude in character Naudin which so as closely that, insists, correspond be arranged in almost strictly parallel series. Several they may from varieties of the melon are resembling, in important interesting
as
yielded varieties
from
with
leaves.
descended
three
"
"
"
ternally variety has fruit so like, both externally and inof a perfectly distinct species,namely, the has long cucumber, as hardly to be distinguished from it; another like a serpent; in another the cylindricalfruit twisting about the fruit, when to portions of the pulp; in another seeds adhere markable ripe,suddenly cracks and falls into pieces; and all these highly recharacteristic of to are species belonging peculiarities for of account the so We allied genera. can hardly appearance to a single ancient unusual form; characters, by reversion many of the family have herited inbelieve that all the members luust but we Our constitution from similar an early progenitor. a nearly cases. other plants offer similar cereal and many dependen of analogous variation, inhave fewer With animals cases we kind of the of direct We reversion. see something of the dog, such races the short-muzzled in the resemblance between of the feather-footed and in fowl, pigeon, the races as bull-dog; pug different and races presenting canary-bird; in horses of the most tanall black-and-tan in of the same having dogs colour; range reversion in this latter and but case coloured feet, eye-spots may remarked that several has played a part. Low possibly have the fruit
^"
species,either
of
the
same
genus
or
of
allied
breeds
white be
"sheeted,"
their
"
that like
bodies
broad
band
of is
this
character
cross;
an
as
was
it may shown
in
dark feet and dark cattle with ears, chapter, white semi-feral exist in feral or tip of tail, formerly existed, and now the world. in several of condition quarters main Under second division, namely, of analogous variations our
28
'
Domesticated
Animals,' 1845,
p. 351.
Chap.
XXVI.
^.NALOGOUS
VARIATION.
33 1
the
reversion, the best cases HfTordcfl ],y pi^ircoriH. are In all distinct breeds, sub-varieties coloured occasionally appear exactly like the parent rock-pigeon,with black wing-bars, white tail,"c. ; and no one doubt tliat these cliararicrH can loins, banded to reversion. minor So with due are details; turhits properly have white bird is born with tails, but occasionally^ a oured (lark-cola banded and tail; pouters properly have thoir primary wingnot bird feathers white, but sword-ilighted rarely a appears, the few with first primaries dark-coloured that and in is, one ;
due
to
most
"
"
these
new
cases
w^e
have the
characters
proper
to
the
rock-pigeon,but
in
some
to
the
from
reversion,
wing-bars, instead of being simply black, of in the rock-pigeon, are beautifully edged with dilFcrent zones as colour, and they then present a striking analogy with the wingnatural bars in certain family, such as I'hujis species of the same accounted for by all tlie be probably chalcoptera; and this may the same remote from i)rospeciesof the family being descended in the to same and manner. Thus, having a tendency vary genitor the fact of some Laugher-pigeons can also, we perhaps understand several for and like races almost having peculiarities turtle-doves, cooing natural C. since certain in their flight, species (viz., torquatrix and palumbi(s), display singular vagaries in this respect. In resembles of imitating a distinct species, instead other cases a race, and tremble slightly elevate other thus, certain runts some race;
domestic varieties their their It much
tails, like
is in
a common
fan-tails; and
circumstance
turbits
to
inflate
the
part
marks
of
characterising persistently
all the
species of
genus,
ditlcring
the varieties of with the same thing occurs tint; and of the general plumage being blue, with the pigeon: thus, instead red bars, varieties with snow-white the wing-bars black, there are white varieties with black bars; in other varieties the wingand
bars,
The elegantly zoned wnth different tints. plumage being white, by the whole Spot pigeon is characterised
as we
have
seen,
are
excepting a spot
be
on
the
forehead
In
and
the
tail; but
in
those
parts may
the the
rock-pigeon and
edges of the monk-pigeon in the sub-variety but is tail the for white, except the of coloration, style
outer
of
edges
of
the
outer
feathers, which
some
are
With coloured
species of birds,
as
gulls, certain
T liave
parts appear
same
if almost
exactly the
pigeons,and
in
facts
plumage be given. could vegetable kingdom somewhat and reversed have of the pigeon tins and heads, the back part of thoir
to
observed out, and dark tail-bar in certain in the terminal varieties of the duck. certain of
washed
is
the
which parent-species,
Baud
shows
31.
Bechstein,
Naturgeschichte
Deutschlands,'
Iv., IT'X.,
s.
332
trace
LAWS
OF
VARIATOm.
Chap.
XXVI.
no
of of
such the
structure:
but
when
we
remember
that
sub-
varieties have
we can on
all fowl, turkey, canary-bird, duck, and goose, feathers on their heads; and when either topknots or reversed that
remember be
scarcely
some
single large
members have
natural
not
a
suspect that
into the action. fowl be
have
to
extremely
or
remote
pencilled these parent-species,the feathers; it is possible that Ixinkiva one Gallvs early pro; though of course genitor have been of this species may spangled, and another cilled. peneither spangled or But, as many gallinaceous birds are that the several domestic probable view pencilled, it is a more all kind this of from have breeds of the fowl plumage acquired in to like of the family inheriting a tendency a the members vary
Several breeds of
and cannot
spangled
derived
the
manner.
The of
same
principlemay
account
for the
ewes
in certain other
cats
breeds
of some sheep being hornless, like the females account for certain domestic it may hollow-horned ruminants;
having
skulls
same
slightly-tufted ears,
of domestic rabbits
those
of
the
lynx; and
one
for in
the the
differing from
skulls of the
another
characters
I will
we we
by which
to
various
species of the
genus that
differ.
one
wild
Now already discussed. has striped parent of the ass commonly other
case,
that legs, may stripes on the legs of the domestic confident the bent will
not account
the
ass
occasional
to
is due of the
of this
for other
lower
or
end horses
from
sometimes
see
angularly
and
and
slightlyforked.
with
reasons
dun that
coloured
we are
shoulders,
But
legs,
led,
lieve be-
through reversion to the parent-horse. of three or shoulder-stripes,with one have when at forked the lower them or end, they occasionally nearly faintly striped as foals over stripes on their faces, or are under the their whole bodies, with the stripes angularly bent one in other branched other the on forehead, or irregularly parts, it they reappear
horses have when
two
would African
be
rash of
to
attribute proper
such
to
diversified
characters
to
the
As
those
the
have seen species of the genus are that the crossing of the unstriped speciesoften leads to the hybrid that offspring being conspicuously striped bearing also in mind of the the art of crossing certainly causes long-lost reappearance that the it is a more characters above-specified probable view wild to reversion, not to the immediate due parentstripes are whole horse, but to the striped progenitor of the genus.
" "
pearance reapthree
I have considerable of
one
discussed
this
at
ties that the varielength, because it is well known distinct species species frequently resemble
Chap.
XXVI.
ANALOGOUS
VARIATION.
033
"
with the forogoinf^ perfect harmony cases, the theory of descent. and explicable on Secondly, because from these facts are important showing, as remarked in a that each former variation is governed chapter, trifling by is in determined much a higher degree by the law, and
a
fact
in
nature
of
the
to
organisation, than
which the
by
the
nature
of
the
conditions
been
exposed.
**
related to Thirdly, because these facts are to a certain extent general law, namely, that which Mr. B. D. Walsh more a of Equable Variahility,''^ has called the " Law he explains or, as " is very variable in one it, if any given character it will tend to be variable in allied spespecies of a group, cies in if character is and constant perfectly one given any ; in will allied it tend be of to constant a species group, species." in the chapter on to recall a discussion This leads me
Selection, in which
which
or are now
it
was
shown
that
with
domestic those
most
races,
undergoing
vary
rapid improvement,
which
are
characters
the
most,
the
parts valued.
This
standard, and
agencies,whatever The ble principle is applicasame in question to vary. ' cies,' Origin of Speto natural species,for, as stated in my acters; chargeneric characters are less variable than specific
and the and
latter
are
being still acted on by the same charthese may be, which first caused the acters
those
which
have the
been
modified all
mon com-
by variation
the
natural
selection,since
period when
off from
are a
branched species belonging to the genus progenitor, whilst generic characters remained
those
remote
which
have and
unaltered
now
from
much
more
epoch,
less
variable.
law of
This
statement
much
VariaEquable bility. be added, rarely Secondary sexual characters, it may for they usually difi"'r to characterise distinct genera, and they are highly in the species of the same genus,
to Mr.
Walsh's
variable
seen
in the individuals
of the
same
species; we
how
have
also
in the earlier
sexual
30
'
characters
Entomolog.
under
domestication.
IbC.a, p. '2V.i.
Proc
Oct. PUilatlelphia,'
334
LAWS
OF
VARIATION.
Chap.
XXVI.
Summary
of the
three
previous Chapters
Variation.
on
the
Laws
of
that changed consaw ditions twenty-third chapter we in definite act a manner often, occasionally,or even the organisation, so that all, or nearly all,the individuals on in the modified But thus same manner. exposed become In the
a
far
more
frequent
the
result
of changed
or
acting directlyon
organisation
reproductive system, is indefinite and of the laws by which such In the three last chapters, some variability is regulated have been discussed. adds to the size of muscles, together with Increased use the blood-vessels, nerves, ligaments, the crests of bone and attached. Increased the whole bones, to which they are functional activity increases the size of various glands, and
strengthens
pressure
the
sense-organs.
Increased
A
and
intermittent
thickens
the
food
augments
of change in the nature modifies the coats of the stomach, and sometimes decreases the length of the intestines. tinued Conor the
epidermis.
disuse,
on
the
other
hand,
weakens which
and
diminishes
many
organisation. Animals
taken
as
during
their
but
a
lungs
of
size, and
the
the
bony
fabric
modified. body become With anciently domesticated our birds, the wings have been little used, and crease, they are slightly reduced; with their deof the crest the sternum, the scapulte,coracoids, and
and
whole
form
of the
furculum,
With disuse whereas
have
all been
reduced. of
a
domesticated is not
we
part from
is
carried have
reason
far
to
that believe
mere
left;
curred occase
that
often
under
nature;
in this latter
with
being aided
of difference
by
many
economy
together
the
crossing inter-
between
The of this varying individuals. cause organisms in a state of nature, and under
in
any
the
latter
case
there
has
been
time
sufficient
economy
for
change, and
come
that
the On
principle of
the
of growth which
contrary,
structures
rudimentary
Chap. XXVI.
SUMMARY.
33
k 0
sometimes parent-species,
our
become Such
partially redeveloped
rudiments
as
in
domesticated make
to
productions.
appearance
ally occasion-
their be the
under
a
domestication, seem
arrest
ways al-
development; interest, as showing: that rudiments the relics of organs are once perfectlydeveloped. and mental Corporeal, periodical, ter habits, though the lathave been almost in this work, become passed over changed under domestication, and the changes are often inherited. Such changed habits in an organic being, es^pecially when living a free life,would often lead to the augmented
nevertheless
result
are
of
sudden
of
they
of
or
diminished
use
of various From
to
more
their
modification.
and
especiallyfrom the occasional birth of individuals with a vated slightlydifferent constitution, domestic animals and cultibecome certain to acclimatised extent a plants or adapted to a climate different from that proper to the parentspecies. taken in Through the principle of correlated variability,
its widest
sense,
when
one
either
after the other. Thus, an simultaneously, or one organ modified during an early embryonic period affects other parts such as the beak, an subsequently developed. When organ, correlated increases decreases in length, adjoining or or
parts,
vary
as
the
tongue
manner.
and
the
in the
same
decreases
in size, various
nostrils,tend to When the whole body increases or modified; thus, with parts become
orifice of the
and breadth. pigeons the ribs increase or decrease in number identical during their early are Homologous parts which development and are exposed to similar conditions, tend to
vary
case
same
or
in
some
connected
manner,
"
as
in
the
right and
So
and
limbs.
instance, white
There is
a
with
almost
ways althe
deaf.
manifest
relation
throughout
appendages, such the skin and various dermal bedy between hair, feathers, hoofs, horns, and teeth. In Paraguay, as horses with curly hair have hoofs like those of a mule; the together; hairless of sheep often vary wool and the horns
dogs
are
deficient
in their
teeth;
men
with
redundant
hair
336
LAWS
OF
VARIATION.
Chap.
XXVI.
have
abnormal
with When
toes
long
of
excess.
Birds
tail-feathers.
long feathers
from
outer
the
toes to
assume
outside
are
of the
pigeons,
There is
the
two
leg tends
a
wing.
on
manifest
relation
between
amount
crest
and
marvellous
and in
a
of change
the the
skull
fowls:
lesser
degree, between
of rabbits and the structure greatly elongated, lopping ears With of their skulls. plants, the leaves, various parts of the flower, and the fruit, often vary related together to a cormanner.
In
to
some
cases
we
conjecture what
monstrosities colour of down have
the
without
various with
diseases.
the with
case
of the
on
adult
pigeon,
bird.
connection
the
in-
presence
instances in
been with
ISTumerous
curious
peculiarities of constitution,
correlation of of
colour,
from
as
shown
one
colour
from
parasites and
is
an
the
action
of
certain
vegetable
poisons.
Correlation and
serve
important subject; for with species, domestic ally continuin a lesser degree with we races, been to find that certain parts have greatly modified almost invariably find that useful purpose some ; but we
parts have
likewise been
any
more or
other
our
being able
great
to discover
advantage
with
our
change.
to
on
ISTo
doubt
caution
is necessary
this latter
the
we
point, for
various
seen,
we
it is difficult to overrate
ignorance
but from
are
use
of
parts
may
of the
organisation;
many
what of
believe that
arisen in
modifications with
no
correlation
other
and
early development often fused become together. Multiple and homologous organs in number and probably in are especially liable to vary is not unlimited, As the supply of organised matter fonn. sometimes into action; the principle of compensation comes adjoining parts one that, when so part is greatly developed,
parts during
their
338
PROVISIONAL
HYPOTHESIS
Chap.
XXVII.
CHAPTER
PROVISIONAL HYPOTHESIS
XXVII.
OF
PANGENESIS.
facts to be connected First under remarks a Preliminary part : The various kinds of the Eereproduction single point of view, namely, The direct action of the of amputated parts Graft-hybrids growth The female functional pendence indethe male element on Development Inheritance Ee verof the units of the body Variability sion.
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Second the
part
"
Statement
are
of the
"
improbable
of facts
several
classes
the the
"
necessary
sumptions as-
hypothesis
of
Conclusion.
In those
previous chapters large classes of facts, such as forms of heritanc inbud-variation, the various bearing on
the the and
causes
and
laws that
been well
sort
as
cussed; disthe
lation re-
it is obvious of
subjects,as
some
several
modes
to
one
of
rather
forced, to
these facts
form
a a
view
certain
extent
connects
w^ould wish to tangible method. Every one plain exit is how to himself, even in an imperfect manner, ancestor remote possible for a character possessed by some in the offspring; how creased the effects of insuddenly to reappear
by
or
decreased
use
of
limb
can can
be transmitted
act not
to
the
element the
mother-form;
of the cellular of
be
the
union
organs exact
much
nor
too
little added;
how
the
same
ism organas
be and
produced
true
one
by such
passes
widely
course
different
processes,
budding
two
seminal
generation;
in the
and, lastly,how
of its
of
allied forms,
development
through the most complex metamorphoses, and the other does both are alike in every tail dedo so, though wdien mature not I am that my view is merely a of structure. aware provisional hypothesis or speculation; but until a better one
Chap.
XXVII.
OF
PANGENESIS.
339
multitude
any
be
advanced,
As
it will
are
serve
to
bring together
of
facts which
cause.
at
present
left disconnected
by
efficient
Whewell, the historian of the inductive sciences, " often be of service remarks Hypotheses may to science, of when incompleteness, and they involve a certain portion this point of view I venture Under of error." to even the hypothesis of Pangenesis, which advance implies that self. separate part of the whole organisation reproduces itevery and So that ovules, spermatozoa, pollen-grains, the fertilised egg or seed, as well as buds, include and consist of
" " "
multitude
In
of germs Part
thrown
off from
each
separate part
I
or
unit.^
the First I will enumerate
seem as
brieflyas
can
the
tain cer-
groups
of facts which
to
demand
connection; but
be treated
criticisms
in
subjects,not
1
hitherto
has
discussed,must
been many after
at
disfectly per-
This
hypothesis
criticised it will and
to the The
seen
good
fair
severely
writers,
by
be
more
lUiiny fair to
imessay Pro'
best is
by
Sulla entitled Pandella Teoria Darwiniana trauslaa geuesi, 18G9,' of which Scientific in tion appeared the Sept. 29, 1869, and Opinion,' He numbers. rejects succeeding it criticises the hypothesis, but cisms critihis found I have and fairlv, Mivart Mr. useful. very
Delpino,
Soc.,' Royal (' Proc. xix. the iutervol. on o98) p. of tinct disblood of the transfusion of the varieties cludes rahl)it, con-
by
the all
saying
results the He to he
on a
that
in
his
negative
doctrine
informs the continued still
me
ion opinbeyond
genesis. Panthat
'
doubt
of
subsequently
of for his two any paper
more
publication
his
periments ex-
larger
scale
of
Species,' 1871,
but
chap.
no
sign
itself
Delpino, of objections
(' The
vol.
adds
showing
should
mules in the
Dr.
Bastian
certainly
that
gem-
Life,'
looks than a rather of the lution evoof the new fitting appanage shows He philosophy." used have to not I ought that it as term the pangenesis," used by Dr. had been previously that relic a
old
"
ii.
98)
says like
been
present
no sary neces-
blood, part
and
this
the lowest
is
which
manifestly
Galton,
*
hypothesis, to applies
animals. ture Nato THVJ), also
*
plants
Mr.
letter
criticises
other
p. incorrect
me.
pressions ex-
Dr. sense. another in 11, Beale May (' Nature,' whole the at 1871, p. 2G) sneers and much doctrine with acerbity
Gros Lionel
by
On tlu' be
the have
writers of to
'
would however,
Prof. Wigaud der Gesell. geburg,' MarNaturwisseu. zu samnit. the Bd. ix., 1870) considers and unscientific as hypothesis Lewes H. Mr. G. worthless.
in
Dr.
giving
I Ross's
references
ma
J',
Theory
of
of
work, Disease;
of .Mr.
being
Darwin's
plication ap-
pothesis hyas
Review,'
seems
Nov.
1,
he
gives
genious In-
to
useful:
consider makes he
discussions.
340
PROVISIONAL
HYPOTHESIS
Chap. XXVII
Part the hypothesis proportionate length. In the Second far the necessary will be given; and after considering how themselves in shall see improbable, we assumptions are it serves whether to bring under a single point of view the various facts. Part I.
two
be divided into Reproduction may The latter namely, sexual and asexual.
ways
"
main
classes,
in
many
is effected
by
the
formation
of
buds
of
various
kinds,
or
and
by
that
some so
of the lower
many
ajiimals, when
perfect individuals : into nearly forty worm Lyonnet cut a Nais or freshwater It is probpieces, and these all reproduced perfect animals.^ able further in that segmentation could be carried much with of the lowest plants and of the protozoa; some some Miiller each cell will reproduce the parent-form. Johannes between an important distinction thought that there was the divided and gemmation fission;for in the latter case small, is more fully developed than a bud, portion, however also is a younger which formation; but most physiologists convinced that the two are now are essentially processes alike.^ Professor Huxley remarks, fission is little more than of budding," and Prof. II. J. Clark shows in a peculiar mode " detail that there is sometimes selfa compromise between division and budding." When is amputated, or when a limb the whole body is bisected, the cut extremities said to bud are forth ; and as the papilla,which is first formed, consists of undeveloped cellular tissue like that forming an ordinary We the conbud, the expression is apparently correct. see nection in another of the two for Trembley processes way;
into
many
pieces,reproduce
"
Lectures Quoted by Paget, on Pathology,' 1853, p. 159. 3 Dr. also, observes Lachmann, tory,' Hisand of Nat. (' Annals Mag. 2nd series, vol. xix., 1857, to respect infusoria, p. 231) with that fissation and gemmation
"
'
that
fission
has
and
been
made
tween be-
pass
into
each
other
almost
Again,
Minor shows
Mr.
* See QOuvres d'Hist. Bonnet, imperceptibly." Nat,.' torn, 1781, 339, for v., p. W. C. remarks the of on budding-out the of Nat. limbs of Salamanders. amputated
'
tinctio
is not budding fundamental a one. See, also, Professor Clark's in Mind work, New Nature,' York, 1865, pp. 62,
'
94.
p.
328)
dis-
that
with
Annelids
the
Chap.
XXVII.
OP
PANGENESIS.
34 1
with
the
hydra,
was
that
the
as
amputation
checked
the
animal
put
reproductive gemma?.' the production, by fissiparous Between generation, more comi^lete individuals, and the repair of even or slight injury, there is so perfect a gradation, that it
to
of two
a
very
is impossible
doubt
that
the
two
processes
are
connected.
As
stage of growth an amputated part is replaced by one also follow Sir J. in the same state of development, we must
at each
of development from Paget in admitting, " that the powers identical with those exercised for the resthe embryo, are toration in other from wards, that the powers are injuries : the same by which perfection is first achieved, and by which, when conclude that Finally, we may of budding, fissiparousgeneration, the the several forms the repair of injuries,and development, are all essentially
one
lost,it is recovered."
results of Sexual
seems
and
the
same
"
power.
Generation.
at
The
union
of
the
two
sexual
first
sexual of
and
distinction
the
conjugation
of two cells unite into alg"e, by which process the contents capable of development, apparently gives U3 a single mass and Pringsheim, in his sexual union: the first step towards shows the conjugation the pairing of Zoospores,' memoir on graduates into true sexual reproduction. Moreover, the now tinction that the disof Parthenogenesis prove well-ascertained cases sexual and asexual generation is not nearly between
so even
great
in
as some
was
ova
occasionally, and
into
fect permost
developed
the
beings, without
of the lower
a
With
ova
animals
mammals,
for
trace
of
parthenogenetic power,
pass
without
being
they
iSTor can
through
ova,
ou
pseudova which
from
true
as
first stages of segmentation.* guished do not need fertilisation, be distinfirst shown by Sir J. Lubbock, was the
I'artlK'unp.'ueUeber Siebold. math. phva. der Sitzuus: !-is,"
"
'
epn^et
frv
"
'
^^'"Ibid
Ma?,
p
1 S^,^
Lectures
Patholo-
rls
152
^Translated iA
of Nat. 272.
nu
164
'
inmils
April, by
and
Hist.,'
1870,
von
Nov.
4th
IHYI.
'
s^BischoEf, as
quoted
34:2
and is
PROVISIONAL
HYPOTHESIS
Chap.
XXVII.
So, again, the germ-balls in by Siebold. said by Leuckart the larvae of Cecidomyia are to be formed within the ovarium, but they do not require to be fertilised.
now
admitted
'
It
should and
also the
be male
observed element
that have
in
sexual
generation, the
of transmitting equal power possessed by either parent to single character every this clearly when their see hybrids are offspring. We of both grandparents paired inter se, for the characters in the progeny, either perfectly or often by segments. appear ovules
It is
an
error
to
suppose
that
the
male
mits trans-
certain
no
characters
and
the
female
causes,
other
one
doubt, from
stronger
power
unknown
sometimes
has
much
of transmission
than
the other.
authors that a by some however, been maintained in always refertilised germ, bud differs essentiallyfrom producing a whilst character the perfect of the parent-stock; fertilised germs give birth to variable beings. But there is distinction this. In the eleventh such broad chapter as no ally advanced cases were numerous showing that buds occasioninto plants having quite new characters; and the grow be propagated for a length of varieties thus produced can time by buds, and occasionally by seed. Nevertheless, it much that beings produced sexually are be admitted must of those produced asexually; and than liable to vary more be attempted. this fact a partial explanation will hereafter is determined The variabilityin both cases by the same eral genHence laws. and is governed by the same new causes, be distinguished from buds cannot varieties arising from seed. tain those arising from Although bud-varieties usually retheir character during successive bud-generations, yet after a long series of budthey occasionally revert, even This character. tendency to generations, to their former It has, reversion
in
buds, is
one
remarkable
of the bud
eral sev-
offspring from
and
difference
between is very
of Nat.
sexually and
"
*
asexually, which
Asexual
'
tion
On of
the in
Cecidomyide
Annals
translated
167, 171.
Chap.
XXVII.
OF
PANGENESIS.
their
n4.s
low
pass
in
the
course
of
development from
very
stage
to their
highest stage,
of insects
and
metamorphoses the other hand, commence ually by buds or fission, on their the budding or development at that stage at which selfanimal to and therefore do dividing happen be, not may pass of louver the wards, through some developmental stages.*"Afterthey often advance in organisation,as we see in the of " alternate generation." In thus si)eakingof cases many
alternate this process
in the metamori)h")SLS as we see of many other animals, and in tlie concealed of the vertebrata. Animals propagated asex-
generation, I follow
as
those
naturalists
who
look
at
of internal budding or of fissipone essentially of the lower plants,however, such arous generation. Some and certain algjs, according to Dr. L. Radlkofer," mosses as when morphosis. propagated asexually,do undergo a retrogressivemetaAs
to
a
far
as
the
final
cause
is concerned,
we
can
beings propagated by should velopmen buds not through all the early stages of depass each organism the structure for with acquired be adapted to its peculiar habits; and at each stage, must if there are individuals at places for the support of many some one stage, the simplest plan will be that they should be grade multiplied at this stage, and not that they should first retroearlier or simpler strucin their development to an ture, which might not be fitted for the then surrounding conditions.
certain
extent
understand
why
From
that
the
several
foregoing considerations
between sexual
at
we
may
clude con-
the
difference
and
asexual
eration gen-
is not
nearly
so
element; this difference is far from invariable,as shown by tlio but even therefore naturally of parthenogenesis. We are cases many
it unites
first appears; the chief continue to live and to with the male
led to
inquire what the final cause ordinary generation for the concourse
"Professor
(' Tran?;act.
can
R.
on
speaks
of head
cession
of
burgh,'
docisivelv
vol.
to
a
xxvi.,
1870,
Edin102) p. with
he says.
sue-
{^ression
series."
"
*
ever
in
retrothe
v " Nat.
respect U is
"
the
Hydroida:
law
in
universal
the
lSoT"
844
Seeds of and
PROVISIONAL
HYPOTHESIS
Chap. XXVII.
ova
are
often
during
dormant
state;
but
unim-
pregnated seeds
buds, would be equally serviceable for both purposes. We however, indicate can, of the two important advantages gained by the concourse of two individuals two belonging to opposite sexes, or rather I in have shown sexes a former chapter, the structure ; for, as
ova,
and
detached
of every
concurrence,
organism
species are
of
especiallyadapted for the of two individuals. When at least occasionally, rendered highly variable by changed conditions
appears to
be
life, the
to
free
intercrossing of
the
varying
individuals
in nature;
tends and
crossing
the
place
generation; but
gained is of sufficient importance to for the first origin of sexual intercourse is extremely account doubtful. from a large body of Secondly, I have shown of life is facts, that, as a slight change in the conditions beneficial to each creature, so, in an analogous manner, is the by sexual union with a distinct change effected in the germ individual; and I have been led, from observing the many for this purwidely-extended provisions throughout nature pose,
whether end and from the greater
thus
vigour of crossed
organisms
of all
proved by direct experiments, as well as from the evil effects of close interbreeding when long continued, to believe that the advantage thus gained is very great. before impregnation undergoes a which the germ, Why of development, ceases and certain to amount progress perishes, unless it be acted on by the male element; and of some in the case why conversely the male element, which and five years, insects is enabled to keep alive for four or in the case of some plants for several years, likewise perishes,
kinds,
as
unless
cannot
it acts
on
or
unites with
that
elements
perish, unless
brought
into union,
for independent matter simply from including too little formative of development. Quatrefages has shown in the case with and Dumas other the Teredo,^' did formerly Prevost as
animals, that
^*
'
more
than
des Sc.
one
spermatozoon
3rd
is requisite' to fertorn,
Annales
Nat./
series, 1850,
xiii.
346
PROVISIONAL
HYPOTHESIS
Chap.
XXVIL
capable of self -development, but only twentynine of the whole number out produced caterpillars. The in artificial same to hold good even principleof quantity seems that by cutting found reproduction, for Haeckel fissiparous the segmented and fertilised ova larvae of Siphonophoraa or into pieces, the smaller the pieces were, the (jelly-fishes) slower was the rate of development, and the larvae thus produced much the and inclined to were by so more imperfect that with the therefore, probable monstrosity. It seems, deficient quantity of formative ter matseparate sexual elements of their not having the capacity for prois the main cause longed existence and development, unless they combine and
were
"
that
they
thus
increase
each
other's
bulk.
The
belief
that
it is the
function
seems a
to communicate
life to the
ovule
tion reproducwe
thus
seen
not
to
have of
re-
already shown
that
asexual
are
reproduction, the
all parts of
one
power
growth and
great law.
development
and
the
same
Re-growth
little further and
some
of amputated
discussion.
A
possess cut
parts.
"
This of
subject deserves
the
multitude
lower
animals For
stance, in-
vertebrates
this wonderful
power.
mander salalegs and tail of the same six times did so successively,and Bonnet,^** eight times; and on each occasion the limbs were reproduced on the exact line of amputation, with no cess. part deficient or in exAn allied animal, the axolotl, had limb bitten off, a which was condition, but when reproduced in an abnormal this was amputated was replaced by a perfect lirnb.'^ The new limbs in these cases bud forth, an dare developed in the same animal. manner as during the regular development of a young For
Spallanzani
off the
instance, with
the Amhly
stoma
lurid
pnrt
3no.
^^
a,
three toes
are
first
pp.
Pro-
der "'Entwickelungsge?chichte 73. 1860. Siphnnophora.' p. -* An on Essay Spnllanzr.ni, translated Aniraal Reproduction.' (Bon1709. 79. Maty, by Dr. p. d'Hist. CEuvres Nat.,' torn. net,
' '
v.,
i., 4to
as
'
343.
Yuipian.
by
Variability
112.
1868, p.
^HAP.
XXVII.
OF
PANGENESIS.
347
fourth, and on the hind-feet the fifth, and so it is with a reproduced limb.^" of re-growth is generally much The power greater during the youth of an animal or during the earlier stages of its developmen than during maturity. The larvaj or tadpoles of the Batrachians are capable of reproducing lost members,
but
not
so
developed, then
the
the adults.*^ in
one
Mature
insects
have the
no
power
of
re-
growth, excepting
kinds have
order, whilst
Animals low
larvaj
are
of
many
able,as a general rule, to reproduce lost parts far more easily than those which highly organised. The myriapods offer are more a good illustration of this rule; but there are some strange exceptions to it thus Nemerteans, though lowly organised, of re-growth. With the higher said to exhibit little power are is extremely vertebrata, such as birds and mammals, the power
"
this power.
in the scale
limited.^^
In the
case
of those
animals of which
which
every
may
be
bisected
or
power
throughout
much this truth
body.
Nevertheless
to
be
view
maintained
by Prof.
that Lessona,*'"*
ing capacity is generally a localised and special one, servto replace parts which are eminently liable to be lost in in favour animals. The most each i)articular striking case of this view, is that the terrestrial salamander, according to Lessona, cannot reproduce lost parts, whilst another species the aquatic salamander, has extraordinary of the same genus, is and this animal have just seen; of re-growth, as we powers eminently liable to have its limbs, tail,eyes and jaws bitten with the aquatic salamander off by other tritons.^* Even for when M. extent the capacity is to a certain localised,
Amevioan 579. p. 2' in Owen's Dr. Giinther. vol. of Vertebrates,' Anatomy has i., 1806, p. 567. Spallanzani similar observations. made fore beexhibited A thrush was at F)ritish Association the lost its in hafl Hnll. 1853, which it was and this tarsus, memlier,
20
Dr.
P.
Hov,
'
The
Natnnilist,'
'
Sei)t..1871,
('Monthly
series,
vol.
Edinburgh.
ii. p.
1848,
the of 800) womb in the
new re-
growth
the
23
of of Atti vol.
limbs
man.
lu Sc.
"
case
*
della
Soc.
p.
Ital.
49.'}.
dl
Nat..'
2*
xi., 1809,
states paper The
Lessona
'
asserted,
each
had
thrice
having
J.
lost,
disease.
me
by
Paget
informs
that
Sir he
Sept.
just
348
PROVISIONAL
HYPOTHESIS
Chap.
XXVII.
together with of re-growth was completely lost. It the scapula, the power is also a remarkable fact, standing in opposition to a very do not of the aquatic salamander general rule, that the young the power of repairing their limbs in an equal degree possess that they are but I do not know with the adults ; more tive, ac-
Philipeaux/'extirpated
the
entire
fore-limb
'"'
limbs, The than the adults. walking-stick insect, Diapheromera order, can reproduce femorata, like other insects of the same
or can
otherwise
better
escape
the
loss of their
its
must
legs in the
case
mature
state, and
:
these from
their great
length
in
be liable to be lost
but
the
the
of the salamander),
was was
for Dr.
if
the limb it
its
removed
never
within
tion, articula-
renewed.
crab
is seized
by
one
of
legs,this is thrown off at the basal joint,being afterwards that this leg; and it is generally admitted replaced by a new is a special provision for the safety of the animal. Lastly, the well know^n to have with gasteropod molluscs, which are that they shows of reproducing their heads, Lessona power
are
very
liable to the
have
their
heads
bitten
the
off by shell.
fishes; the
Even with
rest
of
we
plants
leaves
see
of the have
same no
and
young
of
re-growth, these
new
buds; whilst
of trees have subjacent tissues of the trunk crease of their inaccount of re-growth, probably on great power ing beof their liability to injury from in diameter, and
from buds
innumerable
may
are
made into in
a a
in
all parts of the world, that stock, and that the plants thus
be
not
raised
greater
degree than
do the
can
be
accounted
for by
changed
nutrition. buds
more
seedlings raised from such inserted partake of the character of the stock, though they are
Nor liable to vary
on
than
roots.
Oct.
are
seedlings from
A
1,
the
same
variety
a new
growing
"
'
its
own
bud, also,may
able
sport into
to
Comptes
and
Rendus,'
Hist.
address
of
18G6,
26
meeting
Nat..'
Pro-
the
Boston
Association,
^7
"
vol.
p.
294,
as
quoted
in his
by
proc.
fessor
Rolleston
remark-
Hist.,' vol.
xii., 1868-69,
Chap.
XXVII.
OF
PANGENESIS.
349
and
same
other bud strongly-marked variety without any plant being in the least degree affected. We may
on
the
fore there-
with the common infer, in accordance view, that each bud is a distinct individual, and that its formative elements do not spread beyond the parts subsequently developed from in the abstract have it. Nevertheless, we seen on graft-
clude chapter that buds certainly informative can matter, which occasionallycombine with in the tissues of a distinct variety or species; that included the two between parent-forms being a plant intermediate that of the have seen In the thus produced. potato we case kind inserted into another the tubers produced from a bud of one
are
in
surface; that
With that
state
of
such peculiarities,
precocity, are
cases,
likewise the
graft-hybrids
orange,
produced with
sufficient.
rare cases
vine,
what
"c.,
these
seems
But
do
not
know is
under
conditions
this
form
we
of
tion reproducthe
portant im-
possible.
fact that
a
From
several elements
learn
formative
capable of blending
confined and
to the reproductive
with
those of
distinct individual
(and this is
not
of sexual
organs,
generation), are
are
but
present
a
in
the buds
this is
fact of the
highest physiological
"
In the Female. on of the Mole Element eign given that forthe eleventh proofs were chapter, abundant the pollen occasionally affects in a direct manner fertilised an Gallesio orangemother-plant. Thus, when fruit bore the stripes the lemon, flower with pollen from several of perfectly characterised lemon-peel. With peas, observers of the So the
In it
have
seen
the
colour
of
the
seed-coats
and
even
pod directlyaffected by the pollen of a distinct variety. consists of has been with the fruit of the apple, which calyx and
cases
modified
the
upper
are
part
the
or
of the
flower-stalk.
ordinary
within
parts
see
wholly formed
formative
by
the
cluded in-
mother-plant.
can
We the
that
elements
one are
element
the
pollen
or
variety
prop-
affect and
hybridise, not
part which
they
I
350 /
PROVISIONAL HYPOTHESIS Chap. XXVII.
erly adapted to affect, namely, the ovules,but the partially developed tissues of a distinct varietyor species. We are thus in which the formative brought half-way towards a graft-hybrid,
elements combine with included those within the tissues within the of
one
individual
of
a
included
tissues
a or new
tinct dis-
and
mediate intersexual
female
nearly mature, ly fullydeveloped,it is hardshould directly affect the female. But we have the analogous and perfectlywell-ascertained of the male element affecting(as with the quagga case
not
W^ith
animals
which
do
breed
until
and
of which
and
manner
Lord
Morton's
that
mare)
she is
the female
or
her
ova,
in such
when
offspringare affected and could keep explanation would be simple if the spermatozoa alive within the body of the female during the long interval which has sometimes the two of imacts pregnati elapsed between will suppose that this is possible with one ; but no the higher animals. reaches maturity by a Development. The fertilised germ \ vast number of changes: these are either slight and slowly when the child grows into the man, effected, as or are great
"
and
sudden,
same
as
with
the
we
metamorphoses
have
every
of
most
insects. within
Between the
these extremes
gradation,even
has shown,^^ there class; thus, as Sir J. Lubbock is an Ephemerous insect which moults above twenty times, undergoing each time a slightbut decided change of structure; and these changes, as he further remarks, probably reveal to us the normal stages of development, which are concealed and hurried through or suppressed in most sects. other inIn ordinary metamorphoses, the parts and organs to become changed into the corresponding parts in appear the next stage of development; but there is another form of development, which has been called by Professor Owen metagenesis.
In this
"
case
the
new
parts
ones.
are
not
moulded
upon
the
inner
surface
course
'
of of
the
old
The
plastic force
outer
p.
has
changed its
28
operation. The
case,
62.
and
all
Transact.
Linn.
Chap. XXVII.
OF
PANGENESIS.
o-i
"j"
'
i.
that
gave
form
are
and
cast
character
to
are
the
not
precedent
These
individual
responding cor-
perish
a new
and
off; they
new
parts and
of the
individuaL
due
to
developmental process," (fcc.'*" Metamorphosis, however, graduates so insensibly into metagenesis, that the two be distinctlyseparated. For cannot processes instance, in the last change which Cirripedes undergo, the
alimentary canal
are
distinct
and
some
other
organs
are
moulded
on
existing pre-
parts; but
developed
mature may
of the
the eyes of the old and the young animal in entirely different parts of the body; the tips limbs are formed within the larval limbs, and
to
they
basal
at
be said
be
metamorphosed
thorax
are
portions and
to
the whole
right angles
called
an
and
from
be
to
metagenesis.
metagenetic
is carried
point in the development of some Echinoderms, for the animal in the second stage of development is formed
extreme
almost latter
like
bud
within
cast
the
animal
an
of the old
off' like
a
vestment,
an
for
short
period
independent
vi-
tality.^"
to be thus If, instead of a single individual, several were a pre-existing fonn, the developed metagenetically within process young
would thus
be
called
one
of
alternate
generation.
The
casing closely resemble the enthe larvae of Cecidomyia, or may differ to an astonishing degree, as with many parasiticworms ence essential differbut this does not make and jelly-fishes; any than the greatness or abruptin the process, ness more any of the change in the metamorphoses of insects. The whole question of development is of great importance stance, the eye, for infor our an organ, present subject. When in a part of the body where is metagenetically formed during the previous stage of development no eye existed, we and independent growth. The ablook at it as a new must
either
29
'
Parthenogenesis,'
Professor excellent
1849,
Huxley
pp.
lias
graduates
zoidformation.
tlie
^o
into
as
gemmation
wliicli
is in (Jn-ene.
or
25,
some
26.
fact in
remarks
p.
(' Medion
same
metagenesis,
J.
'
cal
637)
to and
tlie
star-fislies,
tUis develsliows
p^of. Gunther's
Keay
Record
of
Zoolog.
Lit.,' 1865,
p.
625.
curiously
metamorphoses
352
solute
PROVISIONAL
HYPOTHESIS
Chap.
XXVII.
Independence of
in
structure
new
and and
are
although
more
responding cor-
function, is still
formed
a same even
obvious
when
as
several
cases
individuals
previous form,
important
in
in the
of alternate
generation.
largely growth,
into
as
play
we
the
see
case
shall
at
when
consider
ages.
the
inheritance
of modifications
ing correspond-
We
led to the
same
distinct
group
of
facts.
It is well
known
that
many
mals ani-
order, and therefore not differing belonging to the same widely from each other, pass through an extremely different certain beetles,not in any way Thus of development. course order, undergo remarkably different from others of the same
what
pass
has
been
an
called
hyper-metamorphosis
"
that
is, they
the nary ordily, name-
through
grub-like larva.
the Macroura,
is hatched
as
the
same
sub-order
of crabs,
Fritz
same
Miiller form
has the
;
under
the
afterwards
a
tains; re-
lobster under
legs, like
of
a
Mysis;
the
appears
Zoea, and
to
Peneus
the
orm ISTauplius-f
and
one
another, is known
as
naturalist.
crustaceans,
the
same
middle
author
another.
to
striking observes,
cases
given with
or
respect
the
Echinodermata. Allman
With
"
Medusae
jellyof the
fishes Professor
The
classification
be a comparatively simple task if, as has Hydroids would been erroneously asserted, generically-identicalmedusoids from polypoids; and, on generically-identical always arose polypoids always the other hand, that generically-identical medusoids." So again, origin to generically-identical gave " In the life-historyof the Strethill Wright remarks, Dr.
"i
Fritz
'
Fiir
Dar-
series,
on
Zoolo.c.,
The
highest
Pro-
the
crustaceans,
Sci.
morphosis
era.
'Milne-Edwards,
des
354
PROVISIONAL
HYPOTHESIS
Chap.
XXVII.
in which the same in many diseases exact ously shown points on the right and left sides of the body are similarly affected ; thus Sir J. Paget gives a drawing of a diseased into a most complicated pelvis,in which the bone has grown
'"'
pattern, but
is not
"
there
is not
one
spot
as
or
line
on
one a
side which
represented, as
exactly
this
it would
be in
mirror,
on
the other."
Many
each
view
of the
independent life of
insists that a body. Virchow become single bone-corpuscle or a single cell in the skin may The of a cock, after being inserted into the diseased. spur and acquired a v/eight of of an ear ox, lived for eight years, 396 grammes (nearly fourteen ounces), and the astonishing length of twenty-four centimetres, or about nine inches; so that the head of the ox The appeared to bear three horns." of its back, tail of a pig has been grafted into the middle inserted a piece of and reacquired sensibility. Dr. Oilier dog under the skin of periosteum from the bone of a young of similar true bone was developed. A multitude a rabbit, and of hairs facts could be given. The frequent presence teeth of the second of perfectly developed teeth, even and facts leading to the same are dentition, in ovarian tumours,'*'' minute
^^
of
the
conclusion.
"
Mr.
Lawson
were
Tait
refers
to
tumour
in
which
over
300
;
teeth
"
found,
from
one
resembling
"
in
many
respects
which had
milk-teeth
grown
and
to another
tumour,
full of hair
been
shed
my
than
sac,
tip of
bigger
in the
would
similarly sized
lifetime
to grow
area
of the
scalp,
and
be shed." elements
a
each is
a
autonomous
product of
a
cell,is
be walls
doubtful
the
question, even
as
wide
given
and
to
term,
to
include
without
36
nuclei.*" The
'
doctrine
celluld is
Paget,
Surgical
Pathology,'
Hist,
p.
19.
37
549,
484. of
560,
Mantegazza's innesti work, Degli interesting 1865, p. Auimali,' "c.,' Milano, 3. 51, tab.
Professor
'
k'^r
ibid., p.
Pathology
Ovaries,'
^^
Diseases
pp. most
see
of
the
1874,
the of
*
61, 62.
recent Ernst
For
3s
'
De
la Os,'
Production p. 8.
Arti-
Geoffrey
Saint-Hi-
cells, Generelle
s.
classiflHiick-
Morpholog.,'
275.
ii., 1866,
Chap.
XXVII.
OF
PANGENESIS.
355
mals.*" ani-
admitted
for Thus
plants, and
Virchow,
to
theory, whilst
every
atom
allowing that
of tissue
is derived
from
eelb, and
these
from
and these primarily from the egg, which pre-existing cells, he regards as a great cell. That cells,still retaining the is adby self-division or proliferation, same mitted nature, increase But when one. an organism undergoes by every during development, the cells, great changes of structure which at each stage are supposed to be directlyderived from likewise be greatly changed must previously existing cells, this change is attributed by the supporters of the in nature; cellular doctrine and cells and
not to to any
some
inherent
power
which Others
external
agency. may
pre-existing cells,from
view
may
be
be
correct,
admits
that
the
body
consists their
own
of
multitude
possess
proper
attributes, and
Hence
to
certain
extent
to
dependen inuse
of all others.
it will be
convenient
cells or organic units,or simply units. the terms indifferently in InherUance. We have the seen VariahUlty and ordinate twenty-second chapter that variabilityis not a principle cowith life or reproduction, but results from special conditions changed generally from acting during causes, duced successive generations. The fluctuating variabilitythus inis apparently due in part to the sexual system being imj^otent; and easily affected, so "'that it is often rendered when not so seriously affected, it often fails in its proper of the parents function of transmitting truly the characters to the offspring. But variability is not necessarilyconnected
"
with
the sexual
system,
we are
as
we
see
in
the
cases
of bud-variation.
nature
Although
connection,
from
many
seldom
able to trace of
structure
the
no
of the result
deviations
doubt
changed conditions acting directlyon the organisation, In stances insome independently of the reproductive system. of this, when feel sure all,or nearly all the we may which have been similarly exposed are similarly individuals
*^
Dr.
W.
ent
Aspect
'
gy,'
'
Edinburgh
Medical
Jour^
856
and
PROVISIONAL
HYPOTHESIS
Chap.
XXVII.
have been of wliich several instances definitely affected, clear why the offspring should given. But it is by no means of the parents to new conditions, be affected by the exposure that several generations in most and why it is necessary cases should have been thus exposed. explain the inherited effects of the we How, again, can duck The domesticated disuse of particular organs? use or flies less and bones have
manner
walks
more
than
the and
wild
duck, and
in
a
its limb-
become
in
diminished
comparison with
to certain paces,
wild
horse
is trained
and
consensual
tame
movements.
The
domesticated the
from
the
bodily powders are all inherited. Nothing in the whole circuit of physiology is disuse of a particular the use wonderful. How or can more limb or of the brain affect a small aggregate of reproductive
carry;
and
these
mental
endowments
and
cells,seated in a distant part of the body, in such a manner characthat the being developed from these cells inherits the ters
of
answer
either
to
one
or
both
question would shown that it was In the chapters devoted to inheritance of newly-acquired characters, whether multitude injurious a vital lowest of the whether tance, imporor highest beneficial, or often frequently even faithfully transmitted are when peculiarity; and some new one parent alone possesses is the rule, that inheritance conclude the whole we on may instances acter In some the anomaly. a charand non-inheritance
this
"
imperfect
is not
inherited, from
to
the
conditions
of life being
rectly di-
instances, from development; in many with as the conditions incessantly inducing fresh variability, maining grafted fruit-trees and highly-cultivatedflowers. In the rebe attributed to reversion,by the failure may cases remote its grandparents or more the child resembles which progenitors, instead of its parents. Characters laws. various is governed by Inheritance at a first appear which at any particular age tend to reappear associated with certain They often become corresponding age.
opposed
its
seasons
of the year,
and
reappear
in the
offspringat
Chap.
XXVII.
OF
PANGENESIS.
357
corresponding
one
season.
sex,
same
they tend
to
rather late in life in they appear exclusively in the same at sex reappear
/
If
the
The the
proves most
to,/sone
and
of It
of
the
attributes of
a
of
Inheritance.
to
that
the transmission
character thus
powers
its developmen
which
are cases are even
escape
and
these
acts
a
in
antagonistic,for each
is not unusual
occurs so or
alternatelyin
rare
generations. Reversion
on some
event,
ing depend-
favourable
combination
of circumstances,
but
and regularly with crossed animals breeds, that it is frequently with uncrossed so essential part of the principle of inheritance. conditions
in the
case
that changed
as
have
the
power
characters, long-lost
The
act
of animals
of
degree.
which
this power
than that
high
disappeared during scores, or perfectly of generations, should suddenly reappear thousands of pigeons and fowls, both when developed, as in the case crossed; or as with the purely bred and especially when
have zebrine
stripeson
dun-coloured
come are
horses, and
this
same
other
such
as
cases? when
under
head,
redeveloped, or when an organ which believe was possessed by an early progenitor of the must we is left,suddenly reappears, species,but of which not a rudiment in some Scrophulariceae. We with the fifth stamen as in bud-reproduction; acts reversion that have already seen that it occasionally acts during the growth of know and we
the
same
individual
of crossed
parentage,
of their
as
in the
rare
cases
rabbits, which
parents
or
have
reverted
as
the
ours colin
ancestors
they advanced
We
are
led to which
believe,
as
formerly explained,that
a
every
each
latent
as
in
and
female
sex
animals and
the
secondary
to
characters evolved
of
the the
opposite
lie latent
ready
be
when
858
PROVISIONAL
HYPOTHESIS
Chap.
XX
VII.
reproductive organs are injured. This comparison of the lie latent in both sexes, secondary sexual characters which with other latent characters, is the more appropriate from
the
case
recorded
of
Hen,
which
own
assumed
race,
some
of
an
the
masculine
characters,
she thus
not
of her
but
of time
earlyevery
progenitor; living
Plow this
power
exhibited characters
at
the of
same
the In
development re-
of
creature
latent
we
both that
a
kinds. host of
may to
long-lost
characters
ready proper and with other facts, connect intelligible we can and wonderful common capacity of reversion, this of calling back to life long-lostcharacters?
lie make
"
under
conditions.
enumerated
to
see we
the
which
every
one
desire
connected
make in
be done, if be
by
much
may
advanced
favour
of
the
chief
one.
The
likewise be supported by various secondarj^assumptions can is It physiological considerations. iiniversally admitted that the cells or units of the body increase by self-division or mately proliferation, retaining the saine nature, and that they ultibecome
converted
into
the
various this
means
tissues
and
stances subI
are
of the
assume
body.
units
But
besides
of increase
that
the
throw
off minute
granules which
dispersed throughout the whole system; that these, when supplied with proper nutriment, multiply by self-division, and are ultimately developed into units like those from which These be they were originally derived. granules may called gcmmules. They are collected from all parts of the the sexual elements, and their developto constitute system ment in the next forms but generation a new being; they likewise of transmission in dormant are state to capable a future then be developed. Their velopmen degenerations and may veloped depends on their union with other partially decells which nascent or precede them in the regular of growth. course union, will be seen Why I use the term when discuss the direct action of pollen on the tissues of we the mother-plant. Gemmules are o"[ supposed to be thrown
Chap.
XXVII.
OP
PAXGENESIS.
359
by
every
unit, not
eacli stage of
only during the adult state, but during development of every organism; but not necessarily
the same the gemmulcs in their dormant for each other,leading to their affinity that
or
during
the
continued
existence
of
unit.
state gation aggre-
Lastly, I
have
a
assume
mutual into
buds
into
the sexual
or
elements. which
each
Ilr'nce,it is
new ganisms, orposed. com-
not
buds
generate
which
individual
is
assumptions
I have
constitute
have
been
to
prepomided
by various
authors."
Before
are
proceeding
in themselves
how far these assumpshow, firstly, tions probable, and secondly,how far they
groups to
connect
we are
and
of facts with
which
concerned,
as
be useful
give
an
illustration, as
simple
be
mass
of the possible,
minute
particle or
under if
gemmule
part and
to
nourished
vourabl fa-
would surfaces
differ in texture
from
the central
C FortLewes Nov. 1, 1SG8, p. of number remarks 506) the on ly nearwriters wlio advanced liave two similar More views. than Aristotle thousand years ago of tliis liind, combated view a Dr. I hear from W. wliich, as Mr. G. H.
is
sav.^
not
clear.
Professor
of p. brates.' Verte-
nierhtly Review,'
Owen
(' Anatomv
ill.,1868.
see any betwecu
to he
proi"onnded
'
his
rartheiK.-i-eiu'sis
and wliifh he and
erroneous,
(1S49.
imw
8),
as
Ogle,
and
was
held
'
by
in
Hippocrates
his
'
uiy but
a
hypoihesis
others. of God
says
R.iv. that
"
dom "Wisp.
of
pangenesis:
68),
the
body
to
seems
every club
part
and
The
of
tribute con-
the
seed." of edit,
ganic "or-
molecules
(' Hist.
tom.
Nat.
Gen.,'
54.
at the but
Buffon of 1749,
ii. pp.
appear
same as
62.
first
425)
the
of and I'llvs..' Anat. (' Journal ii-.w sIk.ws 441) 1S69. May. p. I fordifferent they really are. the that logical "physiomei'ly thought units of Herbert Spenof r Principles P.iology.' vol. cc'r iv. and viii.. 1m;3 t'.4) i., chaps,
"
were
the I
now case. .1
sanie
as
hypothesis,
d'Hist.
but
know
my that
ireiuniiiles.
this It the Is
n"t
different.
1781,
the for
(TEuvres i.,
of
the from
work
Lastly,
review
Prrtfessor
tippears
of
by (' Nuova'
1868).
di that
jiresent Mantegazza
'
Antologia,
he (in his
limbs adapted having germs the of all possible reparation but these whether losses; germs with to be the same are supposed those the buds and sexual within
Mau'irin,' Klemi'Mll
Igiene,'
foresaw
Ediz. the
57
360
would have
PROVISIONAL
HYPOTHESIS
Chap. XXVII.
to
throw
off
gemmules,
form
which
when
or
aggregated
ments, ele-
by mutual
and
either buds
the sexual
ganism. ultimately be developed into a similar orof view may be extended to one Precisely the same the higher animals; although in this case thousand many off from the various be thrown gemmules must parts of the body at each stage of development; these gemmules being with cells in due developed in union pre-existing nascent
order
of succession.
Physiologistsmaintain, as we have seen, that each unit of the body, though to a large extent dependent on others, is likewise to a certain extent and independent or autonomous, has the power of increasing by self-division. I go one step that each unit casts oil free gemmules further, and assume v.hich are dispersed throughout the system, and are capable conditions under of being developed into similar proper units. Nor this assumption be considered can gratuitous as is and manifest that the sexual elements improbable. It of some and buds include formative matter kind, capable of from know the production of development; and we now is dispersed throughout the graft-hybrids that similar matter with that of another and tissues of plants, and can combine in distinct plant, giving rise to a new being, intermediate
character.
on
We the
know
also that
the male
element
can
act
rectly di-
and
on
the
future Avhich
of female
animals.
The
tive forma-
dispersed throughout the tissues of is capable of being developed into each plants, and which and unit be generated there by some or part, must means; consists of minute chief assumption is that this matter my particlesor gemmules cast off from each unit or cell." that the gemmules in their But I have further to assume selves undeveloped state are capable of largely multiplying themDelby self-division, like independent organisms. " of multiplication by fissiparity admit pino insists that to is repugnant in corpuscles,analogous to seeds or buds
matter
is thus
...
"
Mr.
(' Journal
scopical
Lowne of
has
observed
possible
isms
the minute
are
and
organ-
aggregation
gemmules,
Mr. Darwin's
by developed of excessively
such
as
changes
larva of
a
"
in
tiiose
fly,
it
believe
which demands."
hypothesis
8G2
the
PROVISIONAL
PIYPOTHESIS
Chap.
XXVII.
smallest
as
ovule, and
some
within and
each
spermatozoon
an
or
pollenand
grain, and
number minuteness But how
any manj^
animals
plants produce
the ovules,""* be the
the
ing astonish-
of
number
how
minute of
and
the
formation
granule of
with ordinary substance, this difficulty respect to the is not the data arrived at gemmules insuperable. From by Sir W. Thomson, son George finds the cube of TTroisiy my of an inch of glass or water 16 million consist of between must
millions, and
No doubt
131
thousand of which
million
an
million
molecules.
the molecules
larger,from
go
to
the formation
a
m.ind
that
cube
of
of
or
an
inch
we
is
can
much
see
than
any
ovule
one
bud,
what
vast
number
pollen-grain, of gemmules
of these The
bodies
might
contain.
be must gemmules derived from each part or organ We thoroughly dispersed throughout the whole system. a minute fragment of a leaf of know, for instance, that even a Begonia will reproduce the whole plant; and that if a fresh-water is chopped into small pieces,each will reproduce worm the whole animal. Considering also the minuteness of the gemmules and the permeability of all organic tissues, the thorough dispersion of the gemmules is not surprising. That without the aid of be readily transferred matter may have a good instance vessels from part to part of the body, we recorded in a case by Sir J. Paget of a lady, whose hair lost attack of neuralgia and recovits colour at each successive ered of a few days. it again in the course With ever, plants,howand probably with compound animals, such as corals,
""
Mr.
F.
Bncklnnfl
in
cod-tish
p.
1868,
'
about produces Phys.,' (Carpenter's Comp. eggs Mr. J. 3854. Scott, of 590). p. of tbe Botanic Garden Royal in the calculated, Edinburgli,
same some manner as
an
found
Now
flowers
the this
ber num-
plant
on a
and
season.
many In
racemes an
ing durgenus,
allied
have
done
for
British
Orchids
p.
of number
Orchids,'
of
seeds
in
Mr. Scott has seen Gongora, a on cnpsules twenty produced such ten racemes single raceme; the would on yield Acropera above of millions seventy-four
seed.
Chap.
XXVII.
OF
PANGENESIS.
3O3
the
ordinarilyspread from bud to bud, but confined to the parts developed from each separate bud; are and of this fact no explanation can be given. elective affinity assumed The of each gemnmle for that cell which precedes it in due order of development particular is supported by many (jf analogies. In all ordinary cases sexual reproduction, the male and female elements certainly mutual have a affinityfor each other: thus, it is believed thousand that about ten species of Composita? exist, and that if the pollen of all these species doubt be no there can could be simultaneously or successivelyplaced on the stigma would elect with of any tainty species,this one one unerring cerall is the more its own pollen. This elective capacity
wonderful,
as
gemmules
do not
it must
have
been
many
a common
cies spe-
of of this great group progenitor. On any view the formative ovules of and the male
matter
plants branched
of the nature of each
act
on
part contained
each other
element
by
that corresponding parts affect one other; anso special affinity, by a cow thus, a calf produced from a short-horned long-horned bull has its horns affected by the union of the two forms, and the offspring from two birds with differently
coloured The
body plainly show, as many affinity for special organic insisted,*" have an physiologists natural foreign to the body, We see or substances, whether the from this in the cells of the kidneys attracting urea Lytta vesicatoria affecting certain nerves; blood; in curare
tissues the
as
kidneys;
and
the
poisonous
matter
of various
diseases,
drophob small-pox, scarlet-fever,hooping-cough,glanders, and hyaffecting certain definite parts of the body. that the development of each assumed It has also been
unit
depends on its union with another cell or cedes preits development, and which has just commenced which matter formative That the it in due order of growth. by our hypothesisconsists within the pollen of plants,which deunite with and modify the partially of gemmules, can gemmule
"
Paget,
p.
'Lectures
on
ologv'
hir
tninslat: by Pathologv:'
pp.
27;
Virchow,
Path'ColinDr.
PP-
'
Tissns Mnllor
.
I'J,
yiv"nt^
s
I m\m
ology,'
Eng.
trauslat.,
p.
.1)0.
Chance,
Claude
364:
PROVISIONAL
HYPOTHESIS
Chap.
XXVII.
in the veloped cells of the mother-plant, we have clearlyseen section devoted to this subject. As the tissues of plants are formed, as far as is known, only by the proliferationof preexisting
cells,we
from and the
must
conclude
not
that become
the
gemmules
derived
foreign pollen do
with be compared mother-plant. This process may what takes place in the act of ordinary fertilisation, during of the pollen-tubes penetrate which the closed the contents the developembryonic sac within the ovule, and determine ment of the embryo. According to this view, the cells of the almost literally be said to be fertilised by mother-plant may the gemmules derived from the foreign pollen. In this case in due and in all others the proper combine gemmules must order with pre-existing nascent owing to their elective cells, in nature ajffinities. A slight difference between the gemmules and the nascent cells would be far from interfering with their mutual union and development, for we well know in the case of ordinary reproduction that such entiation slight differ-
of the
elements
favours
in
as
marked
manner
well
as
the vigour
by the aid of our hypothesis obscure to throw have some light on the problems which before us; but it must be confessed that many come points remain Thus it is useless to speculate altogether doubtful. at what period of development each unit of the body casts off its gemmules, the whole as subject of the development of
the various whether
means
Thus
have
been
able
tissues is
as
clear.
We
do not
know
the
at
whether
unknown merely collected by some within certain seasons the reproductive organs, or after being thus collected they rapidly multiply the flow of blood
to
gemmules
there,
season
as
to
these
organs
at
we
each know
seems
render
probable. Nor
buds in certain of trees the
do
gemmules
to the
no means
collect to form
definite and
ing places,lead-
symmetrical growth
of
corals.
wear
deciding whether
is made
ordinary
of
the
tissues
merely by the
good
the
Chap.
XXVII.
OF
PANGENESIS.
3^,5
gemmules
intimate and
are
thus
consumed,
between
more
as
seems
probable from
the
connection
the
development, and
which
many
changes
male
animals
undergo
in
colour
and
then be thrown some the phelight would structure, on nomena of old age, with its lessened power of reproduction of the repair of injuries, and and the obscure ject subon of do not
longevity. The
cast
fact
of
castrated
animals, which
to
gemmules in the act of reproduction, than perfect males, seems not being longer-lived opposed in the ordinary rethe belief that gemmules are consumed pair
of wasted
off innumerable
tissues; unless
in
indeed
the
gemmules
the
after
being
organs
collected
are
small
numbers
within
reproductive
a
there
largely multiplied.^"
cells
or
the
same
units
may
live for
long period
their
continue
multiplying without being modified by with free gemmules of any kind, is probable from
that of the spur of
a
such
as
cock which
grew
to
an
enormous
size when
far units are How grafted into the ear of an ox. modified growth by absorbing peculiar during their normal from the surrounding tissues, independently of nutriment of a distinct nature, is another with gemmules their union ing by calldoubtful point.''We shall appreciate this difficulty what to mind complex yet symmetrical growths the cells inoculated by the poison of a gall-insect. of plants yield when and tumours are various polypoid excrescences animals With eration, generally admitted'' to be the direct product, through prolifof normal the
as
cells which
have
become
abnormal.
In
repair of bones, the tissues undergo, stitution series of permutations and subremarks,'' a whole rect " be converted by a diThe cartilage cells may
into
transformation
marrow-cells, converted
bone.
"
and
osseous
continue and
as
may
first be
; or
into
may
then
tissue
they lastly,
So
Dr
in
first be converted
are
marrow
and
then
into
variable
Ross Ins
'
the
Professor Ray several discussed has to referred points here his in pangenesis,
essay,
Lankester the of
as
ject
ease
=^
bearing Longev-
interesting
Lower
1S"J, p. Virchow,
trans
'On
Man
Comparative
and pp. the
gy,'
ity in mals,'
Anl-
1870,
PPvGO "
^02.
"'";"
p.,ni.,
jbid., pp.
366
mutations yet But in
as
PROVISIONAL
HYPOTHESIS
Chap. XXVII.
in themselves tissues,
appearance
so
external tissues
without
in
at any change their nature obvious change in their nutrition,we must any accordance with our hypothesis that gemmules
one
thus
from
kind
cause reason
with
the
cells of
kind, and
We have
modifications.
good
to believe
that several
one
gemmules
same
are or
and
the the
unit
single
insufficiency pollen-grains or spermatozoa. But far from whether the we are knowing mules gemof all the units are free and separate from one another,
cannot
or even
otherwise of
two
understand three
or
or
whether A
some
are
from
into
small
gates. aggre-
complex structure, and, each separate part is liable to inherit variations,I conas clude that each feather of gemgenerates a large number mules but it is that these be into possible a aggregated ; may The remark the to same compound gemmule. applies petals of flowers,which sometimes are highly complex structures, w^th each ridge and hollow contrived for a special purpose, that each part must have been separatelymodified, and the so modifications transmitted; consequently, separate gemmules, have been thrown off from according to our hypothesis, must
each
or a
cell
or
unit.
But,
as
we
sometimes
see
half
an
anther
portion of a filament becoming petali-form, or stripes of the calyx assuming the colour and parts or mere of the corolla,it is probable that with texture petals the gemmules of each cell are not aggregated together into a Even in so compound gemmule, but are free and separate. that of a perfect cell, with its protoplasmic as simple a case do not know nucleus, nucleolus, and walls, we contents, whether not its development depends on or a comjoound gemmule
derived from each
small
part."
S4
endeavoured that the several foreto show going Having now gous assumptions are to a certain extent supported by analoof the most doubtful facts, and having alluded to some
"
this
See head
some
by
on
G.
H,
Lewes
in
the
'
Fortnightly
Mr.
Review,'
Nov.
1, 1868, p. 509.
Chap.
XXVII.
OF
PANGENESIS.
3^7
points,we will consider how far the hypothesis brings under in the enumerated single point of view the various cases a All the forms of reproduction graduate into First Part. in their product; for it is impossible and agree another one to distinguish between organisms produced from buds, from
self-division, or from fertilised
same
germs; nature
such and
to
organisms
reversions
are
of the
as,
of
according to our hypothesis, all the the aggregation of gemof reproduction depend on forms the whole derived from understand this mules body, we can remarkable Parthenogenesis is no longer wonderful, agreement.
kind;
and and the union
if
we
know
good followed
from
two
from
of the
elements would
distinct
parthenogenesis did oftener it does. On much than not occur ordinary any of graft-hybrids, and theory of reproduction the formation
the action of the male well
as on
individuals,the wonder
on
plant, as
are
of female
on they are intelligible The do not actually create the rei^roductiveorgans the aggregation and sexual elements; they merely determine ner. perhaps the multiplication of the gemmules in a special manThese however, together with their accessory organs, to perform. They adapt one or parts, have high functions for independent temporary both elements existence, and for mutual union. The stigmatic secretion acts on the pollen of a plant of the same species in a wholly different manner it does on the pollen of one tinct to what belonging to a disor family. The spermatophores of the Cephalopoda genus merly forwonderfully complex structures, which are were mistaken for parasitic worms; the spermatozoa and
of in
some an
animals
possess
attributes be
which,
put
the
if
observed
to
down
stinct in-
when the
spermatozoa
of
an
insect
find
their
w^ay
into
minute
micropyle of
Mr.
Spencer
vol.
(' Priu-
fully discussed
this
antago-
ciples of
Biology,'
ii, p.
430)
368
PROVISIONAL
HYPOTHESIS
Chap.
XXVII.
repair of injuries and gemmation and with plants, between zomes, rapid increase by buds, rhi"c., and the production of seed, is partly explained for these by the gemmules not existing in sufficient numbers to be carried on simultaneously. processes wonderful than the Hardly any fact in physiology is more
" "
reproduction
between
the
power to
of re-growth;
snail
should
be able
its eyes, tail, and legs, reproduce its head, or a salamander exactly at the points where they have been cut oil. Such of gemmules derived from cases are explained by the presence each part, and disseminated throughout the body. I have heard with the process that of the repair of the compared broken the two angles of a crystal by re-cr;^^stallisation ; and
processes
have
this
much
in
common,
that
in
the
one
case
polarity of the molecules is the efficient cause, and in the other the affinityof the gemmules for particular nascent have here to encounter cells. But two we objections which dividual apply not only to the re-growth of aj)art, or of a bisected inbut to fissiparous generation and budding. The is reproduced is in the first objection is that the part which has same stage of development as that of the being which of buds, that been operated on or bisected; and in the case the new beings thus produced are in the same stage as that of the budding parent. Thus a mature salamander, of which does not reproduce a larval tail ; and the tail has been cut off, of budding crab does not reproduce a larval leg. In the case a it was in the first part of this chapter that the shown new being thus produced does not retrograde in development, that is, does not pass through those earlier stages, which
the
"
the
fertilised
germ
has
on
to
or
pass
through.
Nevertheless, the by
by
form also
organisms
^"
operated
salmon
a
multiplying themselves
which
a
buds
to The
The breed
Triton
male
at and
is
known
a.e?e.
produces
budding
of
dusa: me-
very
early
retaining according
(' Annals Hist.,'
are
whilst larval branchife, their Dumeril to Filippi and and Nat. of Mag. Siredon,
3rd
series,
of
capable
Haeckel
tive,
widely
power
has
the
reproduction.
and
3rd
Krohn
(' Annals
Mag.
of
Nat.
Hist.,'
series,
vol. other
Ernst
recently
Wiss. observed
certain p. 6) that whilst sexually medusae, by gemmae. mature, propagate Sec, also, Koliiker, Morphologie
xix., 1862,
'
2nd,
1865)
und
Pennatulidenstauames,
Entwickelungsgeschichte 1872,
des p.
12.
370
derived from
PROVISIONAL
HYPOTHESIS
Chap.
XXVII.
parts modified
to
during maturity
can
pass
into
respect
the
hybridism, pangenesis
facts. We
must
agrees
well
with
viously pre-
of
ascertained
believe, as
gemmules are requisite for the shown, that from the occurrence But development of each cell or unit. from those of parthenogenesis, more in cases esi^ecially infer that which an embryo is only partiallyformed, we may the female element generally includes gemmules in nearly for independent development, so that when sufficient number the gemmules element united with the male are dant. superabuncrossed reciprotwo are Now, when species or races cally, the offspring do not commonly differ, and this shows
that the sexual elements
agree
several
in
same
power,
in accordance
with
the view
that both
are
inclu.de the
gemmules.
Hybrids and
mongrels
one
also
the two
in character tween begenerally intermediate semble parent-forms, yet occasionallythey closely rein
one
parent
or even
part and
admission
the
other
: nor
parent
in
other an-
part,
to
in their whole
on are one
structure
is this difficult
understand
the
that
in
the
gemmules
and
in that
the
superabundant
parent
over
number,
some
may
have
advantage in
from the the other colour
or
number,
parent.
other this
vigour or affinity,
Crossed forms
those
derived exhibit
sometimes
characters
occurs
succeeding bud
instances
we
"
generations, of which
were
given
in the eleventh
chapter.
that which the
In
"
must
follow
"
Naudin,^' and
species,
" "
admit
terms
or
element
of the two
I should
late trans-
for their own affinity kind, and thus separate themselves into distinct stripesor blotches ; and reasons were given, when discussing in the fifteenth chapter the incompatibility of certain characters to unite, for forms two believing in such mutual affinity. When are is not mission crossed,one rarely found to be prepotent in the transan
into the
gemmules,
have
of
its characters
over
the the
other; and
one
this has
we
can
that
fomi
du
some
adi. p.
on
See this
his
subject
excellent in
discussion
'
Archives
151.
Museum,'
torn.
Nouvelles
CuAP.
XXVII.
OF
PANGENESIS.
3Y;|
vantage
its
are
over
the
other
some one
in the
cases,
gemmules.
present
there in is
In the
a
form
and
the
tendency a pigeon is crossed with one blue tint is generally prepotent. The
blue when
latent
other
explanation
we come
of this form
to
distinct
species are
crossed, it is notorious
that
number yield the full or proper of offspring; and we can only say on this head that, as the development of each organism depends on such nicely-balanced affinities host of gemmules and nascent between need not a we cells, that all the feel at commixture of gemmules derived surprised from distinct species should lead to partial or complete two With failure of development. of hyrespect to the sterility brids the union of two distinct species it produced from shown in the nineteenth chapter that this depends exwas clusively the on reproductive organs being speciallyaffected; should these be thus affected we but why do not organs of life, than conditions more know, any "why unnatural though compatible w^th health, should cause sterility; or close interbreeding,or the illegitimate unions why continued of heterostyled plants, induce result. The the same clusion conthat the reproductive organs and alone are affected, the whole not organisation, agrees perfectly with the unincreased imi^aired or even capacity in hybrid plants for propagation by buds; for this implies, according to our off hybridised hypothesis, that the cells of the hybrids throw gemmules, which become aggregated into buds, but fail to become aggregated within the reproductive organs, so
they do
as
to
form
the sexual
elements. under
In
similar
manner
many
to plants, placed We readily be propagated by buds. produce seed, but can the well with shall presently see that pangenesis agrees strong tendency to reversion exhibited by all crossed animals and plants. i Each organism reaches maturity through a longer ot\ terra the former shorter course of growth and development: of size, and increase development being confined to mere
when
unnatural
conditions, fail
372
to
PROVISIONAL
HYPOTHESIS
Chap. XXVII,
The and sensibly inbe small changed structure. changes may child grows into a man, a or slow, as when many, and in the metamorphoses of certain ephemslight, as abrupt, erous insects,or, again, few and strongly-marked, as with other insects. Each most be moulded newly formed part may within a previouslj"existing and corresponding part, and it will appear, in this case veloped falsely as I believe, to be de-
from distinct
the
of
eye,
old
part;
or
it may in
be
extreme
formed
cases
within
part
An
the
the
may
of metagenesis.
at
a
be
developed
spot
We have that also seen previously existed. allied organic beings in the course of their metamorphoses sometimes attain nearly the same after passing structure through widely different forms; or conversely, after passing ent early forms, arrive at widely differthrough nearly the same
no
where
eye
mature
forms. view
power,
In
these
cases
it is very
the
common
that
the first-formed
the inherent
of independently of any external agency, structures producing new wholly different in form, position, and function. But all these cases become plain on the hypothesis velopmen of pangenesis. The units, during each stage of deoff gemmules, throw which, multiplying, are the offspring, as transmitted to the offspring. In as soon partially developed, it particular cell or unit becomes any unites with (or, to speak metaphorically, is fertilised by) the But succeeding cell,and so onwards. gemmule of the next organisms have often been subjected to changed conditions of life at a certain stage of their development, and in consequence cast have been slightly modified; and the gemmules modified off from such parts will tend to reproduce parts This process be repeated in the same modified manner. may of the part becomes until the structure greatly changed at cessarily one particular stage of development, but this will not neaffect other parts, whether ly previously or subsequentformed.
In
this
manner
we
can
understand
the
able remark-
phoses, metamor-
of many
animals.
during
however, of diseases which supei-vene old age, subsequently to the ordinary period of procreation, sometimes and inherited, which, nevertheless, are
In the
case,
Chap.
XXVII.
OF
PANGENESIS.
373
must
as
occurs
with
organs
brain
were
and
heart
complaints,we
at
an
suppose
that
at
the
affected
early
age
and
threw
off
this
but that the affection beperiod affected gemmules; came visible or injurious only after the prolonged growth, strict
sense
in
the
of
the
word,
of
the
part.
In
all
the
changes
age, not
we
of structure
which
regularly
supervene
probably see the effects of deteriorated of true development. The principle of the independent formation of each part,
to
owing
nascent
the
union
of
the
proper
gemmules
with
certain
superabundance of the gemmules from both parents, and derived the subsequent selflight on a multiplication of the gemmules, throws widely of facts, which different group view of on ordinary any I allude to organs which strange. development appears very abnormally transposed or multiplied. For instance, a are
curious
monstrous
case
the
has chicken
been with
recorded
a
by Dr.
Elliott
Coues
of
lated perfect additional right leg articuto the left side of the pelvis. Gold-fish often have pernumerary sufins placed on various parts of their bodies. the tail of a lizard is broken tail is someWhen off, a double times was reproduced; and when the foot of the salamander divided longitudinally by Bonnet, additional digits were casionally ocValentin formed. injured the caudal extremity it produced rudiof an ments embryo, and three days afterwards of a double pelvis and of double hind-limbs.^" When times frogs,toads, "c., are born with their limbs doubled, as someGervais the be remarks,''" cannot doubling, as happens, due to the complete fusion of two embryos, with the exception
of the
larvae
are
limbless. insects
The
same
ment argu-
or
produced with legs or antennae, for these are metamorphosed from antennae-less larvae. Alphonse Milne-Edwards applicable
to
"
*^^
certain
ple multi-
apodal
has
scribed deeye-
the
curious
case
of
crustacean
a
in
which
one an
of
complete
eye,
only
'
im-
Proc.
Boston
See.
'
of
Nat.
in Scientific republished Nov. 10, 1869, p. 488. Opinion.' ^9 Auat. of Todd's Cvclop. and Phys.,' vol. iv., 1849-52, p. 975. "o Nov. 14, Rendus,' Comptes 1865, p. 800.
Hist.,'
"^ remarked by As previously his M"'^taniorin Quatrefages, de "c., 18G2, I'Homme,' phoses
'
p.
ea
129. Giinther's
p.
'
Zoological
Rec-
'
ord,' 1864,
279.
374
PROVISIONAL
HYPOTHESIS
Chap. XXVII.
and out of the centre of this a portion of an perfect cornea, of a man antenna was developed. A case has been recorded had during both dentitions double tooth in place of who a the left second incisor,and he inherited this peculiarityfrom ditional his paternal grandfather. Several cases knov/n of adare teeth having been developed in the orbit of the eye, and, mare casionally especially with horses, in the palate. Hairs oc**'
*"*
appear
in strange brain."
'^^
situations, as
breeds foreheads.
"
within
the
stance suba
of whole
spurs
the
Certain their
of As
sheep bear
many
as
crowd have
of horns been
seen on
on
five
In legs of certain Game-fowls. is ornajnented with a topknot of the Polish fowl the male his neck, whilst the female has a tophackles like those on knot In feather-footed of common feathers. formed pigeons and fowls, feathers like those on the wing arise from the Even the elemental side of the legs and toes. outer parts of feather may be transjDosed;for in the Sebastopol the same barbules are developed on the divided filaments of the goose, the stumps of the shaft. ImiDcrf ect nails sometimes on appear and it is an interesting fact amputated fingers of man ; the snake-like that with Saurians, which present a series of the with more and more imperfect limbs, the terminations " phalanges first disappear, the nails becoming transferred to their proximal remnants, not to parts which even are or phalanges." with of such frequent occurrence are Analogous cases plants that they do not strike us with sufiicient surprise. often proand are pistils, petals, stamens, Supernumerary duced.
both
*'"
^^
I have
seen
leaflet low
down
in the
compound
leaf
replaced by a tendril; and a tendril possesses and such as spontaneous movement peculiar properties, many either wholly or irritability. The calyx sometimes assumes, Stamens of the corolla. the colour and texture are by stripes, less completely, into petals,more or frequently converted so
of Vicia sativa
"3
Sedgwick,
Review,'
in
'
Medico-Chi-
translat.,
ca.se
vol.
i., 1833.
kind
to has
me.
'
p.
407.
rurg.
'
April, 1S63, p. 454. 6* Saint-Hilaire, Isid. Geoffrey torn, Hist, des Anomalies,' i., torn, li., 1832. 435, 657; and pp.
500.
85
'
this conmuinicated
"'
of
lately been
Dr.
chen,
lichen
'
p.
Sauriern,'
of
as
Patholo-
Journal
May,
1870,
Anat. p. 286.
English
Chap, XXVII.
OF
PANGENESIS.
375
not to
that
but
such
as
cases
are
petals have
deserving notice;
to
a
attract
their
entrance
by well-adaptedcontrivances,
for the conversion hardly account of stamens into petals merely by unnatural or superfluous nourishment. Again, the edge of a petal may occasionallybe found including of the highest products of the plant, namely, pollen one ; for instance, I have seen the pollen-mass of an Ophrys, which is a very complex structure, developed in the edge of an upper of the calyx of the common petal. The segments have pea been observed into carpels, including partially converted ovules, and with their tips converted into stigmas. Mr. Salter and Dr. Maxwell Masters have found pollen within the ovules of the passion-flowerand of the rose. Buds be may developed in the most unnatural the petal of as positions, on flower. Numerous a analogous facts could be given."" I do not know how physiologists look at such facts as the foregoing. According to the doctrine of pangenesis, the become gemmules of the transposed organs developed in the cells or aggregates of place,from uniting with wrong wrong cells during
a
their nascent
state;
and
this would
follow
from
in their elective affinities. Nor slight modification ought to feel much we surprise at the affinities of cells and gemthe many mules remember curious cases we varying, when given in the seventeenth chapter, of plants which absolutely dantly refuse to be fertilised by their own pollen, though abun-
fertile with
that
cases
of any the
other
individual that of
a
of the distinct
same
species,and
It is
"
in
some
only with
sexual
term
cies. spe-
manifest
to
use
that the
elective
affinities of
"
have employed by Gartner As the cells of adjoining or homologous parts been modified. will have nearly the same nature, they will be particularly liable to acquire by variation each other's elective affinities; such
plants
and
a
we
can
thus
understand
on
to
certain
extent
such
cases
as
crowd
"s
of horns
the
'
heads
of certain
'Science The 369. describes of petal
sheep, of several
Oct..
J. M.
gie
218, 220,
the to
Teratolo353. pea,
see
Review,'
Rev. bnd
IST.*?, p.
of
Chron.,'
respect
see
18G6,
p.
pollen
Masters
with-
lOi ovules,
Dr.
ia
376
spurs
on
PROVISIONAL
HYPOTHESIS
Chap.
XXVII.
the
feathers the
on
the heads
of the feathers
males
on
fowls, and
with
pigeon wing-like
their toes, for between legs and membrane the leg is the homologue of the wing. of As all the organs axis, it is plants are homologous and spring from a common natural that they should be eminently liable to transposition. It ought to be observed that when compound part, any additional limb or an such as an springs from a antenna, false position, that the few first gemmules it is only necessary should be wrongly attached; for these whilst developing other gemmules in due succession, as in the would attract When are parts which re-growth of an amputated limb. in structure, of similar the vertebrae as homologous and snakes the stamens of polyandrous flowers, "c., are peated reor in the same times organism, closelyallied gemmany mules w^ell as the points to be extremely numerous, must as with which united; and, in accordance they ought to become understand the foregoing views, we to a certain extent can Isid. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire's law, that parts, which are already multiple, are extremely liable to vary in number.
Variability often depends, as I have attempted to show, the reproductive organs on being injuriously affected by the gemmules derived changed conditions; and in this case from the various parts of the body are probably aggregated in an irregularmanner, some superfluous and others deficient. Whether lead to the a superabundance of gemmules would increased size of any be told; but we part cannot can see that their partial deficiency, without necessarily leading to of the part, might cause the entire abortion considerable modifications; for in the same manner as plants, if their own pollen be excluded, are easilyhybridised, so, in the case of cells, if the properly succeeding gemmules were absent, would combine with other and allied they probably easily with transposed parts. gemmules, as we have just seen In variations caused by the direct action of changed conditions, of which several instances have been given, certain conditions, parts of the body are directlyaffected by the new off modified and consequently throw gemmules, which are On transmitted to the offspring. ordinary view it is uuany
378
A
PROVISIONAL
HYPOTHESIS
Chap.
XXVII.
that there have seen be here noticed; we difficulty may is an important difference in the frequency, though not in the nature, of the variations in plants propagated by sexual and asexual generation. As far as variabilitydepends on the of the under imperfect action reproductive organs at changed conditions, we why plants propacan see once gated be far should less variable than those asexually, gated propathe direct With action of to sexually. changed respect know that from buds do conditions, we organisms produced not pass through the earlier phases of development ; they will therefore not be exposed, at that period of life when structure is most ability readily modified, to the various causes inducing variin the same larval manner as are embryos and young this is a sufficient explanation I know forms; but whether
not.
"
reversion, there is a similar difference between plants propagated from buds and seeds. be propagated securely by buds, Many varieties can but their parent-forms to generally or invariably revert by seed. So, also,hybridised plants can be multiplied to any extent by buds, but are continually liable to reversion by seed, that is, to the loss of their hybrid or intermediate ter. characI can offer no satisfactoryexplanation of these facts. with Plants variegated leaves,phloxes with striped flowers, all be securely propagated barberries with seedless fruit,can by buds taken from the stem or branches; but buds from the of these plants almost roots invariably lose their character
respect
to to
With
variations
due
and
revert-
to their former
condition.
This
inexplicable,unless
distinct from from those
buds
on
developed from
stem,
as
the
is
one
the
stem
dependen that these latter behave like inanother, and we know organisms. bility Finally, we see that on the hypothesis of pangenesis varia-
distinct groups of causes. at least two depends on superabundance, and transposition of Firstly,the deficiency, gemmules, and the redevelopment of those which have long the gemmules themselves been dormant; gone not having undermodification ; and such changes will amply account any for much fluctuating variability. Secondly, the direct action the organisation, and of the inof changed conditions on
Chap.
XXVII.
OF
PANGENESIS.
379
in this
use
or
disuse
the
modified
case
the gemmuh^^g
themselves
modified, and,
!
sufficiently multiplied, will supplant the old gemmules be developed into new structures.
now
Turning
a
to
the laws
of
Inheritance.
If
we
suppose
assume a
and gelatinous protozoon to vary homogenous reddish colour, a minute separated particlewould it grew colour ; and to full size, retain the same as
naturally,
we
should
same
have view
the
may
simplest form
be extended of which
to
of
inheritance.'"
whole of
Precisely the
and
one
the
infinitely numerous
body
of
fied diversi-
units animals
is
the
the
higher
composed; the separated particles being our gemhave We mules. by implialready sufficientlydiscussed cation, of inheritance the important principle at corresponding limited by sex and by the season of Inheritance as ages. ter) the year becoming white in win(for instance with animals believe that the elective affinities if we may is intelligible of the units of the body are slightlydifferent in the two sexes, both sexes at different or especiallyat maturity, and in one It should that they unite with different gemmules. so seasons,
be remembered
on
the
to
abnormal that
soon
position trans-
have
seen
reason
believe
I shall
such have
readily modified.
seasonal
But
to sexual
and
inheritance.
These
several laws
therefore
on
and
But thesis
explicable to a large extent through pangenesis, other hypothesis which has as yet been advanced. no it appears at first sight a fatal objection to our hjT)oa
that
part
or
organ
may
be
removed
during
several
successive
generations, and
if the
by disease, the lost part reappears and horses formerly had their tails docked during inherited without effect;although, any
seen,
erations gen-
have
there
is
some
reason
to
believe
to
that such
the
of certain has
'"This is the Professor Haeckel, erelle Morphologie
who
"
inheritance. from
a
cumcision Cirremote
the
Jews
taken his
ii.
s.
by
'
Gen-
(b.
171),
parcon-
says:
tielle
Identitat
elterliehen ini Materie kindliflicu Orjr.iuismiis. bol Mat"'rie dieser die Theilnnjr ist Urdie der Fortpflanztuiir, Erblichkelt." der sache
stituirten
und
ira
380
PROVISIONAL
HYPOTHESIS
Chap.
XXVIL
period, and
visible
in
in most the
cases
operation
are
not
that an herited inmaintain offspring; though some If inheritance pends deeffect does occasionally appear. derived of disseminated the presence gemmules on from all the units of the body, why does not the amputation both sexes, of a part, especiallyif effected on mutilation or in accordance invariably affect the offspring? The answer with our hypothesis probably is that gemmules multiply and transmitted during a long series of generations as we are of zebrine in in the reappearance stripes on the horse see
"
"
the which
many
reappearance
are
of
to
muscles his
and
other
structures
in
man
proper
other of is
a
such
cases.
in
heritanc in-
part which
real
are
been for
removed
during
many
erations gen-
no
from
the part
to
derived
tion genera-
generation. of parts, when as yet spoken only of the removal the operation is followed not action; but when by morbid thus follow^ed,it is certain that the deficiency is sometimes In a former inherited. given, as of a chapter instances were the loss of whose followed by suppuration, and horn was cow,
We have her calves
were
of
horn
on
the of
same no
heads.
But
which
admits
given by Brown-Sequard
after
own
their sciatic
gangrenous
nerves
w^ith respect to guinea-pigs, which had been divided, gnawed oft'their the toes instances of their
on
toes, and
in at least thirteen
the
The
the
inheritance
more
is all
affected; but we only one parent was from know that a congenital deficiency is often transmitted for instance, the offspring of hornless cattle one parent alone often of either sex, when crossed with perfect animals, are hornless. with our How, then, in accordance hypothesis can herited, for mutilations account strongly inbeing sometimes we if they are follow^ed by diseased action ? The answer or probably is that all the gemmules of the mutilated tated amputhe diseased surface ing durpart are gradually attracted to there destroyed by the and the reparative process, are
remarkable
"
morbid
action.
Chap.
XXVII.
OF
PANGENESIS.
381
the
A
organs.
few
words When
a
must
be added becomes
on
complete abortion
by
tend disuse
economy
of
longed pro-
part
with
diminished
during
many
of
it to reduce growth, together but still further as previously explained, this will not account for the complete or almost stance, complete obliteration of, for inminute a papilla of cellular tissue representing a of a microscopically minute nodule of bone repreor pistil, senting
a
intercrossing,will
tooth.
in
In
certain
a
cases
of
suppression
from
must
not
yet
completed,
which
rudiment
occasionally
reappeara
through reversion, dispersed gemmules derived view, still exist; we according to our must,
suppose
in union with which the rudiment cells, was for such gemmules, formerly developed, fail in their affinity
that the
except
abortion doubt
a
in
the is
occasional
cases
of reversion.
But
when
the
vast
complete and final,the gemmules themselves no perish; nor is this in any way improbable, for, though of active and number long-dormant gemmules are
in
nourished
each
living creature,
; and
yet there
natural
must
be
some
it appears
that
gemmules
from
reduced those
perish than
The
liable be more useless parts would freshly derived from other parts which and
activity.
be discussed, namely Reversion,
and development, principle that transmission though generally acting in conjunction, are distinct powers; velopmen of gemmules with their subsequent deand the transmission this is possible. We plainlysee the shows us how mits in which grandfather transa cases distinction in the many which to his grandson, through his daughter, characters before proceeding, it But she does not, or cannot, possess.
rests
the
will
be
advisable characters.
to
say
a or
few
words
about
latent
or
mant dor-
Most,
secondary
in the lie dormant sex, appertain to one characters, which the other sex; that is,gemmules capable of development into
included are secondary male sexual characters female; and conversely female characters in the male:
have evidence of this in certain masculine
within
the
wo
characters, both
her
In
corporeal and
ovaria
are
mental, appearing in the female, when they fail to act from old age. diseased or when
3S2
like
PPtOVISIONAL
HYPOTHESIS
Chap.
XXVII.
manner
female
characters
horns
appear
ox,
a
males,
absence
the
as
in the horns
shape of the
in castrated of life due
of the
of
ditions con-
slight change
sometimes
in
the
not
permanently
characters
seasons;
injured.
are
in
which
are season
masculine
at
latent
other
inheritance
limited
by
sex
and
Again,
animals The
the
masculine
characters
at
generally lie
the proper given of of her
the
age
a own
male
for
reproduction.
assumed of
a mote re-
curious masculine
formerly
Hen
which but
characters,
characters animals
as
not
breed
progenitor, illustrates
latent sexual With several and and
those
close
connection
between
forms,
in
with
three
certain female
by Mr.
form
Wallace,
which
male
and co-exist, or, as with the trimorphic species of Ly thrum Oxalis, gemmules capable of reproducing these different forms
must
be latent in each
are
individual. with
one
occasionally produced
like that of the
side
with In
or
one
of their bodies
male,
the such
in
other
cases
sometimes
wonderfully
each other
are
different
a
ture, struc-
separated from
from
every sexes,
by
sharp line.
in
As vidual indi-
gemmules
nascent
derived
part
be the
cases
present
each
of both
it must in
elective differ
affinities of the
abnormally on the sides of the body. Almost the same into two principle comes play w4th those animals, for instance, certain gasteropods and Verruca amongst cirripedes,which normally have the sides of the body constructed different plan; two a on very of individuals and yet a nearly equal number have either side
modified in the
same
cells which
these
remarkable
manner. sense an
of the
word,
acts
so
cessantl in-
evidently forms
occurs or
essential
part
of
the
with
beings, however
generation,
age
even
seminal
and
be observed
with
advancing
in the
Chap.
XXVII.
OF
PANGENESIS.
333
is often induced
same
individual.
The
tendency
to reversion
by a change of conditions, and in the i)lainest manner by of the first Crossed forms crossing. generation are generally in character between their two nearly intermediate parents; but in the next to revert generation the offspring commonly
one or
both
of their
grandparents, and
How
can we
occasionallyto
for these
more
remote
ancestors.
account
facts?
throw off,according to the hybrid must abundance of hybridised gemof pangenesis, an doctrine be readily and largely propamules, for crossed plants can gated hypothesis dormant by buds; but by the same gemmules derived from both pure parent-forms are likewise present; their normal retain and as these gemmules condition, ing they would, it is probable, be enabled to multiply largely durthe lifetime of each hybrid. Consequently the sexual and hybridised of a hybrid w^ill include both pure elements of two hybrids pair, the combination gemmules; and when hybrid with the pure gemmules derived from the one pure Each unit
in
a
the other, would parts derived from gemmules of the same necessarilylead to complete reversion of character ; and it is, perhaps not too bold a supposition that unmodifi-ed and unwould be especially nature deteriorated gemmules of the same with hybridise Pure gemmules in combination apt to combine. ly, gemmules would lead to partialreversion. And lasthybridised gemmules derived from both parent-hybrids would simply reproduce the originalhybrid form." All these and degrees of reversion incessantly occur. cases It
was
shown
in the fifteenth
are
antagonistic to each
two
antagonistic characters are crossed,it might well happen that a sufficiencyof gemmules ters, in the male alone for the reproduction of his peculiar characalone for the reproduction of her in the female and
hence, when
animals w^ith
peculiar characters, would not be present; and in this case mote repart in some dormant gemmules derived from the same progenitor might easilygain the ascendancy, and cause For instance, of the long-lost character. the reappearance
"
In
these
remarks
I. in
in
the Mu-
du
are
crossed.
384
when black
"
PEO
VISIONAL
HYPOTHESIS
Chap.
XXVIL
pigeons, or black and white fowls, are crossed, colours which do not readily blend, blue plumage in the one from the rock-pigeon, and case, evidently derived red plumage in the other case, derived from the wild jungle-cock With uncrossed breeds the occasionally reappear.
and white
"
same
conditions
which
favour
the multiplication
as
development of certain
feral and
revert
dormant
to their
gemmules
when
of gemmules
from to be the case character,as is known several spermatozoa for fertilisation, pollen-grainsbeing necessary or and time favouring their multiplication, will perhaps for the curious cases, insisted on by Mr. Sedgwick, of account certain diseases which in alternate generaregularly appear tions. This likewise holds good, more less with or strictly, other modifications. I have weakly inherited Hence, as heard it remarked, certain diseases appear to gain strength of a generation. The of transmission by the intermission dormant successive gemmules during many generations is hardly in itself more improbable, as previously remarked, of rudimentary organs, than the retention during many ages or even only of a tendency to the production of a rudiment; that dormant but there is no reason to suppose gemmules can be transmitted and propagated for ever. Excessively minute and numerous as they are believed to be, an infinite number and of modification descent, derived, during a long course from each unit of each progenitor, could not be supported or nourished improbable by the organism. But it does not seem favourable that certain gemmules, under conditions, should be retained and go on multiplying for a much longer period than others. Finally, on the view here given, we certainly fact that the child may gain some insight into the wonderful its depart from the type of both its parents, and resemble of hundreds removed by many grandparents, or ancestors generations.
of each
Conclusion.
The
hypothesis of Pangenesis,
classes of facts
so are
as
applied
no
to
the
several
great
just discussed,
The
doubt
is extremely
complex, but
the facts.
chief
assumption is that
386
The
to
PROVISIONAL
HYPOTHESIS
Chap.
XXVII.
units be
of the
body
are
generally admitted
one
by physiologists
and
an
autonomous.
I go
step further
Thus
assume
that
they throw
does
not
off
reproductive gemmules.
its kind
as a
ism organ-
whole, but
been
each
separate
unit
its kind.
a
It has
often
said
ists by natural-
plant has the potential capacity of reproducing plant; but it has this power only in
derived
cause
virtue When
a
of
containing gemmules
or
from
every
part.
mules gem-
cell
unit from
is from it will be
some
modified, the
manner
derived
our
in
like
modified.
If
look at must hypothesis be provisionally accepted, we all the forms of asexual reproduction, whether occurring at and maturity or during youth, as fundamentally the same, dei)endent on the mutual aggregation and multiplication of the gemmules. The re-growth of an amputated limb and the is the same healing of a wound partiallycarried out. process Buds cells, belonging to that apparently include nascent of development which the budding at and stage occurs, these cells are derived ready to unite with the gemmules from the next sexual succeeding cells. The elements, on the other hand, do not include such nascent cells;and the male and female elements taken separately do not contain a sufiicient number of gemmules for independent development, of parthenogenesis. The except in the cases development of each being, including all the forms and of metamorphosis off of gemmules thrown metagenesis, depends on the presence at each period of life,and on their development, at a corresponding period, in union with preceding cells. Such cells be said to be fertilised by the gemmules which come may in due order of development. next Thus the act of ordinary impregnation and the development of each part in each being The child,strictly are closelyanalogous processes. speaking, does not grow into the man, which but includes germs slowly and form the man. In successively become developed and the child, as well as in the adult, each part generates the be looked at as merely a form must same part. Inheritance of growth, like the self-division of a lowly-organised unicellular Reversion organism. depends on the transmission from the forefather to his descendants of dormant gemmules, which or developed under certain known occasionallybecome
Chap.
XXVII.
OF
PANGENESIS.
387
unknown with
conditions.
a
and
plant
some
may
be which
pared com-
bed
seeds,
a
of
soon
germinate,
some
period,
a man
whilst
carries
others
in is his
perish.
constitution
truth
aware,
When the
the
we
hear seeds of
an
inherited other
as
disease,
attempt,
this
as
there far
much
I
am
in
expression.
been
one
No
as
made,
imperfect
of view
is
a
confessedly
grand
a
is,
classes
to
connect
point being
of
numerous
these microcosm
several
of
facts.
organic
host and
little
"
universe,
ably inconceiv-
formed
self-propagating
as
organisms,
stars
the
in
heaven.
388
CONCLUDING
REMARKS.
Chap.
XXVIII.
CHAPTEE
CONCLUDING
XXVIII.
REMARKS.
Domestication
of variability Selection and Nature Divergence causes Extinction Circumstances of character of races and distinctness favourable of certain The selection to races Antiquity by man has been each question whether specially preparticular variation
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
ordained.
^ ^^
nearly all the chapters, and as, in the chapter on pangenesis, various subjects,such the forms of reproduction, inheritance, reversion, the as cussed, and laws of variability, causes "c., have been recently disthe few I will here only make on general remarks a the from which be deduced more important conclusions may
summaries have been added
to
As
multifarious
details
given throughout
of the world those
this
work. in
or
Savages
wild when
more on as
in all parts
easily succeed
any
animals;
and
inhabiting
country
taming island,
would by man, probably have been still easily tamed. Complete subjugation generally depends in its habits, and on animal social being an receiving man the chief of the herd or family. In order that an animal be domesticated of life, and it must
this is far
first visited
should
changed
the
ditions concase.
being always
the labour
An
animal
would
not
have
been
of domestication,
to
man.
at least
From
these has
circumstances
mals ani-
large. With respect to plants, I have in the ninth their shown varied chapter how uses were vation. probably first discovered, and the early steps in their culticould not have known, when Man he first domesticated animal flourish and mulit would tiply an or plant, whether when transported to other countries, therefore he could
never
not
have
been
thus
influenced
in his choice.
We
see
that the
adaptation of the reindeer and camel to extremely cold and hot countries has not prevented their domestication. Still
close
Chap.
XXVIII.
CONCLUDING
REMARKS.
389
and
plants and thus succeeding generations birth vary to give and the small of capacity in new variability the goose races; from has not prevented its domestication a remote epoch. few With all animals extremely and exceptions, plants been which have have varied long domesticated greatly. under what not It matters climate, or for what purpose food for man as they are kept, whether or beast, for draught hunting, for clothing or mere or pleasure, under all these have been produced which circumstances differ more races
man
less could
have
foreseen
whether
his animals
would
in
"
from
one are
another ranked
than
as
do the forms
which
in
state
of
ture na-
different
more more
species. Why
under than
certain
and
plants have
we
varied
any
domestication
some are
do
not
know,
to
more
sterile than
we
others
under
why changed
rendered of life.
conditions
But
have
domestic and
amount
of variation which judge of the amount our productions have undergone, chieflyby the number of difference
we can
between
the
races
which
have
been
and distinct clearly see why many have not been formed, namely, because slightsuccessive races variations have been not steadily accumulated; and such variations will never if an animal be accumulated or plant be not closelyobserved, much valued, and kept in large numbers. ing The fluctuating, and, as far as we can judge, never-enddomesticated of our variability ity productions, the plasticof the most of almost their whole organisation, is one details important lessons which we learn from the numerous Yet domesticated given in the earlier chapters of this work. animals and plants can hardly have been exposed to greater
" "
formed, and
often
changes
in
their conditions
incessant
of life than
have
many
natural
geographical, and cligeological, matal changes to which mesticat the world has been subject; but doproductions will often have been exposed to more conditions. sudden changes and to less continuously uniform animals longing As man and plants behas domesticated so many he certainly did to widely different classes, and as would not choose with prophetic instinct those species which if exposed infer that all natural species, most, we may vary to the to analogous conditions, would, on an average, vary at the present day will maintaiu same men degree. Few speciesduring the
390
that animals which and
CONCLUDma
REMAKKS.
Chap.
XXVIII.
plants were
created
with
tendency
to vary,
long remain dormant, in order that fanciers in after might rear, for instance, curious breeds of the fowl, ages pigeon, or canary-bird. From several causes it is difficult to judge of the amount
of modification
In
some or
which
cases
domestic
extinct;
its
it cannot
be
supposed descendants
cases
other
two
or
more
recognised with certainty,owing to modified. In having been so much mesticat closely-allied forms, after being dothen it is difficult to estimate
have how
to
crossed; and
much
of the character
be attributed
the
of the present descendants ought how much to variation,and to the influence the
our degree to which domesticated breeds have been modified the by crossing of distinct species has probably been much exaggerated by some
of
several
parent-stocks. But
authors.
few
individuals form
of
one
form
would
seldom
manently per-
affect another
for, without
would
soon
times, when
would seldom
is
existing in greater numbers; careful selection, the stain of the foreign blood and be obliterated, during early and barbarous first domesticated, such care animals were our
have been
reason
taken.
to believe
There
good
some
in the
case
of the of
our
dog,
races
ox,
are
pig, and
descended
of
other
animals,
wild
that
several
from
distinct
prototypes;
our
nevertheless animals
many to
the has
multiple origin of
by
some
domesticated and
extended
few
extent.
a
naturalists Breeders
by
breeders
at
unauthorised
refuse
look
the
whole
it said
subject under
by
a
man, at
who
fowls
were
least half-a-dozen
common
of the
no
of
avail
with
respect
fowls.
Breeders
look over-
cated improbability of many specieshaving been domestiat an sider early and barbarous period. They do not conthe improbability of species having existed in a state of nature which, if they resembled our present domestic in comparison with breeds, would have been highly abnormal that certain all their congeners. They maintain species, which formerly existed,have become are uuor extinct, uow the
Chap. XXVm.
CONCLUDING
RE-MARKS.
39I
The although formerly known. assumption of so extinction is no difliculty much recent in th(!ir eyes; for they of its probability by the facilityor difficulty do not judge of other closely-allied of the extinction wild forms. Lastly, they often ignore the whole subject of geographical distribution if it the result of chance. as were completely as Although from the reasons just assigned it is often difficult to judge accurately of the amount of change which our domesticated productions have undergone, yet this can be
known,
ascertained be descended
in the
cases a
in which
are
known
to
from almost
can
rabbit, and
of domesticated It is
analogy this
the pigeon, duck, single species, as certainly with the fowl; and by the aid be judged of to a certain extent with
with
animals
descended
from
several
wild
stocks.
impossible to read the details given in the earlier chapters in many and published works, or to visit our various exhibitions, without being deeply impressed with the extreme of our domesticated animals and cultivated plants. variability No the tendency to vary. part of the organisation escapes The variations generally affect parts of small vital or physiological
importance,
exist but
so
it is with
the
differences these
which
between
closely-allied species. In
is
unimportant
between
the
there
same
often
greater
difference
of the
same
species than
as as
between
the natural
to
species
be
genus,
Isidore is often
the
with
size,and
with
appendages.
If has often been under the asserted that
domestication, but
skull of the
this is
never
vary at
Look
breeds, with
modified;
the
or
of the highly improved one pig in any the occipitalcondyles and other parts greatly look
at
ox.
several breeds
the
differentlyshaped
vertebrae. The
cervical
with
occipital foramen, atlas, and other whole shape of the brain, together
modified
in
the
skull, has
been
Polish
fowls; in other
and In the forms certain
breeds
of the fowl
vertebrge
changed.
eons pig-
392
CONCLUDING
REMARKS.
Chap.
XXVIII.
tongue,
and eyelids,the number shape of the ribs, the form and size of the oesophagus, have tines In certain all varied. quadrupeds the length of the inteshas been much With increased diminished. plants or the size of the nostrils and
see
we
wonderful
differences several
in
the
stones
of various
fruits.
highly important characters have varied, such as the sessile position of the stigmas on the ovarium, the position of the carpels,and the projection of the it would be useless to of the receptacle. But ovarium out facts given in the earlier chapters. run through the many It is notorious how greatly the mental disposition, tastes, loquacity or silence, and tone movements, habits, consensual
In
the
Cucurbitacese
of voice animals.
have The
varied
and
been
inherited
most
in
our
domesticated of be
changed
accounted New
mental
striking instance
differences wild
ones
these
cannot
types.
stage
stage.
down
of We
on
development, being
see
inherited
at
this in
the and
between
the
the chickens
breeds between
of the the
fowl; and
still
more
of the various breeds of and cocoons caterpillars throw These the silk-moth. facts, simple as they appear, light on the differences between the larval and adult states of allied natural species,and on the whole bryology. great subject of emNew first appearing late in life are characters apt in which attached to become they exclusively to that sex first arose, be developed in a much or they may higher degree in this than in the other sex; or again, after having become be transferred to the opposite attached to one sex, they may that These facts, and more especiallythe circumstance sex. characters to be particularlyliable,from some known unseem new
cause, to
become
on
attached the
in
a
to
the
male of
sex,
have
an
important bearing
characters It has sometimes
acquirement
state
secondary sexual
races
by animals
of nature.
our
been
said that
domestic
differ in constitutional In
our
period of
maturity, including that of the second dentition, has been The hastened. much period of gestation varies much, and
394
kinds
that
CONCLUDING
REMARKS.
Chap. XXVIII.
of
races
pigs. Hence
formed under
it would
be
to
expect
rility ste-
domestication
at
acquire
admit
when domestication
crossed, whilst
eliminates
the
same
that
of crossed spesterility cies. their reproductive sysspecies Why with closely-allied tems in so pecushould almost invariably have been modified liar of each be to acting on mutually incapable as a manner other though in unequal degrees in the two sexes, as shown of the between reciprocalcrosses by the difference in fertility with much ity probabilsame species we do not know, but may natural follows. Most infer the cause to be as species of life conditions have been habituated to nearly uniform for an incomparably longer time than have domestic races; conditions know that exert and we an pecial eschanged positively and powerful influence on the reproductive system. the normal
" "
Hence the
this
power
difference of
may
well
account
in
crossed part
and
when
in
can
chief be
owing
to
that
domestic
races
suddenly transported from one climate to another, or placed under v/idely different conditions, and yet retain in most of spetheir fertility unimpaired; whilst a multitude cases cies rendered lesser to changes are incapable of subjected
breeding.
The
offspring of crossed
domestic
races
and
of
crossed
portant species resemble each other in most respects, with the one imthey often partake in the exception of fertility; unequal degree of the characters of their parents, one of same liable the other; and they are is often prepotent over which kind. of the same to reversion one By successive crosses be made to absorb completely another, and so species may The latter resemble it notoriously is with races. species in inherit other their newlyThey sometimes many ways. quite as firmly as species. acquired characters almost or even The conditions leading to variabilityand the laws governing its nature
appear to
be
the
same
in
both.
Varieties
can
be
classed and
may
in
groups
under families
"
groups,
like
species under
the
on
genera,
these
be
under
and
classification
any
either
"
artificial, that
natural. With
arbitrary
classifica-
character,
or
natural
Chap.
XXVIII.
CONCLUDING
REMARKS.
395
certainly founded, and with species is apparently of descent, together with the amount founded, on community which the forms of modification have undergone. The acters chartion is
by which
are more
domestic than
varieties those
differ from
one
another
distinguishing species, though so hardly more polymorphic species; but of is this greater degree ties variability not surprising, as variehave generally been exposed within times to flucrecent tuating of life, conditions and are much liable to have more been crossed; they are also in many still undergoing, cases have recently undergone, modification cal or by man's methodithan
with certain
or
variable
unconscious
selection.
as a
general rule certainly differ from in less important parts than another do species; and one when seldom important differences occur, they are firmly this fact if but is consider man's fixed; intelligible, we of selection. In the living animal method or plant he cannot in the more observe internal modifications gans; important ordoes he regard them as long as they are compatible nor
with health and life. What does teeth the breeder of his
care
Domestic
varieties
about
any
ditional pigs, or for an admolar tooth in the dog; or for any change in the The breeder cares intestinal canal or other internal organ?
well
marbled
with
fat, and
the abdomen
of his
sheep,
care
this he has
any
would
the floriculturist
ovules?
to
numerous
of the of the ovarium or change in the structure As certainly liable are important internal organs slight variations, and as these would probably strange effect
a
monstrosities certain
amount
are
inherited,
in
of change
produced any modification in an important part, he has generally done so unintentionally, stance, inFor other conspicuous part. with in correlation some he has given ridges and protuberances to the skulls of the comb, or to the of fowls, by attending to the form ternal By attending to the explume of feathers on the head. creased inenormously form of the pouter-pigeon, he has ber the size of the oesophagus, and has added to the numthe of the ribs, and given them greater breadth. With
he has
396
CONCLUDING
REMARKS.
Chap.
XXVIII.
the the
upper
lower
the
the
other modified
cases.
Natural
species,on
for their
own
hand, have
fit them enemies
been for
sively exclu-
good,
life, to
to
fied diversiinfinitely of
all
conditions
to
of
avoid
struggle against a host of such complex conditions, it would often happen that modifications of the most varied kinds, in important as well as in unimportant parts, would be advantageous or even necessary;
slowly but surely be acquired through the survival of the fittest. Still more important is the fact that various indirect modifications would likewise arise through
the law of correlated breeds variation. often have
an
and
they would
Domestic
abnormal
or
strous semi-mon-
character, as amongst dogs, the Italian greyhound, breeds of bulldog, Blenheim spaniel, and bloodhound, some cattle and pigs, several breeds of the fowl, and the chief breeds of the pigeon. In such abnormal breeds, parts which differ but slightlyor not at all in the allied natural species, have been greatly modified. This may be accounted for by man's often selecting,especially at first, conspicuous and
" " "
semi-monstrous be cautious
deviations
in
of
structure.
We
deciding what deviations ought to be called monstrous; there can hardly be a doubt that, if the brush of horse-like hair on the breast of the turkey-cock had first appeared in the domesticated have been bird, it would considered as a monstrosity; the great plume of feathers on the head of the Polish cock has been thus designated, though the heads of many kinds of birds; on plumes are common we might call the wattle or corrugated skin round the base of the beak of the English carrier-pigeon a monstrosity, but do not thus speak of the globular fleshy excrescence at we the base of the beak of the Carpophaga oceanica.
Some authors have drawn
a
wide
distinction
extreme
between
cases
natural
breeds; although in
the
other cases it is arbitrary; the plain, in many the kind of selection which difference depending chiefly on those which has been have applied. Artificial breeds are been intentionally improved by man; they frequently have
Chap.
XXVIII.
CONCLUDING
REMARKS
o,,-
an
unnatural
appearance,
and
reversion
on
are
through
natural
hand, are those are countries, and whic-h formerly inhabited separate districts in nearly all the Eiir("])oan They have been rarely acted on by man's intenkingdoms. tional selection; more frequently by unconscious selection,
which found in semi-civilised
for animals selection, kept in semihave civilised countries to provide largely for their (nvn will also have natural Such breeds been wants. directly in acted on by the differences, the though slight, surrounding
breeds,
and
partly by natural
conditions.
There
is
much
more
important distinction
some
between
our
a
several
breeds, namely, in
or
having
have
originated from
of
strongly-marked
which, however, selection; whilst
insensible
we a
semi-monstrous
deviation been
in
structure,
may
subsequently
have if be been
we
augmented
so
by
and
genitors pro-
others
formed
see
slow
manner,
that
could
to
their when
or
early
how
should
arose.
hardly
From
able
say
the
history of the racehorse, greyhound, gamecock, "c., and from their general appearance, that they were formed feel nearly confident by a we may know that this has of improvement; and slow process we well as with some with the carrier-pigeon, been the case as the other hand, it is certain that the other pigeons. On certain of sheep, and almost breeds and mauchamp ancon that the niata cattle, turnspit, and pug-dogs, jumper and frizzled fowls, short-faced tumbler pigeons, hook-billed ducks, state now we as "c., suddenly appeared in nearly the same cultivated plants. The So it has been with many them. see is likely to lead to the false belief frequency of these cases abrupt that natural specieshave often originated in the same
breed first the
manner.
But
we
have
no
evidence
of the
appearance,
or
at
continued
procreation, under nature, of abrupt could various general reasons of structure ; and
a we
belief. have
nature
hand,
abundant of
evidence
of
the
constant
ences
occurrence
under
slight individual
we are
dilTcrled
to
of the
most
diversified
kinds; and
thus
conclude
that
the natu-
398
ral selection of
CONCLUDING
REMARKS.
Chap. "XXVIII.
extremely slight differences. This process be strictly ment compared with the slow and gradual improvemay As every of the racehorse, greyhound, and gamecock. in each specieshas to be closelyadapted to detail of structure its habits of life,it will rarely happen that one part alone will be modified; but, as was formerly shown, the co-adapted modifications be absolutely simultaneous. need not Many
variations, however,
of correlation. Hence
never same are
from
the
first connected
that
even
by the law
one
it follows
rarely or
alone; and
to
one a
another certain
the
domestic
races;
is to
species are absolutely links passing by intermediate productions, never that domestic ties varieanother; whilst they maintain
either with
we one
that
always be connected
if
the
another
or
with
their
parent-forms. But
not
between
always finds the links several breeds of the dog, horse,cattle,sheep, pigs,
have from
a
could
been
one
such
or
incessant
doubts
whether
hound grey-
they
were
descended if such
any
several
species. The
be
we
genus,
term
may
closely
go
connected
to
with
other
breed, unless,perhaps,
monuments.
back
the
ancient
a
Egyptian
very
course
English bulldog
cases
distinct
breed.
all these
crossed
cies spe-
must
of
natural links
can
thus fowl
be likewise be
By
others?
what
the
Cochin
By searching for breeds still preserved in distant lands, and by going back to historical records, tumbler-pigeons, carriers,and barbs can be closely connected with the parent rock-pigeon; but we
cannot
closelyunited
thus
connect
the
turbit
or
the
pouter.
The
degree
of distinctness
on
between
the various
domestic
breeds
depends
of
the
more
amount
of modification the
which
they have
and
undergone,
and
especially on
and often been
neglect
forms.
final extinction
intermediate It has
less-valued
the argued that no light is thrown on changes v.diich natural species are believed to undergo from the admitted the latter are as changes of domestic races,
1
Godron,
'De
TEspoce,' 1SD9,
torn.
ii. p.
44, "c.
Chap.
XXVIII.
CONCLUDING
REMARKS.
399
said to be
soon as
mere
temporary
well
in
they become
has been
were
by
Mr.
Wallace
and
full
chapter, showing that in feral animals and the tendency to reversion plants has been greatly exaggerated, though no doubt it exists to a certain It would be all the prii\piples extent. inculcated opposed to if domestic in this work, animals, when exposed conditions and compelled to struggle for their own to new fied not modiwants against a host of foreign competitors, were
in
details
given
thirteenth
the
course
of
time.
It
should in all
also be
remembered
that
to
many
characters under
lie latent
fied fittingconditions; and in breeds modiwithin recent times, the tendency to reversion is particularly of our breeds clearly But the antiquity of some strong. that they remain as long as their nearly constant proves be evolved of life remain been the
same.
conditions
It has
amount
boldly maintained
to
by
some
authors
that
the
are
of variation
which
our
domestic
an
productions
liable is
little evidence.
any
particular direction Cattle, can judge, unlimited. variability is, as far as we the from domestication sheep, and pigs have varied under by the researches of Riitimeyer remotest period, as shown been have improved to an and others; yet these animals plies unparalleled degree, wathin quite recent times, and this imcontinued from the
assertion
variability of
found
in
structure.
remains
the
Swiss
of the
most
anciently cultivated
better
never
day
that
new an
and
ox
will
plants, yet at the present be varieties frequently arise. It may be produced of larger size and finer
present
mals, ani-
our fleeter, than proportions, or a racehorse gooseberry larger than the London a or
variety; but
the extreme With
fection per-
be
bold
man
who has
would been
assert
that
these
respects
it has
finally attained.
asserted that
and
fruit
repeatedly been
has been A
?
been excelled. reached, but the standard has soon be produced with a never breed of pigeons may
"
Journal
Proc.
Linn.
4:00
beak with birds shorter
one
CONCLUDING
REMARKS.
Chap.
XXVIII.
than
longer
weak
that of the present short-faced tumbler, or than that of the English carrier, for these constitutions and
are
have
bad
breeders; but
length of beak are the points which have been of the steadilyimproved during the last 150 years, and some From best judges deny that the goal has yet been reached. could be assigned, it is probable that parts which reasons reached their maximum which have now development, might, after remaining constant during a long period,vary again in
shortness
and
the
direction
must
of increase
under Wallace
new
conditions
has
of life. with
But much
there
be,
as
Mr.
remarked
truth,' a
and limit be
to to
ral change in certain directions both with natudomestic be a productions; for instance, there must terrestrial animal, as this will the fleetness of any
limit to
determined
by
the
friction
to
be
overcome,
the
weight
fibres. but
in the muscular of contraction the power this limit; have reached English racehorse may
in fleetness its own wild progenitor already surpasses and all other equine species. The short-faced tumbler-pigeon has a beak shorter, and the carrier a beak longer, relatively that of any to the size of their bodies, than natural species of the family. Our and apples, pears gooseberries bear larger fruit than those of any natural species of the same
genera;
and
so
in many
other
cases.
It is not
many
difference
between have
cluded con-
domestic
that
few
a
naturalists
more
stock, especially ignored, and the high antiquity of man, of animals, has as a breeder known. Most only recently become naturalists, however, that our .various breeds, however freely admit dissimilar, descended from are a single stock, although they do not
the
each
from
distinct aboriginal
know
much
about
the art
say
show
the
necting con-
links, nor
these
same
where
the
breeds
arose.
Yet
naturalists
declare,with
never
air of
one
admit until
that
given birth
steps.
to
another
use
they behold
the
same
Fanciers
respect to domestic
3
*
language with
of
an
author
excellent
The
Quarterly
Science,'
Oct., 1867,
p. 486,
402
CONCLUDING
REMARKS.
Chap.
XXVIII.
activity of a gland or other organ, lead to their increased development. Disuse has a contrary effect. With domesticated productions, although their organs sometimes become rudimentary through abortion, we have that this has ever followed to suppose no reason solely from disuse. natural With species,on the contrary, many been rendered to have rudimentary through organs appear of growth todisuse, aided by the principle of the economy gether with be intercrossing. Complete abortion can counted acfor only by the hypothesis given in the last chapter, of the germs namely, the final destruction or gemmules of useless parts. This difference between species and domestic varieties may be partly accounted for by disuse having acted the latter for an insufficient length of time, and partly on from their exemption from severe struggle for existence any in the development of each part, to entailing rigid economy which all species under nature are subjected. iSTevertheless the law of compensation or balancement, which likewise depends the economy of growth, apparently has affected to on certain extent domesticated a productions. our As almost highly part of the organisation becomes every variable under domestication, and as variations are easily cult diffiselected both consciously and unconsciously, it is very the effects of the selection of to distinguish between
indefinite of life. variations For and the direct action of the conditions
our
parts, and
the increased
water-
have to travel much dogs which from the have become the snow, partially webbed over may stimulus of widely extending their toes; but it is more able probbetween the that the webbing, like the membrane toes wards afterof certain pigeons, spontaneously appeared and was and the best snowincreased by the best swimmers cier travellers being preserved during many generations. A fan-
dogs and
of the
who
wished
to
decrease
never
or
bler-pigeon tum-
think
Quadrupeds
breeds have
are
sometimes
of hair and
reason
hairless believe
been
formed,
to
by
hot climate.
Within
on
sheep to
the
Chap. XXVIII.
CONCLtJDlNa
REMARKS.
403
and who
as
direct stimulus
to decide
pretend
how
the growth of hair; but far the thick fur of an-tic animals,
to to
their white
colour, is due
how
of
severe
climate, and
?
protected individuals
Of
one
during
long succession
of generations
that of correlation is governing variability, of slight deviaimportant. In many cases tions well as of grave as cannot monstrosities, we
of the bond of connection. conjecture what is the nature But between the fore and hind homologous parts between limbs the hair, hoofs, horns, and teeth between which are similar their and which closely early development during are similar that to see exposed conditions,we can they would be ogous Homoleminently liable to be modified in the same manner. nature, are parts, from having the same apt to blend together,and, when many exist,to vary in number. Although every variation is either directly or indirectly caused by some change in the surrounding conditions, we of the organisation which must never forget that the nature is acted on, is by far the more important factor in the result. We when this in different organisms, which see placed under similar conditions in a different manner, whilst closely vary in allied organisms under dissimilar often vary conditions We tion modificanearly the same manner. see this,in the same tervals variety at long infrequently reappearing in the same of time, and likewise in the several striking cases given of analogous or parallel variations. Although some
even
" "
"
cases
are
due
to
reversion, others
cannot
thus
for. indirect
to
action
organisation, owing
affected will
cause same
"
from
conditions, and
these
vary
the individuals
manner,
or
species either
with
the
to
in the
in accordance differently
"
slight
differences
or
from
"
whole
organisation becomes
must
slightly
own ex-
plastic. Although
each
modification
have
its
404
CONCLUDING
REMARKS.
Chap.
XXVIII.
citing cause,
so
and
tlioug'heach
to may
sense a
is
we
can
rarely
we
trace
and if
effect,
arose
that
are
tempted
We
speak of
even
variations
they
but
a
accidental,
say
this
in
that
fragment
height
its
shape
to accident.
be worth
to
brieflyto consider the result of the of a large number unnatural conditions of animals same species and allowed to cross freely with no
afterwards
into
to
while
consider
us
the
result that
play. Let
in
suppose
wild
rock-pigeons
were
confined
their
native
land
are
in
;
aviary and fed in the same manner as pigeons usually and that they were allowed in number. not to increase
so
As
or
pigeons propagate
fifteen hundred several that
rapidly, I
have been
suppose to be
that
thousand
birds would
generations had
thus
reared,
may
feel
sure
of the young birds would and the variations some vary, would tend to be inherited ; for at the present day slightdeviations of structure be tedious
even
often
occur
and the
are
inherited. of
It would
points which still go on varying or have recently varied. Many variations in congelation with one would another, as the length of occur the wing and tail feathers the number of the primary wingto enumerate
"
multitude
feathers,
correlation of the tongue
as
well with
as
the
number
and form
breadth
of the
"
ribs, in
the number
of the
"
the
length of the
the size of the nostrils length of the beak and eyelids and the form of lower jaw in correlation with the the nakedness of the young with the development of wattle future colour of the plumage the size of the feet with that of the beak, and other such points. Lastly, as our birds are their use supposed to be confined in an aviary, they would
" "
wings
such become As
as
and
legs but
and little,
in
case
certain
scapulse and
size.
many
feet,would
birds have
slightlyreduced
our
nately to be indiscrimi-
killed
year,
the
chances
to
are
against
And
as
any
new
breed.
the
varia-
Chap.
XXVIII.
CONCLUDING
REMARKS.
4O5
extremely diversified nature, the chances are great against two birds pairing which very have in the varied same nevertheless,a varying bird manner; thus when not would paired even occasionallytransmit its its and these would to character not only be exposed young;
are an
tions which
arise
of
to
the
same
conditions but
which would
first caused
in addition
the
variation
in
question
modified
to appear,
inherit from
their
tendency again to vary in the same manner. So that, if the conditions decidedly tended to induce some of time particular variation, all the birds might in the course But a far commoner result would become similarly modified.
parent
a
be, that
another and
one
bird
one
would would
a
vary
in
one
way
a
and
another
a
bird
in
way;
be born
with
one
beak
little longer,
some as
another
with
shorter
beak;
or
would
gain
black
feathers, another
birds would
many
some
white
red
feathers.
And
these result
in
would be
a
be
continually intercrossing,the
from diflPering
more
final
body of individuals
but there would
each
other
ways,
only slightly;yet
of several
than
rock-pigeons. But
the formation If two
not
be the least
tendency
manner
wards to-
distinct breeds.
were
treated
in the
just described,
England and the other in a tropical country, the two lots being supplied with different kinds of we generations differ? When they after many food, would the cases reflect on given in the twenty-third chapter, and
in
on
such
facts
as
the
difference
in former
times
between
the
breeds
we are
of cattle,sheep, "c., in almost every district of Europe, strongly inclined to admit that the two lots would be
modified differently
through the influence of climate and food. tions the definite action of changed condithe evidence But on respect to insufficient;and, with is in most cases lection pigeons, I have had the opportunity of examining a large colof domesticated from
with
kinds,
in
sent
a
to
me
by Sir W.
Elliot
manner
distinct there
is
breeds
reason
were
in
equal
to
a
numbers,
certain would
to
suspect
that
extent
their
they
ity fertilthis
often
of the
crossed
406
become From
not
CONCLUDING
REMAKES.
Chap. XXVIII.
means
sooner
than
would
otherwise
over
have
occurred.
it does
breeds the
being prepotent
progeny
others,
would be
follow
interblended
in character. I have, also, proved that intermediate strictly the act of crossing in itself gives a strong tendency to reversion, tend to revert that the crossed offspring would to the so in the course of of the aboriginal rock-pigeon; and state time they would more probably be not much heterogeneous in
character
were
than confined
in
our
first case,
when
birds
of the
same
breed
together.
offspring would gain in vigour and fertility.From the facts given in the seventeenth be chapter there can be no doubt of this fact; and there can little doubt, though the evidence this head is not so easily on acquired, that long-continued close interbreeding leads to evil results. With ments hermaphrodites of all kinds, if the sexual eleof the same individual habitually acted on each other, the closest possible interbreeding would be perpetual. But should bear in mind that the structure of all hermaphwe rodite quently animals, as far as I can learn, permits and freI have
necessitates
cross
with
distinct individual.
With
hermaphrodite plants we incessantly meet with elaborate and end. It is no exaggeration perfect contrivances for this same
to assert
that, if the
use
of the
talons and
and hooks
tusks
on a
of
nivorous car-
animal, or plumes be safely inferred from their structure, we flowers are constructed safety infer that many
with ensuring a cross a these various considerations, not to mention
purpose
of the
may
of
long
good
series of
at in
some
arrived of
experiments which I have tried,the conclusion the chapter just referred to namely, that great
"
kind
"
is derived
must
from
the
sexual
concourse
of
be admitted.
we
illustration:
have
hitherto
assumed
number criminate kept down to the same by indisslaughter; but if the least choice be permitted in their preservation, the whole result will be changed. Should the and
owner
the birds
observe
to
a
any
a
slight variation
breed thus
in
one
of his birds,
ceed suc-
wish in
Aa
CsAP.XXVlII.
CONCLUDING
has varied
REMARK^. generallygoes
by
4^7
on
any
part which
same
once
varying in
of
the
most
direction,it is easy,
strongly marked
more
aviary, without any thought of making breed, simply admired, for instance,short-beaked new than long-beaked birds,he would, when he had to reduce the number, generally kill the latter;and there be can
owner
of the
no
doubt
that he would
thus
in the
course
of time
sensibly
modify his stock. It is improbable, if two men to keep were and in act this pigeons that they would prefer exactmanner, ly the same characters ; they would, as we know, often i)ref(T directly opposite characters, and the two lots would mately ultiactually occurred with strains or families of cattle, and wliieh sheep, have pigeons, been long kept and carefullyattended to by different breeders,
come
to
differ.
This
has
without breeds.
come
any
wish
on
new
and
distinct submore
This
unconscious
kind
cially espe-
animals
to man; cows,
or
horses,
thinking about
transmit
more
their future
or
progeny,
yet these
to breed
surely their
so
from
his worst
want
animals.
to kill
some
careless
pelled com-
when
from
destroy the
for
use
and for
mere
preserve
the best.
kept
vail pre-
and
amusement,
different fashions
in
different
to
consequently
with have have
our
and districts,leading to the preservation, the transmission, of all sorts of trifling liarities pecuThe
same
of character.
process
will have
been
sued pur-
been
yielded seedlings better than their parents. have different strains, just alluded to, which The wish on any actually produced by breeders without
part
power to
obtain
such
of unconscious
to
far
more
important
more
results than
is likewise
important under
theoretical
408
CONCLUDING
REMARKS.
Chap.
XXVIII.
selection. individuals
For
are
this
process
the
best
or
most
valued
crossing with others of the prevented same breed, but are simply preferred and preserved; yet this and improveinevitably leads to their gradual modification ment they prevail,to the exclusion of the old ; so that finally parent-form.
With the
our
separated and
from
domesticated of
races
animals
any
natural
selection
checks
injurious deviation of structure. In the case of animals which, from being kept by semi-civilised people, have to provide largely for or savages under their own different circumstances, natural selecwants tion will have played a more it probimportant part. Hence ably is that they often closelyresemble natural species.
As there is
no
production
with
limit to man's
and more useful plants more always wishes, owing to fashions running into extremes, to and produce each character more more strongly pronounced, there is,through the prolonged action of methodical and unconscious selection,a constant tendency in every breed
to become
more
and
more
its
parent-stock ; and
are
when
several breeds
have
produced and
valued
for different
and more from each other. This to differ more qualities, leads to Divergence of Character. As improved sub-varieties and races are slowly formed, the older and less improved breeds When few are neglected and decrease in number. of any breed exist within the same individuals close locality, aids in interbreeding,by lessening their vigour and fertility, their final extinction. and the remaining
In Thus
the
in
intermediate Distinctness
links
are
lost,
breeds
on
gain
of Character.
evidence distant
several
many
cases as
have
steadily diverged
in
character, and
have been of lost. domestic
that
intermediate be adduced
Irish in
sub-breeds
Other
could of
breeds,
and
the
wolf-dog, the
one
"
English
was
*
hound,
of two
breeds
Mr.
'
'
France,
of which that
page
Pickering remarks
Races of
Soc.
Imp.
1009.
Man,'
1850,
315.
1802,
410
be selected.
organs
CONCLUDING
EEMARKS.
Chap.
XXVIII.
Although
are
man
seldom
under
attends
a
to
differences
in
which
important
so
physiological point of
view, yet he
genera.
has
assuredly, if found
The afforded best
breeds, that profoundly modified some be ranked distinct wild, they would as
selection whatever has part effected
or
proof of what
that
is
perhaps
in
any
by the fact
quality
especiallyin any plant, is most valued by more in the several races. that part or quality differs most man, This result is well seen of difference by comparing the amount between the fruits produced by the several varieties of the flowers of our fruit-trees,between flower-garden plants, between the seeds, roots, or leaves of our tural culinary and agriculplants, in comparison with the other and not valued varieties. Striking evidence of a different parts of the same animal, and
kind is afforded
by the
of
fact
a
ascertained
by Oswald
of
"
Heer,^
for their
the seeds
peas,
large number
"
plants, wheat,
cultivated
all Switzerland, were smaller than the seeds of our existing varieties. E-iitimeyer has shown that the sheep and cattle which were kept by the earlier Lake-inhabitants breeds. which
was were
likewise
smaller
than
our
ent pres-
In
of Denmark, found
age
was
dog of
the
remains
been
succeeded
by
one
this again
during
Iron
age
by
Bronze
still stronger.
sheep of
present
and
Denmark
during
the
period had
was
slender
limbs, and
ISTo doubt
the
in
horse
most
smaller the
cases
animal.^
of
introduced from larger breeds were foreign lands by the it is not probable of men. hordes But immigration of new each
a
that
in the
of time
has
planted sup-
probable that the domestic of our various animals were races gradually improved in different parts of the great Europieo-Asiatic continent, and thence spread to other countries. This fact of the gradual increase
in size of
8
"
distinct
the descendant
of
our
domestic
Pfahlbau-
animals
^
is all the
'
more
striking
des Scien,
Die
Pflanzen
der
Morlot,
Soc.
Vand.
ten,' 18G5.
Nat.'
Mars,
1860, p, 298.
Chap.
XXVIII.
CONCLUDING
REMARKS.
4||
as
certain
wild
or
half-wild
animals,
such
have boars,'"
within
in size.
favourable
to every
to
selection by
"
arc,
the
character, lon^-continucd perseverance, matching or separating animals, and especiallya large number being kept, so that the inferior individual be freely rejected or destroyed,and the better may preserved. When ones are kept there will also be a many facilityin
"
greater chance
structure.
of the
occurrence
of well-marked
deviations
of
in
Length of time is all-important acter, ; for as each charorder to become strongly pronounced, has to be augmented
by the selection of successive
variations
of the
same
kind, this
to
become
only during a long series of generations. feature Length of time will, also,allow any new fixed by the continued viduals rejection of those indican
be effected
revert
or
vary,
new
the
and
rapidly in certain respects under new conditions of life,as dogs in India and sheep in the West have produced and plants which Indies, yet all the animals domesticated at an extremely remote were races strongly marked As of history. a quence conseepoch, often before the dawn of this, no record has been preserved of the origin of
varied
our
animals
chief
or
domestic sub-breeds
passes
breeds.
are
Even
so man
at
the
present
to
day
some
new
strains
formed A
first appearance
ticular parusual un-
unnoticed.
or a
character,
care,
merely matches
time
a
with
and
after
;"
his
neighbours
unconscious sub-breed
and
slight difference is perceived by by the difference goes on being augmented methodical selection, until at last a new
receives
a
is formed,
local
name,
and
spreads; but
tlic
new
by this time
breed has
forgotten. When
to
new
spread widely,
gives rise
so
strains and
in the
sub-
breeds, and
other of and
and
spread, supplanting
march
always onwards
has
once
improvement.
When
a
breed
been
established, if
if
not
Riitimeyer,
'
Die
Fauna
der
30
412
CONCLUDING
REMARKS.
Chap.
XXVIII.
of life inducing exposed to greatly changed conditions reversion to long-lostcharacters, it may further variability or infer that period. We may apparently last for an enormous but from the high antiquity of certain races; this is the case
not
some
caution
may
is necessary
appear
tion variahead, for the same independently after long intervals of time,
on
this
that this has safely assume places. We may is figured on the with the turnspit-dog,of which one occurred swine with the solid-hoofed ancient Egyptian monuments
or
in
distant
"
"
mentioned Columella
"
by
and
the
on
Aristotle
"
with
five-toed
fowls
described
The 2000
by
resented rep-
dogs
us
that
some
of the
then
doubtful
our
whether
A
identically the
with
present breeds.
great
to
mastiff be the
same
sculptured
same
on
tomb,
640
B.C., is said
with
the
The
imported from
existed down
to
a
Thibet
into
the
region.
classical
true
during
the
Roman
period. Coming
of the that, though most period, we have seen and three centwo chief breeds of the pigeon existed between turies acter charall retained not exactly the same ago, they have later
to
cases
the
present
no
day;
but
this
was
has
occurred
in
certain
in which
case
improvement
the
De
races
Spot and Indian ground-tumbler. has fully discussed the antiquity of various Candolle that the black-seeded of plants; he states was poppy
of the
^*
known the
in
the
time
of Homer,
the almonds
white-seeded with
not sweet
seem
sesamum
by
bitter
ancient
Egyptians, and
Hebrews;
of these varieties
and
kernels that
some
by the
One
but
it does
may
improbable
lost and
one
have
been
peared. reap-
variety of
were
barley
at
and
an
both
of which
the
"
cultivated of
a
apparently immensely
of wheat,
remote
period
It is is
an
by
said
Lake-inhabitants
that
"
Switzerland,
small of Lima
De
still exist.
specimens of
in the
variety of gourd
were
which from
still
common
market Peru."
exhumed
remarks
ancient
cemetery and
'
in
Candolle
the books
drawings
of the
sixteenth
^^
century,
'
11 De I'Espece.' torn. Godron, i., 1859. p. 368. " Geog. Botan.,' 1855, p. 989.
'
Pickering,
p.
Races
Man,'
1850,
318.
Chap.
XXVIII.
CONCLUDING
REMARKS.
413
pal
any
races
of the have
can
be recognised
this might
expected
are
at
so
late
of these
plants
is not
a
sub-varieties Brussels
sprout,
absolutely identical with our present certain. It is, however, said that the variety which in some places is liable to
genuine
for
more
than
four
turies cen-
it is believed
to have
originated.'*
by
me
In
accordance and
with
the views
maintained
in
races,
this but
work the
elsewhere, not
distinct
genera
domestic
the
most
"
within
same
great
"
class
fishes
we
are
progenitor,and
of difference
must
amount
between
these
primarily
with
arisen
dumb
amazement.
w^e
simple variability. To consider this point of view is enough to strike But amazement our ought to be
infinite in
from
lessened
when
an
number,
lapse of time, have often had their in some and that M^hole organisation rendered degree plastic, during
each almost
in any of structure which was slight modification way beneficial under excessively complex conditions of life has in any been preserved, whilst each which injurious was way the long-continued achas been rigorously destroyed. And cumulation have led to of beneficial variations will infallibly structures diversified,as beautifully adapted for various as
purposes
and
and
as
excellently co-ordinated,
us.
as
we
see
in
the
lection spoken of seto whether the paramount applied by man as power, to the producof domestic tion the formation breeds, or by nature mer to the metaphor given in a forof species. I may recur
animals
plants around
Hence
I have
chapter :
if
an
architect
were
to
rear
noble
and
dious commo-
of cut stone, by selecting from the use without edifice, the fragments at the base of a precipice wedge-formed stones and flat stones for his lintels, for his arches, elongated stones the his skill and regard him as should admire for his roof, we dispensa N'ow, the fragments of stone, though inparamount power. to the architect, bear to the edifice built by him
"
'
Journal
of
a
Tour,'
by
Deputation
Horticultural of the
Taledoniau 293.
Hist.
See,
1823,
p.
414
the
CONCLUDING
REMARKS.
Chap.
XXVIII.
same
relation which
the
fluctuating variations
structures
of organic
beings bear to the varied and admirable acquired by their modified descendants.
Some authors have
the
ultimately explains
declared
that
natural of each
selection
nothing, unless
slight If it were difference be made clear. explained to a savage utterly ignorant of the art of building, how the edifice had been raised stone ments fragstone, and why wedge-formed upon precise cause
were
individual
used
use
arches, flat
part and
be
stones
and
if the
of the
pointed out,
nothing had
of the
it would
unreasonable
declared
that
been
made
precise cause
shape of each fragment could not be told. But this is with the objection that selection excase a nearly parallel' of each individual not the cause nothing, because w^e know jDlains
difference The
in the structure
of each
stone
at
being.
the base of is not
a our
shape
be the
of the
fragments of
each
ipice prec-
may
;
called
accidental, but
this
on
rect strictlycor-
for
shape of
of
depends
laws;
or on
long
sequence
of
events,
on
all
obeying natural
the
nature
of
the
rock,
the
lines
mountain,
earthquake which throws lastly on the storm or the But in regard to the use to which down the fragments. said to be be strictly be put, their shape may fragments may
and
accidental.
And which
here
I
am
we
are aware
great
alluding
my proper every
to
in difficulty, travellingbeyond
must
province. An
consequence
omniscient which
Creator
have
seen fore-
results from
imposed
ator the Cre-
it be reasonably But can by Him. intentionallyordered, if we use the words that certain fragments of rock should sense,
maintained
ordinary
certain If the
rious va-
shapes
were
so
that
might
erect
his edifice ?
laws which
not
determined
the
tained predetermined for the builder's sake, can it be mainordained with any greater probabilitythat He specially of the breeder animals
no
each and
man,
of the innumerable
variations
tions variamore
domestic
plants;
"
many
of these
being of
often
service to
and
not
beneficial,far
Did He
injurious,to the
creatures
themselves?
ordain
Chap.
XXVIII.
CONCLUDING
REMAKKS.
415
that order
the that
crop
and
tail-feathers
of
make the that
the
his
pigeon
should
vary
in and
the
fancier
might
He in
cause
grotesque
and
pouter mental
be
fantail
of of for
one
breeds? the
Did
to vary
frame
a
dog
breed
to up
might
indomitable
man's
case,
"
ferocity,
brutal if
we
jaws
if
we
fitted
pin
the
down
sport?
do
not
give
the
principle
of
that
variations in of
reason
the
the
primeval greyhound,
vigour,
dog
for
were
intentionally
that
"
guided image
of alike
order symmetry
can
that
instance,
be
perfect
no
and
be and
signed as-
might
for the the
same
formed,
that
shadow
belief
variations, laws,
which of
the
in
nature
the
result
of
general
h^ve
been
the
work groundthe
most
were
through perfectly
natural
selection in
the
""f fq!^||^tion
adapted
and
can
animals
world,
miSl^iclu^^,
Asa
intentionally
wish
"
specially
follow been
guided.
Professor led
However
najtfphHve jfiay
Gray
bei lines of
was
it,
we
hardly
has
"
that
a
variation
stream
assume
along
and
certain useful
like If
we
along
that
definite each
irrigation.
from of the
ganisation, or-
particular
beginning
of
all
time
preordained,
to many
plasticity
of
which
as
leads the
to
a
injurious
power
deviations
ture, struc-
well
as
redundant
of
reproduction
and,
of On
the
as a
which
quence, conse-
inevitably
to appear
an
leads the
us
struggle
selection laws
for
or
existence,
survival
nature.
natural
fittest,
other
must
to
superfluous
and
of
the
hand,
omnipotent
foresees
a
omniscient Thus
as
Creator
we are
ordains
everything
face will
to
and with
everything.
as
brought
of free
face
destination. pre-
difficulty
insoluble
is
that
and
418
J., birds W.,
on
ALLEN,
INDEX.
APPLE.
Allen, Allen,
ii. 7.
in
United
States,
I. 245,
Namaquas,
of
11. 1S5;
and
on
the
roots
use
grass-seeds
as
fowls,
reeds
food
in
of
Africa, by
lection, se-
i. 319.
Anemone
a on strous monProfessor, 11. 145; Saxifrafja geum, the ii. 343, 352. on Hydroida, i. 3.j0; antiquity Almond, of, ii. 412; eaten liitter, not by mice,
Allman,
coronaria,
ii. 178.
Angina
pectoris,
at
a
hereditary,
age,
curring oc-
certain
ii. 53.
ii. 210. Ahius f/lutinosa, and incana, brids hyof, ii. 107. selection Alpaca, of, ii. 186. Althtra i. 393, ii. 82. rosea, ii. 117. AmuryUis, of eign forAmaryllis vittata, effect pollen on, i. 420. i. 442. Amaurosis, hereditary, lurida, ii. 346. Amblystoma within limits which no America, useful have been nished furplants i. 321; colours of by, horses feral in, i. 59-62; North, cultivated native plants of, i. of feral i. 823; skin pig from, variations cattle in 78; South, of, i. 89, 93. the of on Ammon, persistency i. 4.53. in horses, colour Amyf/flalua pcrsica, i. 350-357, 389. arvciisis, ii. 168. AnagaUis i. 431, ii. variation, Analogous i. 56; in the in horses, 329-333; horse i. 05; in fowls, i. and ass, 251-253. Anas hoschas, i. 286, ii. 14; skull of, figured, i. 292. Ancon of setts, Massachusheep i. 101, ii. 68. Andalusian i. 234. fowls, Andalusian rabbits, i. 106. the of Anderson, origin J., on British the lection sesheep, i. 95; on of qualities in cattle, ii. breed 173: one-eared of a on the ance inheritI'abbits, i. 109; on from of characters a one" "
cattle Anglesea, of, i. 81. Angola sheep, i. 95. in hair of Angora, change cats at, ii. 259; 47; rabbits of, i. 107, domestication Animals,
by
19; refusal
fearlessness
captivity,
peculiarities of, reproduced i. 3S8; ation variby budding, in selection useful by qualities of, ii. 198. ation Annual plants, rarity of bud-variin, i. 429.
in the osteology of th^ i. 50. breeds of pigs, i. 75; Anomalous i. 89. of cattle, Anser of. reproduced albifrons, characters in domestic i. geese, 297. i. 291, ii. 42. Anser wgyptiaeus, Anser canadensis, ii. 136. Anser original of the frrus, the i. 297; domestic fertility goose, domestic with of cross of,
Anomalies
horse,
i. 297. in the Laferal fowls i. 245. drones, and between Antagonism growth ii. 367. reproduction, in Avthemis vobilis, bud-variation gle sinbecomes flowers of, i. 395: soil. ii. 146. in poor of. ii. 144. contabescence Anthers, cats of, i. 45: changed Antigua, of fleece In, i. 99. sheep Antirrhimim ma jus, peloric. i. 381,
goose,
Anson,
on
eared
rabbit,
and
bitch,
of the
i. 445; on of varieties
production
of the
the ties variei. 343, 344; of varieties the on crossing i. 419; reversion In on melon, i. 400. the barberry, the Anderson, Mr., on tion reproducash of the weeping by the i. 4.50; on cultivation seed, tree in China, of the ii. pseony 183. Mr., the Andersson, on Damara,
selection,
ii. 178;
potato,
ii. 33, 44, 146; double-flowered, bud-variation in. i. 397. ii. 146: individual Ants, recognition of, ii. 2.30. ii. pear-trees, attacking Aphides, 210; of, ii. 350. development
Apoplexy,
at
a
hereditary,
occurring
Apple,
Bechuana,
i. 89;
maras,
on
and
Namaqua
cattle,
tised
of, in i. 328; in heat in bud-variation i. 377; India, with dimidiate the. i. 392; fru't, with two kinds of fruit, i. 415; the ficial i. 415; artisame branch, on fecundation of. i. 421; St. Valery, i. 422, 11. 145; reversion in of, ii. 4: crossing seedlings of varieties of, ii. lOG; growth
Swiss rendered
lake-dwellings, fastigate by
a:""iiicot.
INDEX.
AZAftA.
410
of
a
of
the,
coccws,
ii. 210;
ter win-
Assyrian
1.
sci:lp(ure
i. 451, Ii. 297
maslilT.
by of,
2Hi when
;
1(5.
attaclved
by
in
bullfinches,
chantre of.
Asters, Asthma,
Atavism.
American,
grown
Reversion.
care
ii. 2'ir). 358; on glands leaves the of, ii. 210; analogous variation in the, ii. 330. in fusra, copulating Aquila tivity, capii. 132. Aguilegia vuUjarifi, i. 3S0, ii. 313. described Arab boarhound, by i. 10. Harcourt, and Arabis A. sobhphurophylla of crossing, i, 421. yeri, effects in Aralia trifoUaia, bud-variation leaves of, i. 398. varialde Arancarias, sistance reyoung, of, to frost, ii. 290. Archangel pigeon, ii. 219. Arctic of regions. variability shells of, ii. 235. plants and Aria vestita, grafted on thorns, i. 403. fowls mentioned Aristophanes, by, i. 254. solid-hoofed on Aristotle, pigs, i. duck unknown 75; domestic to, i. 287; the on of assumption male characters by old hens, i.. 26. of the, i. S'?. Ai'ni, domestication of polArnold, Mr., experiments len the i. 420. maize, on of ii. 290Arrests development, 300. anastomo^:increase of Arteries, ing branches of, when tied, ii. 281. Aru wild Islands, pig of, i. "8. varietif s of, ii. Anim, Polynesian 235. of Ascaris, number of, ii. eggs 302. varieties i. .370: of Ash. the, i. 377; weeping, simple-leaved, i, 377; bud-variation in, i. 398; of stock the effects graft upon in the, i. 408; production of the i. 408; blotched Breadalbane,
England,
357,
Athelstan,
Atkinson,
the
of the
Apricot,
i.
horses,
sterllily
Mr.,
on
Tarroo silk-moth in couiiiieii. 130. ment, Aubergine, ii. 00. Audubon, on f"'ral hybrid dll""k^ i. 190, ii. 20; on the duiiiesi bation of wild ducks the on sissippi, Misi. 287; on the wild cock
turkey
in
i. 302;
visiting di.nu'stic hens fertility of FriucjUJa riris captivity, ii. 13.1; feriilitv of
migraloriii
and Ini
o-
Cohimba
in ii. i;!4; captivity, breeding of A)is,t in canadniHis captivity, ii. 1.30. Audubon and on Hachman, the in Ovis of coat change moDtaiin, i. 100; of Sciunia sterility cinrrca in conlinemeiit, ii. 131. effect Auricula, of seasonal ditions conon ing tlie, ii. 254; bloomof, ii. .328.
ccphala
Australia,
no usefi'l generally i. :V21: usefrom, plants derived ful of, enumerated plants Ijy
Hooker, Austria,
emperors
i. .322.
heredity
of,
on
Autenrieth.
in
horses,
in our col-
Ava,
Avcna
'
horses
of. i. 53.
fatua, cultivability of, i.3 "4. Aveen Aklierv.' uhmipiireons in tioned the, i. 1.55, 159, 191,
211.
213. 214.
bud-var'ation W. P., on Ayres, i. ,393. in pelargoniums, in, Az'ilra indica, bud-variation 393. Azara,
on
1.
Plata,
domestic
the i. 20:
i.
feral
on
dogs
wild
of
I. a of in
the
crossing
cats
with
weeping,
of, by
capricious
seed,
tion reproduc-
i. 4.50,
Asparagus,
increased fertility of ii. 88. domestication of the. breeds i. 02; of, i. 03; small i. 03: striprs size of, in India, dislike of, of, i. 04, 05, il. 332: i. 187; reversion to cross water, in. 11. 10, 17, 22; hybrid of the. ii. 10; with and mare zebra, the of over the. prepotency wild ii. 42; crossed with horse, and tion selecii. 184; variation ass.
hornii'ce 44; on in 1. 50; horses, on processes in 1. 54, il. hair horses. curled the colours of feral 183. 307; on the tle cati. 01, ii. 2;{8; on horses,
Paraguay,
and I"a IMata, of Paraguay less horna i. 84, 80. 89. ii. 2.38; on th"' crease Inii. 183; on bull, ica, Amerin South of cattle of the on ii. 95; growth of cattle hornless in the horns *' Nithe ii. 12: on Corrientes. " naked i. 91: on ata cattle, r.ice ii. 2.50: on n quadrupeds, fowls in South of black-skinned I. 2;{9. Ii. 188; America. on a
variety of maize,
I, 333,
420
BABmGTON.
INDEX.
BECHSTEIN.
C,
genus
on
the
British
origin
cies spei.
Barth,
food
"
Dr.,
in
use
of
grass-seeds
as
i. 359; Viola
on
Rosa,
382;
and
tricolor,
Bjichniann, ii. 242.
of i. 384.
lutea
the
Bartlett, Himalayan
rabbits
Central A. D.,
"
Africa,
the on rabbits
i. 319.
Mr.,
See
also
turliey,
Audubon.
in
Badger,
ii.
"
breeding
confinement,
i. 144. of effect
130.
Bagadotten-Taube,"
Mr.,
on on
Bailv,
the
lection seon
Dorking
176;
the origin of the S., on Baird, i. 302. turkey, in the Mr., heredity on Baker, the i. 444; tion degeneraon horse, horse of the by neglect, ii. and VII. of Henrys orders of undestruction dersized for the VIII. ii. 181. mares, in the fected sheep efchange Bakewell,
i. 110; the feral on Porto of Santo, i. 116; with reversed feathers on geese the head and on neck, i. 298; of a the on i. variety turkey, 303; size of hybrids, ii. 108; on the of the Felidae in breeding captivity, ii. 129; so-called brids, hyii. 306. the black Bartram, on wolf-dog i. 21. of Florida, of wild mals aniBates, H. W,, refusal to breed in captivity, ii.
218;
ii.
by, Balancement,
growth,
Baldhead ii. in inherited, Baldness, man, deficiency in teeth, ii. 309; with 309, 310. of the effects on Mr., Ballance, ii. 102; fowls, on interbreeding the of in variation eggs on
ii. 176. ii. 325; 324, law of, 324. (pigeon), i. 155.
of
fowls,
Ballota
i. 256.
nigra,
transmission
of
in. i. 399. of varieties the, ii. 235. Bamboo, i. 387, of the, variation Banana, in bud-variation the, i. ii. 235; of the, ii. 248. 392; sterilitv i. 237; Bantam Sebright, fowls,
variegated
leaves
origin
76. Barb
205;
lower
(pigeon), i. 148, 149, 217, ii. figure of, i. 149; figure of jaw of, i. 170.
wheat,
dark
or
of Barbs, Barberry,
i. 325.
riety, va-
i. suckers 400.
377,
of
451;
in i.
Barbut,
i. 24;
in in
J.,
on
on
the
dogs
domestic
of
Guinea,
the
pigeons
not
tive na-
Guinea,
Barking,
of,
of the habit acquisition dogs, i. 26. Barley,' wild, i. 324; of the lakei. 330, 331; ancient dwellings, variety of, ii. 412. of Barnes, Mr., production early ii. 178. by selection, peas
bv
various
the
intercrossing
i. 366; dioeciousof the hautbois ry, strawberthe i. 367; on Scarlet can Ameriii. 177. strawberry,
of lost regeneration ii. 347. raised, in Peru, containing i. 332. heads of maize, Beak, varial:)ility of. in fowls, i. individual differences 266; of, in pigeons, i. 164; correlation of, with feet the in i. pigeons, 177-181. the contents of Beale, Lionel, on the cells, ii. 361; on mulliplication of infectious ii. atoms, 361. i. 343; of Beans, Swiss laketr^-ellings, i. 331; varieties of, produced by selection, ii. 196; French and variable scarlet, resistance of, to frost, ii. 290, of native 295; superiority seed ii. of, 295; with monstrous and abortive stipules leaflets, ii. 324. Beard pigeon, i. 155. in ii. Bears, breeding captivity, 130. in crossed Beasley, J., reversion cattle, ii. 15. Beaton, of soil D., effect upon ties variei. 368; strawberries, on of i. 380, ii. pelargonium, 292 bud variation in 254, ; Gladiolus cross colvillii, i. 398; between Scotch and bage, cabkail ii. 73; hybrid gladiolus, ii. 117; of constant occurrence forms new seedlings, ii. among the of the 214; on doubling ii. 297. Compositae, Bechuana cattle, K 89. the of Bechstein, on burrowing i. 26; Spitz Dog, i. 30; wolves, the of Newfoundland origin dog, i. 42; crossing of domestic and wild i. 67; the on swine, Jacobin pigeon, i. 158, 215; hQ"
Batrachia,
parts Beach,
in.
BECK.
INDEX.
BIRCH.
421
of swallow-pigeons, fork-tailed pigeon, in the colour variations in pigeons, i. 190; croup tice
on a
i. 160;
i. of
on
Bellingeri,
in
101;
the the
observations on tion gestai. 29; dog, the on fertility of dogs and cats, ii. S7. Belon, on high-flying pigeons in
the
doA e-cot pigeon, i. I'Jl; i. fertility of mongi-el-pigeons, 1. hybrid turtle-doves, 199; on 200; on crossing the pigeon with C. Columba palumhus, cenas, T. vulgaris, Turtur risoria, and in of spurs i. 199; development German
Paphlagouia,
of
the goose, cattle
i. 215; i. 299.
varieties
1. 264; Polish on silk-hen, crested i. 264, 271; on fowls, i. 265; the on birds, canaryman Gerbird, i. 305, 453, 11. 140;
the
about the of i. 303; occurrence hornless breeds of in horns the of ii. 3; hybrids sheep, and ii. 42; horse crosses ass, ii. 68; culty diffitailless of fowls, dove-cot and of pairing ii. 78; fertility fancy pigeons, and ferrets of tame rabbits, ii. wild ii. sow, 87; fertility of 87; ditficulty of breeding caged tility fercomparative birds, ii. 133; erithacus in PsUtficus of of changes captivity, ii. 133; on in ii. 137; captivity, plumage cattle liability of light-coloured the of attacks to flies, ii. 207: of of food nature as a cause effect of ii. 236; variability, of the light privation upon ii. 260; on of birds, a plumage sul)-variety of the monk-pigeon, ii. 331. constitutional ences differMr., Beck, in pelargoniums, i. 380, the in Beckmann, on changes odours of plants, ii. 255. of plexion comBeddoe, Dr., correlation ii. with consumption, 319.
superstition
turkey,
Benguela, of, i. 89. Dr. Bennett, G., pigs of the cific PaIslands, i. 70, ii. 62; dogs the of Pacific Islands, ii. 62; varieties of cultivated plants in Tahiti, ii. 235. Bennett, on Mr., the fallowdeer, ii. 78. and Bentham, G., number origin of cultivated plants, i. 317; on 1. 343; cereals Phaseolus, all cultivated varieties, i. 323; species
of the i. orange group, of distinctions almond and i. 3.50; British peach, species of i. 382; Rom, of identity Intra Viola and tricolor, i. 384. Berberis vulqarin, i. 400, 451. Bcrberis wallichii. indifference of, to climate, ii. 143. the of on the Berjeau, history dog, i. 15, 17. of G. F., production Berkeley, of in a strain hen-cocks gamei. 261. fowls, of M. J., crossing rieties vaBerkeley, of the i. effect 418; pea, 1. of foreign pollen on grapes, between 420; analogy pollen of cultivated and highly plants ii. 247; on Hungarian hybrids, kidney-beans, ii. 255; failure of ii. in Indian wheat England,
348;
288.
Bernard,
in
the
of
disease
of the
Bernard,
organs
C,
independence
body,
of the
of the affinities
ii. 353;
Bee,
ii.
of
character
of,
ii. of
363. of varieties plants ii. 329. leaves, 1. 298. antorctica, feral pigeons In Juan on i. 196. Fernandez, i. 4,50. alba, Brtula tle, catwild British the on Bewick,
103;
peas
intercrossing, of pollen
Bernhardi,
with Bcrnicla Bertero,
laciniated
by, i. 342.
self-fertilisation
of,
i. 377, Beech, 451; dark-leaved, i. reversion fern-leaved, of, 398; non-production weeping,
i. 85.
of, by Beechey,
Beet,
in,
i. 4.50. horses Loochoo of i. 53. i. 338; of increase ii. 178. by selection, seed,
Bianconi,
lands, Issugar
Prof.,
on
the
skulls
of
to
breeding
studs
BeQonia
of,
i. 381;
Belgian
i. 107. rabbit, Bell. whi*^e that T., statement i. 86. cattle coloured have ears, Bell, in Parlbud-variation W., tkim tricusjyis, i. 393.
references i. in the, domestic pigeons to of selection of 211; indications of notice ii. 179; in the, sheep ii. 179. in the, mules i. 55;
self-impotence on Mr., Bidwell, ii. 117. in Amaryllis, Biqnonia, self-sterility of. ii. 113. i. 403, 4o0. Birch, weeping,
42^
Birch,
Dr.
stRca.
INDEX.
fiONAFOUS.
mestication affinis, i. 189; dothe ancient pigeons roosting in in trees, i. 187; on tlie Columha leupigeon of bantam i. 211; notice i. 188; termedia inColumha conota, on Egj-pt, in fowls of i. 190; a Japanese encycloStrickland, variation of in colour in poedia, i. 237, 255. croup bits, tary on Birch, Wyrley, pigeons, i. 190, 191, 203; volunsilver-grey rabi. 110, 111. domestication of rockin i. 191; India, feral pigeons Birds, sterility caused in, by of ii. 132the i. 196; on pigeons Hudson, change conditions, of 13G. occurrence of sub-species of the, to of pigeonpigeons, i. 210; notice Bladder-nut, tendency become fanciers in Delhi, double, ii. 147. "c., i. 212; riers, terof Gallus sonncralii Mr., on Blaine, wry-legged hybrids and ii. 224. the domestic hen. i. 241; of Gallus of Blainville, origin and history supposed hybridity in the i. variations 242; dog, i. 14, 15; variations temminckii, the number in of teeth of Gallus and domestication dogs, in the number i. 34; variations of hankiva, i. 243, 244; crossing in of toes wild fowls in and tame Burmies mumdogs, i. 35; on of cats. i. 43; on the ology ostei. 244; restricted of mah, range of solid-hoofed the birds, i. pigs, i. 7P"; larger gallinaceons feral in N. and the on fowls 245; feral Nicobar Patagonian American i. 245; black-skinned pigs, i. 78. Islands, i. 160. fowls Blass-Taube," near occurring Calcutta, i. 440; sexGallus i. 264; kiva, hanual of Bleeding, hereditary, weight limitation of ii. i. 282; degeneration of the excessive, 46. in i. 304, ii. 258; India, turkey crossed of the colour time of on Blending races, gold-fish, i. from ii. 306; reversion occupied a by the, ii. 62. cross, i. 442; at the Ghor-Khur Blindness, on 14; hereditary, (Equus certain ii. 5;^* associated hcmia age, indieus), ii. 17; on Equus colour with of ii. 17; number of eggs hair, ii. 311. of onus, the Bloodhounds, Gallus ii. 87; of, hankiva. on degeneration caused of in ii. 96. birds by interbreeding, breeding captivity, the of ii. 135; co-existence Blumenbach, on protulierance large skull in Polish in and small breeds of the the same fowls, i. the effect of cision, circumii. 259; the 264; on on country, ing droopthe inheritance of i. 455; of ii. a ears elephant, of crooked 282; homology finger, i. 457; on er-dogs badgleg and wing of and varieties ii. '304. other feathers, ii. Scotch wild Boethius the on Hydra, cattle, dog, ii. 198; on 274: i. 86. the nisus formativus," on and Boitard ii. 275, 276. Corbie, on the breeds Lille i. 135; of pigeons, tlie pariah E., Blyth. on dog. i. pouter of a glidand of dog ing pigeon, i. 142; notice 23; hybrids .iackal. of of i. 161; i. 31; domestication pigeon, variety early the cot cats in i. 43; pigeon, i. 167; doveIndia, origin of pouter i. domestic i. 43; crossing of 191; crossing cat, pigeon, ity domestic i. 44; and wild cats, pigeons, i. 199, ii. 73, 103; sterilof of Felis Indian turtle-doves, cats on hybrids resembling of reversion crossed i. 199; geons, pichaiis, i. 45; on striped Burmese i. 203. ii. 13; on the fanthe ponies, i. 59; on stripes of the Indian wild peter, trumthe i. 64; on tail, 1. 214, ii. 40; on ass, of ii. 40; prepotency cattle, i. pigs, i, 67; on humpod in silky fantnil, ii. transmission of Bor" 80; occurrence frontosus
S.,
on
of
"
"
in
Irish
cranuoges,
i.
the
83;
41;
in
crossing
cattle,
of
of zebus i. 84; on
on
and
species
sheep,
goat,
i. 95;
the
Indian
sheep,
in
i.
97;
the
breeding
i. 102; India, in of tail-feathers fnntails, tumbler i. 1.50; Lotan pigeons, tall-feathers of i. 1.55; number
on
origin
of and white coloured turtle-doves, ii. ii. 68; fertility of pigeons, 87. females of, Bombvcidse, wingless ii. 280. hfsperiis. ii. 285. Bomhyx Bomhiix huttoni, i. .312. i. 311-315. mori, Bomhj/x
ch;iracters
crossing
lu Ectopistes, i. 163;
Columha
Bonafous,
on
maize,
1. 332, 333.
BONAPARTE.
INDEX.
BRENT.
423
Bonaparte,
Columbidae,
number i.
of
species
of of
13"3; number
in pigeons, i. 163; tail-feathers in feet tlie of Columbidae, size i. 188: Coliimha i. 180: guinea, and C'olutnba turricola, rupestris i. 190. schimpcyn, of Bonatca spcciosa, development of, i. 424. ovary of flowers cauligrowth Dr., Bonavia, ii. 292. in India, sheep, ii. 5. Mr., semi-feral Boner, of portions removal of, ii. Bones, regeneration of, ii. 275; 277: and repair of, ii. 366. growth pigeons, i. 13"), 167. Bonizzi, on ii. the salamander, on Bonnet, of reproduction, 346, 373: theory ii. 340, 359. Borchmeyer, seeds the i. 4.-)0. of
Brachycome II. 241. ihrridifolin, Bracts, unusual development of, in gooseberries, i. 370. Bradley, Mr., effect of grafts
the stock in the effect of foreign i. 421; on upon apples, of soil, 11. 124. Brahma Pootras," a new
upon
nsh.
i.
408;
pollen change
breed
"
fowls, i. 253. Brain, proportion and of, in hares rabbits, i. 127-131. Brandt, Dr., origin of the goat,
i. 102: correlation hair, ii. .310.
of teeth and
of
with
ash,
Borecole,
Borelli,
Borneo,
i. 242.
Bornet,
in
E.,
condition
of
the
ry ova-
varieties of, with larged enii. .330. Brassica asprrifoUa, ii. 324. Brassica i. 3.37. napus, Brassica ohracca, i. 334. Brassica 1. .3.37, ii. 144. rapa, in the Braun, A., bud-variation and in the vine i. 391; currant, in MiruJjiUs jalapn, i. 'iUH; in i. 404; on Cytisus adami, reverin sion the foliage of trees, i. .398: spontaneous of production
Brassica,
stems,
Borrow,
Borv
de
i. 42.
on
fish, gold-
i. 307.
origin of European three from cattle cies speof, i. 83. Bos front OS us, i. 83. Bos indicus, i. 80. Bos lomjifrotis, i. 80. 82, 83. Bos primifjcnius, i. 80, 82, 83. Bos sondaicus, ii. 184. Bos tfiurus, i. 80. i. 82. Bos trochoceros, in foliage-varieties Bosc, heredity i. 377. of the elm, ers flowof double Bosse, production old from seed, ii. 146. dark-coloured breeding on Bossi, i. 313. silk-worms, i. ,37. on Bosman, dogs of Guinea, vine the disease, on Bouchardat, i. 347. ii. 257; local diseases, Boudin, on of plexioned dark-comcold resistance to ii. 319. men, " i. 140. Boulans," " ii. 257. Bouton d'Alep," to the as Bowen, Prof., doubts i. of inheritance, importance
Bos,
probable
domestic
tlowers by cess stripes and blotches, ii. 11; exof nourishment of a source variability, ii. 2.36. Brazil, cattle of, i. 89. varieties Bread-fruit, of, ii, 2.35; sterility and variability of, ii. 248. in bud-variation W. T., Bree,
Geranium
rra
"
ctonijatus,
I.
of
cyanus,
the
eyes,
dahlia,
of
with
on
Breeding,
high,
dependent
4.36.
heritance, in-
i. 435,
Breeds, of. domestic, persistency and artificial ii. 225, 410-412; ii. .396. .3!"7: extinction natural, I. cats, of, ii. 408; of domestic of 4.5-47; pro(lnc("d by pigs crossing, i. 79; of cattle, i. 8794; of goats, i. 102. Cohimha amalia', I. 189. on Brehm, B. P., number Brent, i. 107: in rabbits, tumbler
the of habits
manimiE
of
the
tumbler,
ing
pigeon
435.
Bowman,
Mr.,
in the
hereditary
human
iarities peculeye,
the of mongrels i. 199; anas, pigeon, ii. 41 : i\o"e trumpeter of pigeons, ii. 103; interbreeding
441-443;
54.
hereditary
on
cataract,
i. ii.
opinion
i. 255;
on
on
Aldrovandi's
conilts
-
fowls,
i. I.
stripes in chiekens,
the of
Hungarian
cattle,
257; 261;
on
fowls.
double
spurred
effect of
Dorking
fowls, i. 203;
crossing
61
424
BRICKELL.
INDEX.
BULLACE.
on
colour
i.
265;
of plumage incubatory
between
in instinct
fowls,
of
457.
effects
of
injuries,
1.
mongrels
varieties the of
non-setting
of fowls, ii. 18; origin domestic i. 'J8G; duck, duck, fertilitj'of the hook-billed the i. 28G; of occurrence mage plumestic dothe duck in of wild of voice i. 289; breeds, of i. 290; a occurrence ducks, mandible in crosses short upper hook and of billed common in ducks ducks, i. 290; reversion
-
herited
Brunswigia,
Brussels
Bubo
sprouts, F.,
on
ii. 413.
Buckland,
number 3(j2.
oysters,
in
a
of
eggs
Buckle,
Mr.,
of
doubts
as
inheritance,
-
Buckley, roosting
Buckman,
Avena
in
pigeons
produced
305;
by
of variation ii. in the fashion canary, of and 219; hybrids canary ii. 19. iinches, nectarines raising on Brickell, the from horses seed, i. 353; on of North ii. 281. Carolina, the Mr., on Bridges, dogs of Tierdel i. 39: the on lection seFuego, ra of dogs by the Fuegians, ii. 185.
cultivation of Prof., fatua, i. 324; cultivation wild of the i. 338. ii. parsnip, in the 178, 258: reversion nip, pars-
ii. 5.
Buckwheat,
to
when
in
flower
jurious in-
white
Bud
i.
and
seed,
Bud-reversion,
W. K., reproduction of abnormal ferns, i. 399. the Broca, P., on intercrossing hvbrids of dogs, i. 30, 31: on and of hare rabbit, i. 106; on i. 267; fowl, the on rumpless of character the half-castes, ii. of 21: grels, fertility of mondegree ii. 75: scendants desterility of of wild animals bred in captivity, ii. 1.39. i. 33(^; Broccoli, rudimentary flowers tenderness in, ii. 297; of. ii. 291. of the Bromehead, W., doubling Bell Canterbury by selectiun, ii. 178. Broomfleld, Dr., sterility of tlie Acorns ii. 149. caJnynus, ivy and Bromus srcalinus, i. 325. in Bronn, H. G., bud-variation of i. 395; effects Anthrmis, the female, on cross-breeding in i. 425; a oneon heredity horned i. 445; propigaiion cow, of a peach l"y seed, pendulous of the ity minor1. 450; absorption
Bridgman,
adventitious, ii. .369. Buds, i. 388-433, ii. 234, Bud-variation, contrasted with 268, 269, 272; seminal i. 388; reproduction,
peculiar to plants, i. 388; in the in plums, i. .353, 389; i. peach, the in i. 390: in 390; cherry, in the i. 390; ry, goosebergrapes, and currant, apple, i. pear, 391; thorn, hawbanana, camellia, and Azalea i. 392; iinlica, Paritium tricuspis, and hock, hollyi. 393: in pelargonium, i.
in .393, 394; i. 394; in the in 394, 395;
Ocrunium
roses,
pratcnfi'', i. chrysanthemum,
i. 383, .395snapdragons, flowers, wallhi-
397:
in
sweet
williams, 397,
and stocks, in 398; (Enothfra
tions, carna-
pinks,
i.
cyclamen, ennis,
sias, Gladiolus colvillii, fuchand i. Mirahilis jalapa. treps, 398; in foliage of various i. i. .398; plants, cryptogamic and in Phlox .399: by suckers
barberry,
the
1.
400;
bulbs
by
in
in
tubers the
in
potato, i. 401; by
i. 401;
dahlia,
Tmatophijlhnn
TUjrUlia rocallis,
miniatmn,
hyacinths, tulips,
and Heme-
couchiftora.
in
crossed
races,
ii.
63;
on
tlie crossing ii. 68; of horses, and rab])its tame fertility of of ii. 87: changes mage plusheep, in ii. 137; on captivity,
the Bronze
dahlia, C.
ii. 241.
period,
M..
of a 39. in the tition denBrown, G., variations i. 50. of the horse, inheritance Dr., Brown-Sequard, of artificially-produced epilep- y i. 457; inin the guinea-pig, Brown.
18.
greyhound,
ii.
doubtful 401-^03 i. ; in i. 403; Cytisus adami, cases, of vations obseri. 404-407; summary 426. on, and Buffon. on crossing the wolf of fertility i. 31 : increase dog, provement imii. 86: domestication, by of plants scious unconby ii. 194; theory selection, of ii. 359. reproduction, ii. 27. Bulimus, influence Bull, of, on apparent offspring, ii. 43. Bullace, i. 359.
426
CANNING.
INDfi^t.
CAfTtfi.
Canning, peacock,
Canterbury
A. i.
S.
G..
the
japanned by
lection, se-
the,
ii. 5;
11. 178. different Good of Hope, Cape at kinds of cattle the, i. 89; no from the, useful plants derived i. 321.
ii. 88; 258: acclimatisation ii. 292. India, abortion Carthamus, in, ii. 298. cultivation Cartier,
the,
the
in
of of
pus pap-
native
Capercailzie,
ii. 135.
breeding
C. of
in
ity, captiv-
falconeri,
domestic
1. 322. plants in Canada, of Caryophyllaceae, frequency eontabescence in the, ii. 144. bud in variation the Caspary.
-
goat,
ovules
Cardan,
on
i. 371; walnuts, ii. 239. ii. 7. Cardoon, Carcx rigidd, local sterility of the, ii. 149. of sheep. earlier, early selection
ii. 181.
variety of on grafted
crossing
and
i.
coloured
Viola the
the
wild
of
lutca, i. 430;
horse-radish,
on
sterility
Casteluau,
89.
1.
of
of
pe-
Castration,
characters
poly-
Carme .397 ;
"
pigeon,
Carnation.
1. IGl. bud-varialion
i.
i. in. 386 ;
of ii.
crossing
effect
conditions 253.
the,
Carnivora,
general fertility of, in captivity, ii. 129. cats Caroline of, i. Archipelago,
46.
Carp. ii. 214. vated cultiin variation of, Carpels, CucuibitaeeiT", i. 3. 4. W. of B., regeneration Carpenier,
bone,
an
of female assumption caused by. ii. 25, 26. Casuarius benrntii, ii. 135. i. 4.3-48; early domesticatio Cat. domestic, and origin probable i. 43, 44; of the, intercrossing wild of, with species, i. 44, 45; variations of, i. 4.5-47; feral, i. i. 4S; poly47, ii. 6; anomalous, dications dactylism in, i. 447; l)lack, inof stripes in young, ii. 30; fects tortoiseshell, ii. 48; efof tility crossing in. ii. 61; ferof. ii. 86: difticiilty of selection in, ii, 212, 215; length of intestines with in, ii. 283; white deafness blue of, ii. 312; eyes, with 54. tufted
ears,
ii. 275;
r
uumljer
of
eggs
in
Cataract,
hereditary,
ii.
Asm
Carpophafja
Carr.
anica, of
ii. 396.
changed
cou-
Carrier
i. 143-146; lish, Engpigeon, figuied, i. 147; sknll figured, i. 160; history of the, i.
1. 145; 211 Per.-nnn, Bu'jsorah, skull 1. 145; figBagadotten. i. 169; lower ured. jaw figured. 1. 171. origin of radis-h, i. 338; Carriere, form intermediate between the the almond i. 3"2; and peach,
glands
of
peach-leaves,
i.
357;
in the bv.d-variation i. vine. bud-variation 391; in the ro^e, i. 396; in inheritance purpleleaved i. 459; tion, variatrees, on 1. 428, 4.30: grafts of Aria vrstita i. "403: varithorns, upon abilitv of of Eruthrina, hybrids ii. 245. Carrot, effpcts of wild, tion cultivain the, i. 338; reversion on
effect of changed ii. 261. Catlcya leopoldii, i. 421. of feral Catlin. horses G., colour in North i. 61. America, wild ii. Caton, Judge, turkey, 87. their Cattle, European, probable three origin from original species, i. 80-83; or humped, zebus, i. 80; intercrossing of. 1. 84. 91, 94: ilton. Hamwild, of Chillingham, Burton stable, ConChartley. and i. 85. ii. Gishurne, colour of 94; i. 86, 87; feral, British breeds i. 87. of. 88; South African breeds of. i. 89; South American breeds of. I. i. 90. 92, 89, 90, ii. 183; Niata, of ii. 18.3. 186; effects food and of selecclimate i. 92; effects tion on. i. 92. 93; Dutch-buton, 1. reversion tocked. 441; in, when ii. 15; wildness crossed,
Caterpillars,
food
on,
CAULIFLOWER.
INDEX.
CniNA.
427
the
lithic Neo-
of
hybrid,
ii.
19;
prepoteucy
of se;;ie;:aii. 61; crosses tion of, ii. 71, on, Falkland 79, 93; of Islands, ii. 76; mutual ties fertility of all varieof of. ii. 85; effects breeding interii. 93-95; siiorton, horn, sterility of. ii. 93; effects careful selection of ii. 172, on, ii. 183; 177; nalied, of Columbia, wild witli in crossed banteng ii. 184; witli reversed liair Java, In Banda ii. 183; Oriental, lection seof trifling characters in, ii. 187; fashion larity in, ii. 188; simiof best races of, ii. 220; unconscious selection in, ii. 192; natural of effects selection on anomalous breeds of, ii. 204; light-coloured, attacked by flies, 321; ii. 207, provement imJerse.v, rapid of of, ii. 212; effects of parts in. ii. 2"^0; rudidisuse mentary horns in. ii. 297; posed supinfluence of humidity on hair the of, ii. 308; white spots ii. .321; liable to of, disease, variation analogous supposed of longin, ii. 330; displacement ii. 409. horned by short-horned, i. 335; Caiiiiflower. free-seeHng of, in India, ii. 292; rudimentary flowers in, ii. 297. Cavalier pigeon, ii. 73. Cnina ii. 130. aprrea, azarw), Cay (C'hus sterility of, in ii. 131. confinement, Cchna ii. 131. azarfB, development Crriflomi/in, larval and Misoof, ii. 2G4, 342, 351; i. 5. rntnpus, Cedars of Lebanon and Atlas, i. 379. i. 338; run Celery, turnip-rooted, wild, ii. 7. ii. 355. r'ell-theory. C losia cristata. i. 081. selection seedof the Celsus, on i. 329, ii. 180. corn, cultivation of the Celts, early cabbage by the, i. 330; selection and horses of cattle by the, ii. 180. seeds of used Cenchrus, as a, food, i. 320. Crnfaiirra bud-variation cyanns, in. i. .395.
Cereals,
328;
286.
i. .32.3-.334; of
period
In
Switzerland.
i)f,
to
1.
Ii.
adaptation
soils,
Genus,
Cercus
and
thus,
415. Ccrvus Ccrvus
hybrids
11. 1.37.
of in
vhhUnnof, 1.
caiiadcnHs,
dermal
ii. .Ml
system
and
teeth
the.
of, i. 45; id^eon finCeylon, cats cying in, i. 212. Chamisso, on seeding bread-fiult. ii. 147. Channel Islands, in, i. 81. breeds of cattle
Chapman,
167;
male
duced pro-
the
male, fe-
])rog"'ny
of the union some pigeons, ii. 141. Characters, fixltv tent, laof, ii. 218; ii. 24-30, .381, .382: continued divergence tagonistic, of, ii. 220; anii. ,383. abundance of pigeons In Chardin, Persia, i. 211.
4:."6; sterility
Charlemagne,
selection
of
orders
as
to
the
Chartley,
Chate,
seeds 329.
Mr., crossed varieties Chaundy. of cabbage, ii. 107. Cheetah, general sterility of. In captivit.v, ii. I'.'O. Chriranthus i. 398. chiri, tion i. 361, .362: bud-variaCherries, white in, i. 390; Tartarian, ctirle(i ii. 208; variety of. wi"h
petals,
tation ii. 292.
of,
of
veire-
forcing,
Chevreul,
ii. 107. Chiclcens.
ters
crossing
fruit-trees,
in chf^rncdifferences liable 2.58: white, 51. 20t!, 320. to gapes, ii. 2.56. Chicroe, Chile, sheep of, i. 96. with ci'ttle, identicnl Chillingh:nn ters Bos prunifirnius, \. 82; charac-
of, i. 257.
Cephalopoda,
spermatophores
of,
ii. .367. Crrnsus i. yellow-fruited, padus, 4.51. CrrooVptcft, sterility of, in captivit.v. ii. 130. of a CJfrrnpithccus, breeding cies speof, in captivity, ii. 131,
Chtloe, China,
of. 8.5. of. Ii. 20. half-cashes with of, drooping cats 1. 53; of. horses i. 46; ears, of. i. .59; nsses ponies striped of rabbits in. notice of, i. 63: breeds of i. 101; Confucius, bv i. breeda reared 212; in, pigeons
428
of
fowls
CHINCHILLA.
INDEX.
COLOUR-BLINDNESS.
of,
i. 239,
in 255.
fifteenth
in
tury, cen-
on
cattle,
of of
of
i.
92,
fleece
sheep,
wheat,
Chinchilla,
fertility of,
ity, captiv-
seeds
ii. 130. selection Chinese, practised by of the, the, ii. 182; preference for hornless ii. 187; recograms, nition value of of native the breeds by the, ii. 295. or Chinese, Himalayan rabbit, i. 109. of cattle in a breed Chivos," i. 90. Paraguaj\ i. 335. Choux-raves, the Christ, H., on plants of the Swiss i. Lake-dwellings, 320, tween beintermediate forms 330; Piitus nwnsylvestris and i. 379. tana, i. 394, 395. Chrysanthemum, Chnjsotis fcstiva, ii. 260. effects of selection Cineraria, on the, ii. 178. horses Circassia, of, ii. 77. i. 455. Circumcision,
"
cabbages,
maize
of
93; the on i. 99, 100; on i. 327; tivated culon i. 337; tation adapto, i. 334.
Climate
of
and
pasture,
strawberries,
Cline,
and
Mr.,
on
in
horned
hornless
ii. 317.
in
Ranunculus of various
Clover,
Coate,
ii. 98. Coccus of ii. 210. apple-trees, Cochin i. 2.33. 258, 2.59, 268, fowls,
269;
of,
skull
ured, figof,
bra verte-
of,
figured,
i. 276.
a
Cirripedes,
351.
metagenesis
and
in,
ii.
Cistus,
intercrossing
hybrids
armoracia,
natural
Cock,
game,
in,
Citrus
Mli,"
Citrus Citrus Citrus
aurantium i. 3.50.
fructu
varia-
i. 348. i. 349. medica, i. 348, 349. bud-variation in A., Clapham, the i. 392. hawthorn, Claquant (pigeons), i. 142. Claquers (pigeons), i. 161. the wild of Clark, dogs G., on i. 26; on .Tuan de Nova, striped Burmese and .Javanese ponies, i. 59; breeds of goats imported into i. 102; variations the Mauritius, in the of goats, mammae scrotum i. 103; bilobed cat of Musi. 103. goat, H. fission and J., on Clark, ii. 340. gemmation, R. of Clarke. T., intercrossing i. 366. strawberries, hvbridisatioh of Clarke, T., i. 419, ii. 69. stocks,
dfcumana,
Icmonutn,
"
"
"
"
Mr., prize-cultivation i. 370. gooseberry, the Classification, by explained natural of theory selection, i.
of tlie
Clarkson,
palate,
on
of,
i.
Clemente,
i. .345.
Spain,
St. of
ii. 203; of. grafted the spur on comb. ii. 277; of. inserted spur into of the ear ii. 3."t4; an ox, effect of castration the, upon ii. 26. varieties of Cock's-comb, i. the, 381. of Cocoons variations silkworms, in. i. 31.3. i. 90; Codfish, number bulldog, of in the. ii. 362. eggs ii. 131. Crjrlofjcnps para. of Colin, prepotency the ass over the horse, ii. 42; on ing, cross-breedii. 72; on of change diet, ii. 285. Peter, Collinson, peach-tree ducing pronectarine, i. 354. a in pigeons, Coloration evidence an of unity of descent, i. 2V1-20.?. correlation Colour, of. in dogs, i. 26, 27; persistence of, in horses. i. 51; inlieritance and di^ers'ly of. in liorses. variation's i. 55; of, in the i. 63; of wild or ass, feral i. 85; cattle, transm's'iou i. 108; of. in rabbits, ties peculiariin of, Himalnvnn rr.l)bits, i. 110; influence of,"ii. 205-209; correlation in and liead of, ii. 306; correlated wi"^h limbs, constitutional ii. peculiarities,
319.321. and Colour ii. 307.
the breeds i.
odour,
correlation
o',
i.
of.
on
upon
Colour-blindness,
hereditar.v.
in
men
dogs,
i.
37;
horses,
53;
443;
more
common
than
COLOURS.
INDEX.
CORRELATION.
420
ii. 47; associated in women, to inability with distinguisti ii. 312. musical sounds, not blended sometimes Colours, ii. 67, 68. by crossing, a variety Colitmba affinis, Blyth, of C livia, i. 189. ety varia amalice, Brehm, Columba C. of livia, i. 189. Columba guinea, i, 189. Columba form Columba
C.
fect
caused to
a
of, ii. 401; on i. horses, 52; upon variation in pigeons. i. 219; i. .327: \\\"ini wheat, upon i. 376; trees, in Imdproducing variation, i. 4.30; iidvMiit.ig.-s of, ii. 123-126, !.""."), V,{\: st.-rilitv
by, ii. 126 -14."); cuiidncixV' variability, ii. 2;j4-24(i, .";77; accumulative action of, ii. 240direct 243; action of, ii. 2.""1273.
(jijtnnoryclus.
of C.
G.
Gray,
livia, i. 190.
wnas,
Condor,
132.
breeding
on
in
captivitv,
ii.
gymnophthalmoH,
i.
of, with
Columba
Confucius,
rabbits
maculosa,
of C.
200.
intermedia, leucocrphala,
Stricl^land,
ii.
ConoUy,
variety
Columba Columba Columba Columba
livia, i. 190.
134. i. 188, 201. lenronota, littoralis, i. 188. livia, ii. 2, 1.3, 14; breeds domestic of
the of
skull
169;
lower
jaw
ured, figi.
i. 170;
scapula
figured,
luctuosa, i. 188. and Iniromigratoria fertility of, cephala, diminished ii. 134. in captivity,
a'nas,
ii. 308. Constitutional differences in of apsheep, i. 97; in varieties ples, in i. 36.3, 364; ums, pelargonii. .38;; i. 380; in dahlias, Constitutional in peculiarities in i. 368; i. strawberries, roses, 382. i. 440; Consumption, hereditary, of, ii. 52; period of appearance with ii. correlated complexion, 319. ii. 144. 145. Contabescence, ii. 148, 290. Convolvulus batatas, Convolvulus tricolor, bud-variation
Columba
common
i. 189;
crossed
with
and C. gympigeon i. 200. nophthalmos, i. 199, ii. 331. Columba palumbus, Columba rup'stris, i. 188, 190, 201. Columba sehimperi. i. 190. Columba, torquatrix, ii. 331.
improvement
selection,
of
ii. 182.
hereditary
eyes
Columba
turrieola,
cattle
on
i. 190.
Columbia,
of.
Columbine,
Columbus,
i. 21.
double,
West
i. 442; vision, of of affections of those of other with ii. 311. bud-variation in, i.
of
388;
cell-gemniules
Italian shepherd on Columella, domestic fowls, dosrs, i. 23; on the 412: 1. 239, on 2.54, ii. 180, the i. 286; on Iceeping of ducks,
i. 329: of seed-corn. selection of of benefits the change on the ii. 123; to on soil plants, value of native breeds, ii. 29.'3. i. .3.37. Colza, variations of, i. in fowls, Comb, ii. rudimentary, 261; sometimes 297. law of, i. 283. Compensation, ii. 324, of growth, Compensation
Cordemoy,
ii. 148.
Dr.,
Boitard. seedless
plants,
i. i.
Cornea,
442.
opacity
maseula,
of,
inherited,
Cornus 451.
yellow-fruited,
Correlation,
ii. .301; of
ii.
parts,
302;
of
neighbouring in change
in and some whole the body, gous homoloof of its parts, ii. 303; plicable, inex30.3-;n5; ii. parts, ii.
.315-.346;
the
c("mniinefl'ects of
gling
of,
with
325.
Complexion,
constitution,
Alderney
other agencies, and limbs skull of Correlation and tusks of i. 72: in swine, i. 77; of mulin swine, bristles and ness coarsehorns tiplicitv of i. 9""; in sheep, wool of in feet pigeons. 1. and of beak
ii. 317-319.
in other Zetland than cows i. 88. breeds, efof Conditions life, changed,
177,
down
180 and
colour
between of
nestling
i"luin.ige
changes
in in
pigeons,
i.
200;
of
430
CORRESPONDING.
INDEX.
CUCURBITACEJE.
197:
i.
173-177,
225; in
284.
ii. 1.34; geese of confinement, the ii. 140. Islands, Philippine breed of fowls, i. 237. a Creepers, Crested fowl, i. 235; figured, i.
236.
Corresponding
at,
periods,
cattle
Corrientes,
90.
of,
of
i.
lection se-
French a Creve-ccEur," of fowls, i. 237. brains the Crisp, Dr., on breed hare
and
"
subof the
Mr., influence on pigs, ii. 176. Corsica, ponies of, i. 52. of Cortbecfe (pigeon) Corringham,
" "
Aldro-
form of Crocker, Begonia frigida, i. 381, ii. 145; sterility in Ranunculus ficaria, ii. 150. ii. 144. Crocus, effect Cross-breeding, permanent the i. 425. female, of, on ii. 60-121, 152-169; Crossing, a of ii, 60-65, cause uniformity, in all 152; occurs organised ters characsome beings, ii, 65-67; not blended by, ii. 67-70,
vandi,
Corvus
i. 215.
corotie,
C. comix, and of, ii. 70. of, ii. 325. Corydalis, flower ii. 110. Corydfilis cava, when Cori/dalis solida, sterile loric, ii. 146.
brids hy-
peversion, re-
tiiherosa, peloric
ii. 32.
by
i. 371. transferred shells from to the ranean, Mediterii. 261. Dr. monstrous E.. on a Cones. ii. 373. chicken, defective velopment deMr. AVhite, Cowper, of the dental system, ii. 311. i. 33.5. Tronchuda." Couve of loss of inheritance one Cow, in of amount horn the, i. 445; furnished the. ii. 281; milk by of six mammae in, development
avellana,
153;
races
modifications
A., on England
produced
"
ii. 300.
Cowslip,
Cracidae,
ii. 84.
sterility of
ii. 134.
the,
in
tivity, cap-
captivity,
392,
oxiincantha,
2.37.
i. 379,
i. 379. mononynn, sibirirn, i. 379. Crawfurd, J., Malasian cats, i. of 46; horses the pelago, ArchiMalay i. 49; horses of .Japan, of i. 54; occurrence stripes in wild i. pigs of Malacca, young hairv familv Burmese 78; on a with deficient teeth, ii. 51, 310; origin of the bantam, Japanese of i. 2.37; game fowls the ippine Phili. 2.39; hybrids Islands, rnrius and of Gallus domestic i. 242; domestication of fowl, Gallus 244; i. feral hankiva. fowls Pellew in the Islands, i. 245; history of the foAvl. 1. 254; history of the domestic duck, i. 286; domestication of the goose, i. 297; cultivated plnnts of New i. 323; of Zealand, breeding in ii. 12-"; tame Ava, elephants
which causes domestication and favourable ii. 84-86, to, 167; beneficial effects of, ii. 89-109, in 152. necessarv 153; some plants, ii. 109-118, 15.3, 154, 406; of subject of, ii. 118summary 1:^6; of with dogs wolves in North i. 20, 21: with America, Canis cancrivorus in Guiann. i. 21; of dog with wolf, de-cilied i. 23; characters others, by Pliny and furnished brought by, out in the by reversion eny, progii. 7-9; direct of a cause of a reversion, ii. 13-23: cause variability, ii. 243-247. ences differCrustacea, macrourous, in the of development the, ii. 353. Crustacean with antenna-like an of the development cle, eye-pedunii. 37.3. tion bud-variaCryptogamic plants, in, i. 399. wild Cuba, dogs of, i. 26. sub-breeds of Cuckoo," fowls, i. 251. variation in number Cucumber, of carpels of, i. 375; supposed of varieties of crossing the, i. 420. Cucumis i. 376. momordica, Cucumis satimis, i. 375. correlation of Cucurhita. dwarf, leaves in. ii. 314. Cucurhita i. .372. 3"4. maxima, i. 372, 374. Cucurhita tnoschata, Cucurhita i. 372, ii. 83; rieties vaprpo. in si^e of, i. 373: relation and number of fruit of. ii. 324.
"
by, check,
Cucurbitace?e.
i.
372-376;
posed sup-
Sterility of
Goura
coronata
in
crossing
of, j. 420;
Nau-
CULBUTANTS.
INDEX.
DEAFNESS.
431
of 381i.
din's
observations
ii.
on
of,
"
151;
"
acclimatisation
hybrids of,
life form
on,
li.
and
colour
li. 294.
Daisy, (pigeons), i. 154. of plants, origin of, tility feri. 320-323; savages, increased by, il. 86-88. on hereditary nighti. 442. Swan
hen-and-chicken,
River,
Culbutants Cultivation
among
varieties Dal^bret,
wheat,
Cunier,
blindness,
Cupples,
Mr.,
pairing
of
deer-
ii. 100. hounds, del i. of Tierra Fuego, Currants, bud-variation in, i. 391. 320; in the Curtis, Mr., bud-variation i. 397. of the the on gestation Cuvier, the odour of the i. 29; wolf, cation, domestito obstacle jackal, an of the i. 29; differences i. 33; external skull iq dogs, gation eloni. 34; of dogs, characters intestines in mestic doof the tility pigs, i. 75, ii. 283; ferhook-billed of the duck, and of ass 1. 286; hybrid zebra, in animals of ii. 16; breeding Jardin des the Plantes, ii. 127; birds in sterility of predaceous of ii. 132; facility captivity, in confinement, hybridisation
rose,
Dalibert, in changes the odours of plants, ii. 255. Dally, Dr., on consanguineous ii. 99. marriages, Daltonism, hereditary, 1. 443 cattle Damaras, of, I. 89, ii. 185,
18
(.
i. .361.
Count,
on
silkworms,
English
I.
fertility of
dogs
in Sierra ii. 140. Leone, Danish remains Middens, of in, i. 17. in Dappling horses, asses, hybrids, i. 56.
dogs
and
Dareste,
Polish
the of skull C, on the of fowl, i. 270; causes the variability, ii. 249; on duction proof monstrous chickens, ii. 269; co-existence of lies, anomaii. 315; production of double ii. 323.
ii. 139.
Cyanosis,
ii. 315.
affection
of
fingers in,
in,
i.
heredity
Cyclamen,
398.
bud-variation
i. 113; on the wild pota'o, i. 343; in the dimorphism anthus polyand i. 4ri2. primrose,
cus,
cardiinrulus, ii. 7. Cynara C)/nips fccundntrix, ii. 264. ii. 131. Ct/vocrphalus hamadrpas, i. 306. Ctfprinus auratus, Ci/rtanfhus, ii. 117. ii. 111. Cyrtnpodium, its bud-variation, Cytisus odnmi,
404-407, i. 405; from,
i. ii. 11; different
Darwin, Darwin,
Dr., vegetables by
Sir crossed
improvemont
of
Darwin,
D'Asso,
the
101.
seedlings
views of
monogynous hawthorn in
Its experiments origin, i. 406; and In C. pitrpureus crossing i. 406; iis lahurnum to produce, i. 406; by M. Adam, production discussion of origin of, i. 406. ovules laburnum, Cytisus alpino
-
Dasyprocta Date-palm,
2.35.
Spain,
Datura,
245.
Datura,
ii. Iwvis
in
11;
and
variability
stramonium,
in,
II.
version re-
of, I. 405;
origin
of,
Datura
alpinus, 1. 405. i. 404-407. laburnum, ovules purpurco-elongntus, tion producpollen of, i. 405;
of,
i. 406. i. 404-407.
purpureus,
Cytisus
in 34; proportions of intestines domestic and cats, i. 48, wild 283 ii Ii. 208. rnbbits. white Daudin. on sheep in the West Dr.. on Davy.
Indies,
food of on effects Dahlbohm, ii. 261. hvmenoptera, ation bud-variii. 125; i. 385, Dahlia, i. 401; In the, by tubers selection, improvement of, by ii. 194; ii. 241; Dawkins.
dog,
82;
early
in Britain. loufjifrotis
Denf-mutes,
454.
non-heredity
inheritance
in.
I,
steps
effect
in
cultivation
of.
of
of
conditions
Deafness,
432
DEAN.
INDEX.
i
DIET.
Dean, Deby,
and De
duclis,
Candolle,
Alph.,
cultivated
De
387;
furnished have no wild i. 32a, 324; i. 321; wheat, i. 324; wild tiquity anand oats, rye i. of wheat, of varieties lection 328; inefficacy of seapparent i. 329; origin in wheat, i. 331, and cultivation of maize, of li. 288; colours seeds of varieties and i. maize, 332; i. 336, origin of the cabbage, 337: garden-pea, origin of the i. 338; the on vine, i. 345, ii. of the 289; cultivated species i. 348; probable orange group, Chinese i. origin of the peach, and the 350; ine, nectaron peach i. 355, 356; varieties of the peach, i. 356; origin of the apricot, i. 358; origin and varieties of the i. 359; origin of plum, of the cherry, i. 361; varieties the i. 369; selection gooseberry, with i. practised forest-trees, 376; wild fastigate oak, i. 377; dark-leaved varieties of trees, i. 377; of conversion stamens into i. 381; pistils in the poppy, ity variegated foliage, i. 381; heredwhite of i. 387, hyacinths, in oaks 452; changes dependent i. 403; inheritance of on age, anomalous i. 451; characters, in variation of plants their tive naii. 236; ous deciducountries, bushes becoming evergreen in hot ii. 286; climates, ty antiquiof races of plants, ii. 4l:i. De
Delamer,
113.
E.
S.,
on
rabbits, i. 108,
on
Dendrocygna viduata, ii. 136. ii. 130. Denny, H., lice of Aperea, variations Dentition, of, in the horse, i. 50. i. 379. Deodar,
Desmarest,
on
Cape
of
of
from
dogs,
white the
cats
rence occur-
i. 46;
46;
of i. 297.
of striped in Turkish young breeds pigs, i. 78; French of goats, cattle, i. 81; horns hornless ii. goats, 103; on
Desportes,
roses,
number {. 382. i.
of
varieties
of
Devay,
of
Dr.,
the effects cousins, ii. 99; on close ii. 242. interbreeding, and metamorphosis, Development
of
ii. 371-374.
Development,
300.
arrests
Development,
353.
embryonic, L.,
race
on
of
the the
Dhole,
Diabetes,
fertility of
ii. 129.
the, in
ity, captiv-
Candolle, P., non-variability of ii. 245; monotypic genera, relative of root development and in seed Raphanus sativus,
ii. 324.
on
occurrence of, in three brothers, i. 448. contabescent Dianthus, plants of, varieties ii. 145; hybrid of, ii.
245. Dianthus
armeria
and i. 397.
deltoides,
cultivation of the wild i. 338; varieties carrot, of the i. 365; crossing interpear, of i. strawberries, of the 366; fruit apple, i. 421; nummusterility of Lijsimachia laria, ii. 149; tender variety of the peach, ii. 290. of horns male, Deer, assumption by feii. 26; imperfect ment develop-
Decaisne,
the
hybrids
Dianthus Dianthus
of ii.
horns 137.
in
a,
on
age, voy-
caryophijllus, i. 397. Dianthus japonirus, contabescence of female in, ii. 145. organs ii. 348. Diaphrromera femorata, Dichogamous plants, ii. 66. in Dickson, running Mr., on the ours coli. 397; on carnations, of tulips, i. 402. and Dirotyles labiatus, torquatus
" "
ii. 78, 96. fallow, Deer, difference Deerhound, Scotch, size of the sexes of, ii. 48; of, ii. 97. of Degeneration under neglect,
dog
feral
of
New
in
Zealand,
New Zealand, io
24;
cats
i.
47;
polydactylism
high-bred
ii. 218.
races,
i. 447. Polvnesia, Dirlytra, ii. 32. Diet, change of, ii. 284.
434
ii. 330; ii. 410.
DOMBRAIN.
INDEX.
EATON.
extinction H.
of
on
breeds ttie
of,
Dombrain,
ii. 328.
H.,
la, auricu-
Duck, penguin, hybrid of, with ii. 42. Egyptian goose, Duck, wild, difficulty of rearing, ii. 211; effects of domestication
ii. 258. essential points Domestication, on, to breeds favourable Ducks, in, ii. 388, 389; of, i. 285, 286; creased origin of, i. 286; history fertility incross-'ing, ii. 84-86; of, i. 286; wild, i. 287, easily tamed, by, ii. 86-88, 153. 288; fertility of breeds Domesticated animals, of, when origin of, i. 289; with the occasional ii. 139; crossed, sterility of, mage pluof Anas ii. under conditions, hoschas, i. 289; changed identical in 139-141. Malayan penguin, with i. 289; hyperplumage Donders, English, Dr., hereditary characters of the breeds i. 441. metropia, of, i. 290-293; of, i. 290; effects eggs Dorking fowl, i. 233, 269; furcuof and disuse lum use in, i. 293of, figured, i. 277. ii. 131. 296, ii. 279; feral, in Norfolk, Dormouse, i. 196; ii. 146, 147, lol; inheritance Double flowers, Aylesbury, of ii. 178. by, early hatching produced by selection, i, 4.59; of the reversion ing, in, produced by crossH., cultivation Doubleday, ii. 14; i. 368. wildness of halffilbert pine strawberry, bred and wild, ii. 19; hybrids J., crossing of white of, Douglas, with ii. 67. the ii. 20; asblack sumption game-fowls, musk-duck, varieties of male of Downing. Mr., wild plumage by, and ii. 25; crossing of Labrador and the hickory, i. 321; peaches i. 3.j3, from ii. 73; increased ity fertilnectarines seed, penguin, of the Boston ii. 87; 3.j4: origin necof, by domestication, ment, ties variei. 'doi; American tarine" fertility of, in confinegeneral i. 356; North ii. 136; size increase of of the peach, in breeding, ties ii. 176; American of, by care apricot, i. 358; variei. 360; tion of the origin produced by domesticachange plum, varieties i. and of the in, ii. 242. cherry, of Sirei. twin-cluster Dum^ril, 362; pippins," Aug., breeding in the branchiferous i. don of the stage, apple, ,383; varieties ii. 368. i. strawberries, on 365, 365; Dun-coloured fruit of wild the origin horses, of, 367; berry, goosei. 58. of grafting i. 370; effects la feral Dureau de Malle, diseases i. 460; the pigs seed, xipou ii. 6; feral fowls in Louisiana, and of plum tree, ii. 205, peach in in Africa, ii. 7; bud-variation fruit stone to 206; injury done i. 391; of the in America the weevil," production pear, by ii. and mules the ii. 209; Romans, among grafts of the plum of varieties 85. ii. 238; wild peach, of fruitii. 240; varieties sylvestris, i. 22. Dusicyon pears,
" "
mates, clidifferent suitable to ii. 287. of Mr. J., sterility Downing, ii. 94. short-borns, Draha sylvestris, ii. 142. Dragon (pigeon), i. 143, 146. (pigeon), i. 161. Draijer effects of, in different Drinking, ii. 270. climates, selection of, ii. 183. Dromedary, il. 95; Druce, Mr., interbreeding, of pigs, ii. value of cross breed
trees
" "
Dutch
rabbit,
roller
Dutch
Dutrochet,
pigeon, pelorism
Ji. 327. of pears Duval, growth ii. 239. in France, Leersia on Duval-Jouve, ii. 67.
woods
oryzoides,
in JAli-
Duvernoy,
nm
self-impotence
i. 114. habits
candidum,
and
Dzierzon,
308.
variability
in
West i. and
vcsca,
on
colour-blindness,
H.
Cecidomyia
of i,
i. 5. retention
ing perch-
hybrid
187; J^eraJ
i. 107; rabbits, fancy of rabbits, of, in breeds in 1. 108; rudimentary, ii. 296; Chinese ing, droopsheep, ii. 282; fusion of, ii. 323. fancy pigeons, J, M., pn Eaton,
deficiency
ECHlNODfiRMATA.
INDEX.
EVEREST.
4.35
Y"ihu,
I'cgu,
i.
1. 152, ICG;
156;
uttering
GalluH
in
breeds
16i);
i. Ii44.
Ellis.
Mr.,
to
coloration
on
of
Cnlumba
plants
Elm,
Tahiti,
pigeou-faucy-
nearly
fvergic-u
tumblerpigeons, i. 210, ii. 221; carrierbreeding interof effects i. 217; pigeon, ii. 103; on pigeons, ii. 175; properties of pigeons, tumblers short-faced of death in the
the, i. .'{78, II. 'JIH; of foliage-varieties the, I. .377. i. 377; Elm. not weeping, duced reproby seed, i. 4.50. Emberiza ii. 1.37. passerina, sion Embryos, similarity of, i, 11; fu-
variety
pigeon,
ii. 352.
egg, ii.
ArchangelEngel, In,
in in, i. 255.
Lauras
sassafras,
II.
Echinodermata,
metagenesis specific
difference
Ectopistes,
number 163,
of
tail-feathers
sterile
brids hyvulgaris,
dermal
system
311.
of in of
the,
ii.
Edgeworth,
seeds 320.
as
Mr.,
food in
use
grassi.
domestication of //o"* of in, I. 82; selection horses mediii?val in, in times, the ii. 181; laws against early of rams in, il. isl. slaughter of the, Ephemeridae, development ii. 350. 1. 421, cinnaharinum, Epidcndrum ii. 111. zebra, ii. 112. Epidendrum i. 440, 11. hereditary, Epilepsy,
England,
longifrons
the
Punjab,
53.
Edmonston,
in
raven,
Larus
Edwards
wheat
burchellii, i. 04.
Quagga,
English
of
Edwards,
the ii. 62.
France, W. F.,
in
ii. 288.
absorption
crossed
minority
W. in
races,
Edwards,
stripes
in i. 58; horse, i. 60. race-horses, characters of fowls, Eggs, of, in 256; variations silk-moth, of the 290; ancient dogs of, Egvpt, domestication aueient pigeon in, i. 211; absence fowl
in
i. 04. ii. 17, 22. ta^niopus, i. 62, 63, ii. 15. white of the disease parts Erdt, of cattle, ii. 321. of contabesEricaceje, frequency in the, ii. 144. cence of an Erichihonius, improver ii. 179. horses by selection, Klrthe fat-tailed on Erman. ghisian sheep, i. 99, ii. 200; on il. of the Ostyaks, the dogs indicus, 184. E radium, ii. 33. Ticr-
of, i.
ducks,
i. i. 311. i. 16, 17;
of the
of
the
ancient,
goose,
i. 253.
i. 291. duck, origin Prof., multiple Ehrenberg, er of Lowof the dog, i. 15; dogs of mummies i. 23; Egypt, i. 43. Fclis manlculata, functional of the body, Elements
Egyptian penguin
hybrids
of, with
self-sterile californirn. ii. 114. England, naked the on Mr., Esquilant. pigeons, dun-coloured of voung
{. 176.
Esquimaux
to
dogs, wolves,
their I. 20;
blance resem-
tion selec-
Insanity,
Independence
355
of
the,
In in
ii.
353-
Elephant,
Elk,
317. Elliot.
ity, captivthe,
Ii.
ii. 53. on pendages apDeslongchamps. Eudes of the jaw under pigs, i. 76. japonirus, 1. .39'.t^ Euonymus ii. 2().). rnacuhita, Euphorbia cultivated plants, still
European
wild Evans, Evelvn,
In India, cats Sir Walter, on i. I. 44: on striped horses, wild and domestic Indian 59; Cairo from I. 67; pigeons swine. i. 135; fanand Constantinople, Lotan bler tumi. 150; tail pigeons,
in
Europe,
on
i. 31S. the
Mr.,
Lotan
in
bler tumills
pigeon, pansies
i.
i.
155. grown
the
garden,
p]verest,
3S3.
on
pigeons,
i. 154;
pigeon
R., dog in
India,
436
degeneration
i. i. 67.
EWES.
INDEX.
FERTILITY.
37;
in
dia, In-
boars,
Faroe 189.
Islands,
pigeons
of
the,
i.
Ewes,
hornless,
of
Extinction 228.
races,
i.
Eyes,
the, 457;
hereditary
i. 441^43; modification
loss
in
microphthalmia
i.
the
ture struc-
natural selection, of, by ii. 200, 201. elongation hereditary Eyebrows, of hairs in, i. 441. inherited peculiarities of Evelids,
influence Fashion, of, in breeding, ii. 218, 219. ii. 257, 329. Fastigiate trees, differences Faiinas, geographical of, i. 9, 10. Favourite bull, i. 39, 93. variation Feathers, homologous in, ii. 307. individual ferences difFeet, of pigeons, of, i. 105; correlations of external characters in, i.
.
"
"
the, Eyton,
i. 441.
Mr.,
on
gestation
in
the
i. 29; variability in number in the vertebrae of pig, i. 75; individual sterility, ii. 141.
dog,
Felis Fells
vulgaris,
on
MgUops
Fairweather,
double ii. 140.
Mr.,
production
from
old
of
Felis
Felis
flowers
on
seed,
Felis Primula
sylvestris, i. 44.
torquata,
Faivre,
386,
Falco young Falco Falco Falco
sinensis, i.
Felis
albidiis, plumage
ii. 137.
i. 44. affected male ment, eleby ii. 350, 370. in male Female flowers, panicle i. 333. of maize, i. Mr., grafting potatoes, Fenn,
Female,
in
tivity, cap-
411.
Fennel,
Feral
in breeding tinnunciilus, captivity, ii. 132. Falconer, Dr., sterility of English i. 37: rein India, semblance bulldogs
and
Italian variety of, i. 338. i. 47; cattle, i. 86, 87; Guinea i. 113-117; fowl, rabbits, animals and version i. 304; plants, rein. ii. 5, 6, 21. cats,
of 311: of
a
fastigiate
i. 377:
plurnl-
Calcutta,
reproduction
thumb
after
fertility of in dhole the captivity, ii. 129: dia, dogs in Infertility of English the ii. 140: sterility of keys turtiger in captivity, ii. 129; Inrlian ii. 140; on at Delhi, cuitivnted plants, ii. 144; Thibet
and mastiff goat, ii. 258. Falcons, sterility of, in captivity, ii. 132. of horses the, Falkland Islands, feral i. 52, 62; pigs of the, i. of i. 83. cattle feral the, 78; of the, i. 113. rabbits 87; feral ii. 78, 96. Fallow-deer, ii. i. 150-152, Fantail pigeons, furculum 205; figured, i. 151;
fowl ", of black gameof size relative i. 256: yolk of eggs of game-fowls, i. 256: eaily eggs i. 258; of game-cocks, pugnacity i. fowl, the voice of Malay
of interbreeding on effects in Coselection ii. 101; fowls, ii. on 174; chin-China fowls, ii. 219. in poultry, fashion i. Mexican on dogs, Fernandez, 267;
21.
abnormal of reproduction i. 399; nonforms of, by spores, of cell-gemmules diffusion in, ii. 362. ii. 86, 130, 184. Ferrets, Fertilisation, artificial, of the St. apple, i. 364. Valery of, in degrees Fertility, various
Ferns,
of,
figured,
absence
i.
173;
of
history oil-gland
of, in,
unlimited 98: mutual, i. 197of of breeds pigeons, of mongrels 200: comparative, and hybrids, ii. 75, 76, 157-160;
sheep.'i.
FESTUCA.
INDEX.
fox.
437
of,
i.
on,
11. interbreeding,
I.
377;
variegation
.382I
93,
154;
reduced,
of
Chillingham
94;
when
bud-variation in, i. 398-400. Food, influence of, on the pig 74; on cattle, i. 92; excess
a cause
of!
of
variability,
on
ii
236
Forbes,
96;
Formica
on
D.,
the and
Chilian
horses
species of, propagated Festuca, 11. 149. bulblets, by tomtits, spared Filberts,
209.
by
il. of in
sheep, I. of Spain,
i. 52.
the
Pampas,
Fllippi,
on
the
breeding
rufa, 11. 230. 'ofthe sweet R., sterility in China, ii. 148; (lov""lof axillary bulbs in the
ii. 148. breeds
captivity, 11. 133. Flnnikin (pigeon), i. 161. 1. 338. Flnocchlo, acclimatisation Scotch, Fir,
ii. 291.
common,
of, i. 232-
supposed gin, pluralitv of orii. 238; early history of, i. of 238-241; causes production of breeds of, i. 241; origin of,
from Gallus
of advantage change plants, ii. 12.5. of Fishes, regeneration portions of fins of, 11. 15; variability of, in ii. '238; when kept tanks, living in fresh marine, water, 11. 285; double monsters of, ii.
Fish,
of
Mr.,
soil
to
252, 245, 8,
253; 246;
11-13,
330,
332;
"
cuckoo
"
322. Fission
and
Fitch, Fittest,
Mr.,
of
gemmation, persistency
Fltzlnger,
African 1. 411. Fixedness
Fitzpatrlck,
Mr.,
potato-grafting,
of, Flax,
found
Swiss lakeference difcllmatal in products of, ii. 255. fineness Fleece, of, in Austrian 11. 175. merinos, German Flelschmann, on sheep crossed ii. 64. with merinos, " i. 146. FIorentiner-Taube," 11. 27. Flounder, of wolf and Flourens, crossing of the dog, 1. 31; prepotency the jackal over brids dog, ii. 42; hyhorse ii. of the and ass, 42; breeding of monkeys in Europe, ii. 1.31. earliest Flower-garden, known, in Europe, 11. 195. transmission Flowers, capricious of i. 451, colour-varieties in,
dwellings,
sub-breeds of, 1. 251; history of, i. 253-2.55; structural acters charof, 1. 255-258; sexual culiaritie peof, i. 258-265, ii. 48; external differences of, 1. 205differences of breeds 268; of. from G. bankiva, i. 267, 268; osteological characters of, i. 268effects of disuse of 279; parts 11. 279; in. i. 279-283, feral, i. 196, ii. 7; polydactylism in, I. 447; fertility of, increased by ii. 87, 141; rility stedomestication, certain tions, condiof, under ii. 140; Influence of selection
on,
11.
174,
175,
187;
evils
of
close
102, 103; of transmission in, prepotency in, II. 41; rudimentary organs of non-siitlng ii. 296; crossing
varieties of, of wing gv in, 11. 304;
ii. and
17-19;
homolo-
pheasants
ii.
GaUus and sonneratii, ii. 187; black-skinned, 19; osby the black, preyed upon fiveii. 208; in Ireland, prey mentioned toed, by Columella, ens chicktailed ii. 412; rumpless. by, ii. 4; Dorking, produced of comb of, ii. 68; form crosses
and
colour
game,
of
plumage
in,
il.
216;
ii. 207; change in, caused by conditions of 11. life, 11. 253; rudimentary, 297; relative position of, to the axis, ii. 326. ii. 275. Foetation, abdominal, of wild varieties Foley; Mr.,
on
colour,
black, and fer sufliable to Spanish, ii. 374; Polish, ii. 287; frost, from peculiarities of skull of, ii. 316,
pears,
Foliage,
peculiarities of,
sterility of, in captivity, ii. Fox, 129. 1, of bees, races S. Bevan, Fox, 308. , ^ gestation of the Darwin, W. Fox,
.
438
FOXHOUNDS.
INDEX.
OALTON.
dog,
i.
29;
"
reversion
the in 3; period gestation layan Himaof the pig, i. 75; young of rabbit, i. 110; crossing i. and domestic wild turkeys,
of of
Negro sheep
"
in
in
crossed
musk
regation seggeese, breeding interii.
spontaneous
ii.
78;
bloodhounds,
with cats of while blue ii. 312. eyes, Foxhounds, i. 40, ii. 96. Fragaria cMloensis, i. 366. Fragaria collina, i. 365. i. of dioica Fragaria Duchesne,
96;
deafness
Galeohdolon luteum, pelorism in. ii. 33, 326. Galls, ii. 262-264. ii. 264. Gall-gnats, Gall-like not ited, inherexcrescences ii. 2.3. Gallinaceous restricted birds, of large, i. 245; general range fertility of, in captivity, ii. 134. Gallinula chloropus, ii. 135. GalHnula nesiotis, i. 296. Gallesio, species of oranges, i.347of hybridisation oranges, of 348; persistency in races the peach, i. 353; supposed cific spedistinctions of and peach i. 353 ; bizzarria nectarine, i. 407; of red orange, crossing and white i. 416; carnations, and on, lemcrossing of the orange i. 419, ii. 349; effect of foreign i. 420; on pollen maize, spontaneous crossing of oranges,
349;
i.
367.
elatior,
vcaca,
grandiflora,
i.
i. 365. i. 366.
365.
virginiana,
excelsior,
i.
i. 366.
376, 398, 450. Icntiscifolia, i. 450. scended decattle, probably Bos from primigenius, pigeon,
i.
ii. 66;
monstrosities
cause
of
160;
Indian,
ing sterility in plants, ii. 145; seedof ordinarily seedless fruits, ii. 147; sterility of the cane, sugarii. 148; tendency of male flowers to become ii. double,
FringiUa Fringilla
Frizzled
151;
effects
of
selection
in
larging en-
Frog,
spinus, ii. 133. fowls, i. 237; horses, i. 54. in the, i. 447. polydactylism
North 289.
Gallus riiis
ii. 147. seedless, varieties ring Fruit-trees, of, occurwild, i. 320, 321. fertile cats, Fry, Mr., on hybrid fowls i. 44; on feral in sion, Ascen-
Fruit,
variation of the in orange-tree tion Italy, ii. 235; naturalisaof the in Italy, ii. orange
wncus,
a
hybrid
domestic
of
G.
va-
and
the
fowl,
i.
242.
Gallus
i. 245.
origin of, i. 380; budvariation in, i. 398. Fuchsia coccinea and fulgens, twin seed i. produced by crossing,
Fuchsias,
416. about i. 321; selection of ii. dogs by the, their 184; tion estimacomparative and of dogs old ii. women, of distant ion, vis193; their power ii. 201. Fungi, parasitic, ii. 264, 26.5. nails of SauFlirbringer, Dr., on rians, ii. 374. and characters Furculum, tions variaof in the. pigeons, i. 172; alteration of, by disuse, in pigeons, i. 181; characters of, in i. 277. fowls, of Fusion homologous parts, ii. 375.
Fuegians, killing
their
young
superstition water-fowl,
probable original i. 241-247, fowls, 252; nearest game-fowl, to, i. with 233; crossed G. sonneratii, i. 241; its character and habits, i. 242, ii. 85; differences of various of breeds fowls i. from, 267; foramen occipital of, figured, i. 269; skull of, figured, i, cervical vertebra 270; ured, of, figi. 276; furculum of, figured, i. 277; reversion to, in crossed fowls, ii. 13, 14; hybrid G. varius, i. 241, ii. 14; of, with
of domestic of
eggs
hankiva,
number Gallus
Gallus
of,
ii. 87.
Gallus
Gallus habits
i. 233. ferruginus, furcalus, i. 242. giganteus, i. 242. characters sonneratii, of. i. 241; hybrids ii. 19. and
of, i.
241.
Gallus
Gallus
Gallus
of
peculiarities
its hab-
able prob-
Galapagos
fauna
Galton,
Mr.,
fondness
of
savagea
elMBlEft.
INDEX.
GfiOFPROY.
439
wlih
1. 19, 11. animals, 1. 89; Benguela, on hereditary talent, 1. 440; on Paugrenesis, ii. 3o9. his early euUlvaLord, Gambler, for
taming
cattle
139;
of
,392;
of
apple-treo
fruit
on
brauch.
I.
Gay,
on
Fragaria
Viola
on
gramliftora,
and of
tion
of
the
pansy,
1. 383.
366; on i. 384;
lutca
tricolor,
Vio'a
the
nectary
of
i. 233, 258-262. Game-fowl, 11. 20G. Gapes, la de annual Garcllazo Vecra, of the Peruvian hunts Incas, ii.
the.
I.
Gayot.
Geese
Sec
Moll.
185.
Garnett,
Mr., mlgi-atory propensities ii. 20. of hybrid ducks, Garrod, hereditary Dr., on gout,
i. 440.
Gartner,
i.
general fertility captivity, ii. 136. Gemmation and fission, 11. 340. Gemmules, or cell-gemmules Ii. 358, 360-366, 368. Generation, ii. alternate, 343. 352, 373.
(anscrcs),
of, in
of
Generation,
sexual,
ii. 341-34^;.
when 1. 373; crossed, plants ijln.nts, sterility in transplanted In Germiiny, lilac ii. in the and blue 143: mutual sterility of of the red flowers and nel, pimperof ii. 168; rules supposed transmission in crossing plants, ii. 41; on crossing plants, ii. 73, ing, cross104, 107, 108; on repeated of one 11. 246; absorption when another, species by ii. 63; crossing of crossed, rieties vai. 418; crossof the ing pea, ii. 79; of maize, crossing ii. 69, SO; species of Vcrbascum, in ii. 9, 24; reversion hybrids, 1. 4i5; of Tropwolum of Ccrcus, bility ma minitfi, i. 415; variajus and of ble hybrids, 11. 244; variavariable from one hybrids ii. 249; graft hybrid parent, in the produced by inoculation effect vine, i. 409; by produced the 1. 408, ii. stock. grafts on of hybrid 258; tendency plants ii. to double flowers, produce fruit of perfect 151; production ual by sterile hybrids, ii. 151; sexelective affinity, ii. 159; selfin Lobelia, Vcrbascum, impotence ii. 114, Liliiim, and Passlflora, of action the 115; on pollen, ii. of Malva, i. 423, 84; fertilisation of pollen, i'. ii, 345; prepotency of sion transmis166; prepotency
Genet, Genius,
Gcntiana
of, i. 440.
Geoffroy
of
ii. 147. amarclla, Saint-IIilaire. tion producmonstrous chickens, Loi dc Vajjinite de soi ii. pour
11. 322; of compensation ii. 324. growth, Salute Isid., Hilaire, Geoffroy ing origin of the dog, i. 15; barkof a jackal, i. 26; period of of the gestation and odour al, jack-
269; soi,"
"
i. 29; of
anomalies
in
the
teeth in
the 34 ; i. Newfoundland of webbed feet dogs, 1. 39; crossing of domestic tion and wild cats, i. 44; domesticathe of arni, i. S3: supposed of cattle introduction i. the from East. into Europe
83;
in
absence
of i.
iuterdigital
of i.
piis
the
sheep,
i.
goat,
102;
1:)6;
i. i. i.
sumption as-
fowl. fowl.
Kouians geese,
270;
for
preference
the liver of
of
the i.
white
299; by
polydactylism.
female
415;
42;
um
in species bud-variation
of
Nicotiana,
in
ii.
Pclarq"mi-
folium,
on
i. 430;
effect
of
of
manure
the
on
fertility
plants,
ii.
characters mnle of ii. 25; mission transbird, of cliarand blending ii. 7f^: refusal in hybrids, acters in breed capiivto of animals Guinea the jiig. ity, ii. 127; on producing silkworms ii. 130; the ii. 177; on white cocoons, cochineal insect, 11. the l"ee and on Helix lactca. 11. 261; 215; on to injury ii. 233; monstrosities, the coat
11. 144; contahescence, ii. inheritance of plasticity, 220; villosity of plants, ii. 258.
142;
embrvo
of horses
cause
of mint's,
strosity, mon-
ii". 249;
alteration
in coal
in
the
il.
Gasparini.
founded ters,
a on
genus
of
pumpkins,
char.ic-
stigmatic
bud-variation
i. 374.
Gaudichaud,
in
the
in intestines of the length 259; ii. 2.s4; animals, and tame wild rudiniiMitary of inheritance in the dog, Ii. 296; corlimbs
Qa
440
GEOGRAPHICAL.
INDEX.
GODRON.
relation
in
monstrosities,
ii.
in
Glenny,
178.
Mr., F.,
on
on
the
Cineraria,
ii. i.
302;
of co-existence man, of ii. 315; anomalies, presence in ovarian mours, tuand teeth hairs of ii. 354; development the teeth on palate in the horse, ii. 374. of nas, faudifferences Geographical i. 10. of succession isms, organi. 11. ii. 33. Geranium, and Geranium pijrenaicum, pha'um ii. 238. Giranium pratense, i. 304. climatal asserted change Gerard, in Burguudian bees, i. 307. of the varieties on cinth, hyaGerarde, i. 386. hive-bees, i. 309. Gerstiicker, on dog, Prof., origin of the Ger\ais,
digits
Gloede,
367.
on
strawberries, wings
of
Gloger,
ii. 279.
"
the
"
ducks,
Glouglou (pigeon), i. 159. Gloopiniw, peloric, i. 381, ii. 146. red on Gmelin, cats, at Tobolsk,
i. 46.
Geological
Goat,
tylism
i. 102. 103, ii. 6; polydacin the, i. 447; sexual ferences difin horns ued of, ii. 48; valii. ]8'i; by South Africans, ii. 258; amount of milk Thibet,
and
the,
of udders in development ii. 281; hornless, tary rudimengora, bony cores in, ii. 297; An-
ii. 308.
Godine, Godron,
on
prepotency
ii. 40.
of
mission, trans-
i.
15;
resemblance
of
dogs
and
i. of the 23; taming jackals, of teelh jackal, i. 25; number of in dogs, dogs, i. 33; breeds i. 51; i. 3"'.; on tertiary liorses, of horsts, i. 55; Biblical notices and .cpecies of Ovis, i. 95; wild i. 104; rabbits domestic rabbits, Mount Sinai and from Alge.ia, i. 109; i. 10!": earless rabbits, with doubled batrachia limbs,
II. "ti-".
Gestation, dog, period of, in the wolf, ""tc.,i. 28, 29; in the pig, in i. 75; in cattle, i. 88, ii. 303;
i. 98. inheritance in, i. 439. Ghoondooks a fowls, i. 237. ii. 17. Ghor-Khur,
sheep,
Gestures,
*'
of sub
ities peculiarbreed of
"
Giles, Giraffe,
Mr.,
in
the
effect
of
ing cross-breedof
structure
pig. i. 420.
co-ordination of
of the hairless i. 29; differences in the skull of dogs, crease i. 33; inof of i. breeds horses, of domestic and 51; crossing wild i. 67; swine, i. on goats, of the skin in 102, 103; colour of north and fowls, i. 266; bees south of i. 308; duction introFrance, the of silkworm in o i. 311; in Europe, variability the i. 314; silkworm, supposed of i. 32.3, 324; wheat, species on ^gilops triticoidcs, i. 324; variable barbs in of presence i. 325; colours of the grasses, seeds of maize, i. 332; unity of character in i. .335; cabbages, of colour and correlation odour, and ture moisi. 335; effect of heat the i. 337; on on cabbage, the cultivated species of I{ras"iRounci\al the ai:d ca, i. 3.37; on in i. 339; variation sugar peas, of peas in the same the numbers in Spain, vines pod. i. 340; wild
Turkish
odour
dog,
teeth
appearance in dog:,
cause
of
of i. .34. short
i. 345;
on
raising
peaches
from
ance inheriti.
horse,
age in
by
prepotency
character ii. 40;
of in
on
transmission
sheep crossing
cattle,
ii.
gourds,
Gisburne,
wild cattle at, i. 85. i. .380; self-impotence of of, ii. 117. hybrids Glntliohif; colciUii, bud-variation in, i. 398. Ghifliohi^.
i. 353; supposed specific and of distinctness tarine, necpeach i. 353; nectarine ing producthe i. 355; on er flowpeaches, ii. 325; of origin Corydalis, the of i. and variations plum, the of i. 359; origin cherry, of reversion single-leaved 361; five-leaved i. 367; strawberries, of Frannria collina, i. variety of 367; immutability supposed
seed,
Glands,
compensatory
of,
ii.
281.
Glastonbury
thorn,
i. 373, 374; characters, i. 377; perof Rohinia, manency the of simple-leaved of non-inheritance i. 377: ash, i. 455; wild certain mutilations, and celery, ii. turnips, carrots, benefit of 7; peloria, ii. 34;
specific
varieties
44^
of,
dne
"5REYNESS.
ll^DEX.
BAYWOOl)*
Italian,
Hair
and 309-811. of
teeth,
correlation
of, ii.
riod pe-
Greyues.s,
inherited
Hairy
family,
corresponding
in, ii. 51.
of,
periods
on Mr., Grieve, i. 386. dahlias,
ii. 21.
Grigor,
the
Mr,,
acclimatisation
Scotch
Gronland,
wheat,
webbed
1. oJ.
hybrids
ii. 85. feet of
of C. the
/Egllops
Groom-Napier,
and scribed, derab1)its, figured i. 108; skull of. i. 121. Halmtus Icucoccphalus, copulating in captivity, ii. 132. CoL, on Hallam, a two-legged of pigs, i. 437. race selection in reals, ceHallett, Major, ii. 178; on pedigree wheat, i. 325.
Half-lop
ii. 339.
(pigeons),
i. 154.
i.
Hamburgh Hamilton,
Hamilton,
of
male
fowl,
i. 235.
i. 234,
270;
ured, fig-
140.
Ground-tumbler,
Grouse,
ii. Gnis 135.
Indian,
in
fertility of,
captivity,
an-
wild cattle of, i. 85. the Dr., on assumption hen plumage by the
pheasant,
Hamilton,
ii. 25.
F.
tigoiw,
Guanacos, Guans,
selection
of,
in
ii. 164. Guelder-rose. Guehlerland fowls, i. 237. selection of dogs Guiana, by the Indians of, ii. 184. cension i. 304; feral, in AsGuinea fowl, i. 196. ii. and Jamaica, of of, to change 7; indifference ii. 140. climate, Guinea pig. i. 456, ii. 130. the i. on jackal, Giildenstadt, 23.
in in
finement, con-
ii. 1.36.
general
sterility A.,
i. lost
on
tivity, cap-
ii. 1.36.
captivity,
ducks
ii. and
Giinther.
geese,
tufted
on
284;
the in
tion regenera-
of
ii. 347.
parts
batrachia,
in of
dinary or-
breeding
appearance
"
black-shouldered
among
peacocks,
Habit,
HJickel,
on
fissiparous
on
tion, reproducii.
ii. 346;
the double
cells,
on
reproduction
3.54: of
medusa?,
ii. 379.
ii. 368;
inheritance, of, in
the Buchanan, on shaddock, i. 348; of varieties Indian cultivated plants, ii. 235. Mr., Hancock, sterility of tamed ii. 134. 135. birds, inheritance of Handwriting, culiarities pein, i. 4.38. Sir selection Haumer, J., on of ii. 182. flower-seeds, of daik Hansen, Mr., inheritance i. 290. yolks in duck's eggs, E. Harcourt. the V., on Arab boarhound, i. 16; aversion of the Avab^ to dun-colouied i. 55. horses, Mr., of effect of excess Hardy, nourishment on plants, ii. 236. i. Hare, of, with rabbit, hybrids ment, 106; sterility of the, in confineii. 131; preference of, for partirular plants, ii. 210. of, i. 454. Hare-lip, inheritance eases, dison Harlan. Dr., hereditary i. 440. i. 62. the wild Hartmann, on ass, white monstrous Mr., Harvey. African bull, i. 92. of form Prof., singular Harvey, effects frigida. i. 381: Begonia the of cross-l^reodiug on female, ii. monstrous i. 425; saxifrage, 145. i. 324. Hasora wheat, i. 367. Hautbois strawberry, call Col., on or Hawker, decoy i. 290. ducks, varieties i. 379, of, Hawthorn,
Hackles,
i.
peculiarities
the
fowls,
392;
pendulous
hybridised,
i.
262.
on
Hair,
in
face, inheritnnce of, 437; peculiar luck of, i. 438: of. rninherited, growth der stimulation of skin. ii. 308; variation of, ii. 307; homologous
man,
i.
development 374.
of, in
the
brain,
ii.
i. 379, 4.50: changes of, by age, in the. bud-variation i. 392; 403: flower buds attacked of, by ii. 210. bullfinches, of character maux EsquiDr., Hayes, dogs. i. 20. feral bits rabW., the on Haywood, of Porto Santo, i, 114.
HAZEL.
INDEX.
HILL.
443
Hazel,
ii. 313.
purple-leaved,
of wild
i. 377,
409,
boar and Yorkshire i. 73. correlated ability variand Head limbs, of, ii. .305. inheritance of, ii. 54. Headache, i. 383-385; Heartsease, change Head
pig, figured,
hocks,
on
ii. 82; breeding of brids, hyii. 108; self-iuipotenr-e in hybrid hippcMstniins, Ii. ip;, 117: hyl)!i(l (l lad i,, his, ii. in'
Zi phyviiHlhi!^ coudido, ii.143*; fertility of the ji. 144; crtjciis. on contabescence, ii. 144; brid hy-
Rhudod'ndron,
Herculaneum,
found
"
il. 245.
of
a
produced
i.
in
the, by
of
403;
figure
i. 68.
"
pig
in,
21;
effects
178;
scorching
effects
conditions of seasonal on the, annual varieties of the, ii. 254; ii. 286. the fleece of effect of, upon white and Heat, crossing coloured i. 99. of sheep, ii. (i7; crosses Angora rabbits, the of solid-hoofed on breeding Heber, Bishop, pigs, ii. 68. in the rhinoceros of Herprstcs captivity, fusciatus and griseus, il, 130. ii. 128. of cattle the of on tho Hebrides, the, i. 81; Heusinger, sheep ii. 205; i. 189. of the, Tarentino, conflated on pigeons the of the constitutional ii. O., on plants Heer, peculiarities, i. 320, ii. 320. Swiss lake-dwellings, the In bantam cereals, i. 328Hewitt, Mr., reversion 193, 410; on i. 339; on the i. 247: of the cocks, degener.ilion 331; on peas, in i. 251; partial sterility silk-fowls, vine Italy in the growing i. 345. of male hen-like i. Bronze fowls, age, of tailed ens chicki. 412. 260; production Heimann, potato-grafting, i. 2(i';; ii. 261. fowls, lacfea, Helix by rumplcss and wild terchanging rearing on Hemrrocallis fulva and taming ffava, ini. 287. ii. 211, 242; i, ditions conducks, by bud-variation, in laced of inheritance 402. 403. in 1. 453; reverconicine sion Sebright bantams, no Hemlock, yields in ii. 4; fowls, ii. 2.55. runiplcss Scotland, in fowls, reversion differences b.v age, ii. 1.3; of, in various Hemp,
Sir Heron, U., of appearance black-shouldered dinary oramong i. ."ioo, :}(i]; peacocks, non-inheritance of monstrous characters by gold-fish, i. 3("7;
parts
of
India,
in effect
ii. 143;
climatnl
hybrids
ii.
of
pheasiint
and of of from
fowl,
male latent bantam the
difference 255.
products of,
upon
of,
Hempseed,
colour
the
rence occur-
pheasants,
of
birds,
in
ii. 260.
barren
Hermaphrodite
of, Hen,
hen.
ii. 28;
montrrels
assumption by the,
of
spurs
or
Hennies," fowls, i. 260. ash J. A., a variety of the Henry. 1. 408; grafting, by produced dron crossing of species of Rhododeni. 421. tion variaI'rof., indi\idual Henslow, bud-variation i. 326; in wheat, bramble Austrian the in i. 397; partial reproduction rose, ash of the by seed, i. weeping 450. and Arnhis,
"
acters charmale of opment 26. 28; develin the, ii. 300. male hen-like
of close ii. 41; effects silk-fowl, ii. 101, fowls, on interbreeding bantams, 102: feather-legged on ii. 304. Hibbert, Shetland Hibiscus. Mr., See
on
the
i"igs of
i. 71.
the
Islands,
Pnritiinn. from
brids graft-hy-
i. 410; the \vith potato, of on poUeu intlneii'-e the on the mother the plant, i. 420; on i. 42.'!, of Ordiidnv, fertilisation
424; fitted
occasional
of
necessary
on
ing cross-
seeds
not
Hepatica,
Herbert,
changed
i. 403.
by
tation, transplan-
of Viola variations rial ion grandiflora, i. 384; bud-va i. 392: in seedlings camellias, i. reverted from Cijtisus adami,
Dr.,
Primula
rosea,
and
OxaliH
eava,
,
Corifdalis
Ab-o.
404;
other
crosses
turnips,
and
holly-
peacocks
.lamaica, in Jamaica,
4.U
HIMALAYA.
INDEX.
HORSES,
riation
of birds
the
Guinea
fowl
in
ii. 27;
inheritance of
of
hal;its
and
Jamaica,
tamed 135.
i.
the,
Himalaya,
birds
112. in
range
the,
Himalayan Himalayan
berried,
i.
i. 377; yeilow-
sheep,
Chillingham 146,
147.
bud-variation in, i. Hollyhock, double of 393; rieties vanon-crossing variety of, ii. 82; tender of the, ii. 292. i. 297; of notice Homer, geese, breeding of the
horses
of
.l^neriability va-
i.
as,
ii. 180.
difference
of, ii.
Homologous
336;
parts,
correlated
42.
Hippnrion,
in
anomalous
le.semblance
domestication ancient breeds of, i. 308; old in when produced i. 308; variability in, i. combs, and of 3U'J: Ligurian crossing
of,
322,
Hoofs,
h.iir
in
figured, i.
der-stripe shouli.
Sik-
307;
292.
Hooker,
64: kim.
Dr.
J.
in
D.,
the
use
forked
Syrian
voice
i.
of
asses, in cock'
common,
i.
309.
on interbreeding Fisher, pigs, ii. 97. i. 144. Hocker-Taube," attraction the Dr., on Hodgkin, of foxes Dingo, by a female Newfoundland 30; origin of the
Hobbs,
"
of Arura-voots i. 318; native useful food, as plants of Australia, i. 322; wild the i. walnut of Himilaya.s, the of 371: plane-tree, variety
267;
i.
of a petransmission culiar i. 438. of hair. domestication of Mr., Hodgson, Cnnis devoliipprimcrvtift, i. 25; ment of a fifth digit in Thibet ribs i. 35; number of mastilTs.
dog.
i. 42:
production
from
of
Thuja
ori-
lock
in
humped of sheep
i.
the of
on
the
i.
95;
in in
of T. priulula, of Begonia singular form in reversion frifjiila, i. 381; the wild, ii. 7; on pl.ints run ii. 148; Arctic on sugar-cane, the oak on pl.-uits, ii. 235; of Good the at Cape grown Rhododenfjron ii. 255: on Hope. gnonette miand stock ii. 25"i c I]id turn.
"eeds
presence
perennial
ii. 285.
in
Tasmania,
arched 96; sheep, i 96; measurements sheep, of intestines the goats, of interdigital i. 103; disuse a ii. 282. drooping ears,
piesence
nose
of
i.
Hopkirk,
the rose,
Mr.,
i.
103;
in
i.
pits
cause
jalapa,
tricolor, Hornbeam,
Horned i. 274.
Hornless 90. Horns
goats,
of
i. 429.
licf'U'ker,
in of
persistency
i. 51,
horses
of
colour
figured,
i.
horses,
dun
from
Paraguay,
colours,
60;
peculiarities in i. 4.39; heredity a sanguineous constag, i. 445; on ii. 100. marriages, i. Prof., on Raplianus,
River,
ii. 128. of retardation ing breedby hard living, ii.
of, with
ii.
i. 93; correlation in sheep, ii. 30"; tieece with the correlation of, skull, of
sheep,
317;
rudimentary
in
young
polled
i. 103. Horses, i. 49;
of
goats,
Hogriied
Hogg,
87. Holland,
Swiss
lake-dwellings,
of. breeds i. 49; anomalies
and i. ."1: don'iiion ferent difi. in
Mr.,
in
cows
different
Malay
in
Archipelago,
osteology
Sir
diseases,
morbid
heritance, of, i. 50; mutual of innecessity i. 4.35; on breeds, hereditary of i. 440; hereditary habit 52: culiarity pe-
H.,
fertility of
feral,
in
the
eyelid,
in the transmission
the
i.
441;
same
snow,
i. 53;
mode i.
uniformity
i.
of
breeds
of.
family,
448;
of
and
diversity
hydrocele
through
female.
56; dark
stripes
HORSE-CHESTNUT.
INDEX.
HYBRIDTTY.
445
277;
tri-
origin of, i. dun-coloured, of feral, i. 61, 02; fecundation of a effect by the on subsequent eny progquagga 332;
58;
colours
of
on
cock
the
against
the
iuiaglualion upon the peculiarities ofl'spring, ii. 'J4;{. Hutchinson, polydactylism ("ol.. liability of dogs heritance of colour to in, i. 453; ini. 35. distemper, in of exostoses legs Mr., close Huth, interbreeding reversion of in, ii. 0, of, i. 457; rabbits, ii. 07; consanguineous and ass of, with 15; 00. hybrids mnrriages, of zebra,' ii. 10; prepotency the C;ipt.. on Hutton, vari.TliiPly in the of transmission sexes the of, ii, silU-ni("th, i. 'M-\: o.i i li'i; guay, Paranuml)er of species of silkworms, of, in 30; segregation ii. 77; wild of, i. 310; of species siiJiu ".rni.;, markings ii. 128; in i. doiuesi ication breeding of captivity, 312; (In* ii. 183, 307; in India, i. 101; docurly, in Paraguay, rock-pigeon meslici'tion and of. for selection of trifling chaiacerossing
ters, tion ii. 187;
of,
i.
424;
seb-cunconscious natural lection seteration alii. 203; in Circassia, mines, coalcoat of of, in
GaUn.'i in
hanJcira,
fr""m Prof.,
a on
i, 243;
cross, tlic
goals
of
Huxle.v.
unconscious
oTi
polydat'iylisui, i. 410;
selection,
ion in the
of, ii. 259; degenorati'"n ii. 258: Falkland Islnnds, in the diseases of, caused by shoeing, ii. 281; on ii. 281; feeding meat, and soned poiwhite white-spotted, ii. vetclins, by mildewed in the variations 320; analogous oped develteeth colour of, ii. 330; of of. ii. 374; on palate
Bronze 410. Horse at the early, chestnut, to i. 378; Tuileries, tendency in, ii. 117. doubleness sterility of Horse-radish, general the, ii. 150. sub-breed French a Houdan," i. 237. of fowls, sheep, Howiird. on crossing C,
-
eorrelal
171; mollnsca,
period
in
Denmark,
ii.
ii. 302; and lison geuunation ii. 340; of sion, development ii. 351. star-lishes, i. 3S(", 387; bud-variation Hyacinihs, in, i. 401: graft-hybrid by half bulbs of union of, i. 400; bv i. white, seed. rej'roduced 4.".2; red. ii. 207. vari("tie.s 320; of. recognisable by the bulb, ii. 230. feather, ii. 104. 207. Hyacinth, orini talis, i. 3SG. ITjiariiithiist of hare I. and rabbit, Hybrids, iOO; of various species of Galhis. i.
"
peach,
naturally
of
seed
and
of 211-244; nectarine,
almond,
i. of
."'.52; twinand
produced,
species
ii. 71-90.
Hue,
on
the
Emperor
Khang-hi,
of the varieties Chinese ii. 235. the of character A., Humboldt, Zambos. ii. 21; parrot speaking extinct of in the an language Pulcx penetrans, tribe, ii. 133; on ii. 183; bamboo, ii. 2.50.
41.5, 410,
ass.
ii.
and
Humidity,
upon i. 101.
injurious
horses,
effect
of,
of, I. from 9, 22-24; mare, ii. 1(": of tame zebra, wildness of, ii. 10. 20;
sterile
and
male,
ing blend-
Humphreys,
Hungarian
Hunter.
in the
sheep,
108; 118;
in, ii. (!7-71; with parent cies speil. other, each with than 110ii. in, self-impotence
readilv
ii. l-'io.
produced
singular
1.
in
ity, captivof,
cattle,
John,
period
i. 28;
of
Hvbridisation,
effects of
in
dog,
in
i.
oranges.
.340:
cherries,
Ciicitr-
sexual
characters,
Ansrr goose,
301:
i.
difficulty
of,
fertile
and the
crossing
domestic of voice.
of male
fmis
i. 297; in
!isers
inheritance
peculiarities
tJtc., i. 4.39:
chnrnc
gestures, sumption
i. .382. of 373; roses, the cause ii. 157-100; Hvbridism, ers, flowdouble to of tendency a genesis, Panto relation in ii. 150:
hito',
by
ii. 371.
ii. 20; human fem;ile, the of hereditary of appearnnce of the ii. 52; graft
period
eases, disspur
Hybriditv
i. 355.
in
cats,
1.
"of peach
and
446
HYDRA.
INDEX.
JACOBIN.
i. 389, ii. 274, 341. Hydra, colour of flowers of, Hydrangea, ii. 258. influenced by alum, ii. 27. Hydrocele, ii. 276. Hydrocephalus, ii. 149. cahjcinum, nypericnm ii. 201, 320. crisp um, Hypericum ii. 352. Hypermetamorpliosis, 1. hereditary, Hypermetropia, 441.
ties
53.
of effects
foliage of, in
in
trees,
varieties
of
i. 377; the
Insects, parts
of lost regeneration in, ii. 275, .347; agency of of, in fecundation larkspurs, i. 453; effect of changed tions condi-
effect
of,
ation bud-varisavages,
Incest,
100.
by
ii.
ii. 136; sterile ter, neuupon, ii. 165; monstrosities in, ii. 249, 373. Instincts defective, of silkworms, i. 314. Interbreeding, close, ill effects of, ii. 89-107, 154. of as a Intercrossing, species, of variation, i. 193; natucause ral,
of
of crossed fowls by Incubation, varieties, ii. 18. non-sitting horses of, i. .59; India, striped of pigs of, i. 67, 78; breeding cultivation rabbits in, i. 113; of in, i. 212. pigeons Individual variability in pigeons, i.
plants,
i.
349;
of
species
Ingledew,
148. Indische Inheritance,
"
of
ropean Eu-
vegetables
Taube,"
i.
India,
ii.
i. 148. ii. 355entertained 358, 384; doubts of, writers, i. 435; importance by some i. 436; breeders, of, to tistics stafrom evidence of, derived i. 438: of of chances, i. 4.38-440, peculiarities in man, of 445-448; disease, i. 440, 441, 448; of peculiarities in the eye, of from deviations 1. 441-443; i. 445; of polydacsymmetry, capricioust.vlism, i. 445-448; n'ess of, i. 448-453; tions, mutilaof i. 455; of congenital strosities, mon-
434-161,
and of Canidae breeds of dogs, wild i. 30-.32; of domestic and of pigs, cats, i. 44, 45; of breeds i. 84; i. 72, 78; of of cattle, of i. .337; of varieties cabbage, i. 338, 340, 342; of ties variepeas, of orange, i. 349; of species of i. 366-.368; of strawberries, ing Cncurhit(e, i. 372, 373; of flowerplants, i. 380; of pansies, i. 384. Interdigital pits, in goats, i. 103. ii. 99-101. close, Intermarriages,
Intestines,
i. 75;
elongation
of,
in
pi^'S,
of
relative
measurement
parts of, in goats, i. 103; effects of changed diet ii. 283. on,
Ipomcca Ireland,
sus
purpurea, remains
and
frontnin, i.
83.
i.
455;
causes
of
sence ab-
i. 456-461; sion reverby ii. 1-35; its atavism, or of with fixedness connection 11. 36-38; affected by character, transmission of of prepotency limited ii. 39-46; character, by ii. 46-40; at corresponding sex, of mary sumlife, ii. 50-54; periods of the subject of, ii. 54in seminal 59; laws of, the same of and bud varieties, i. 431; in i. 51; characters the horse, in in i. i. 88; cattle, rabbits, in the 108; peach, i. 353; in the in i. 353: i. nectarine, plums, in apples, in 360: i. 364; pears, in i. 3S4: the i. 365; of pans.v, characters of Columha primary livia i. 208; in crossed pigeons, in of of plumage peculiarities pigeons, i. 165, 166; of peculiari-
of,
absenr-e of the, 1. Iris, hereditary 442; peculiarities of hereditary of the, i. 443. colour i. 402. Iris xiphium, Irish, ancient, selection practised by the, ii. 181 Iron period, in Europe, dog of, i. 17. ful Islands, oceanic, scarcity of useplants on, i. .322. of, i. 190. Islay, pigeons of effect Isolation, of, in favour ii. 212, 213. selection, in. during the Italy, vine-growing Bronze period, i. .345. north of Ivy, sterility of, in the ii. 149. Europe, of foreign pollen effect i. 420. grapes, of, Jackal, i. 23, 26, 29; hybrids the with dog. i. 31; prepotency the dog, ii. 42. of, over Jackson, cats, Mr., white-footed ii. .306. i. 161, 215. Jacobin pigeon,
Jack,
on
Mr.,
JACQUEMET-BONNEFORT.
INDEX.
KNIGHT.
447
in, ii. 5.
i. 145.
i. wheat of
Jacquemet-Bonnefort,
i. 347.
on
the
berry, mul-
Kale,
Kales,
"
Scotch,
i. 33.5.
"
reversion
reversion in on Prof., Jaeger, ii. 17; white a cross, pigs, from ii. killed hawks, by pigeons ^08. crooked with legs, i. 16. Jaguar, i. 26; feral of, dogs Jamaica, rabbits feral pigs of, i. 78; feral of, i. 113.
.
pigeon,
on
maize,
introduction
i. in
Canada,
,^
327; sterility
of
growing
woods,
"
i.
Kalmi 155.
dense
pigeon, dogs,
Jameson,
Mr.,
i. 411.
horses
on
hybrid
toes, pota-
Kane,
i. 21.
Dr.,
on
Esquimaux
i. 99. inheritance
Japan, Japanese
Jardiue, Jarves, Java,
pig
Sir and
of, i. 54. (figured), i. 71. of mestic docrossing W., wild cats, i. 43.
in the
Karakool
sheep,
on
Karkeek,
horse,
"
in
the
i. 444.
J.,
silkworm
wich Sand-
Taube,"
on
i. 161.
Pulcx
penetrans,
ii.
Javanese Jeitteles.
ponies,
i.
53,
59.
Kattywar Keeley,
i.
dog,
i.
(lolon
i. 253;
Kerner,
of
sheep-dogs,
domestic
and
23;
wild 132.
plants, Kestrel,
"
ii. 142;
in
Jemmy
i i. 320. Button, of ganders, L., whiteness Jenvns, of suuflsh-like variety i. '298; i. 307. the gold-fish, number of J. eggs C, Jerdon, gin ii. 88; orilaid pea-hen, by the of
of 4'1.
conditions,
breeding
captivity,
ii.
Jersev,
i. 335.
fowl,
i. 244.
cabbages
of,
i. 143. of selection a variety of rice by. ii. 182. ii. 17. Kiang, 1. 305, the on canary-bird, Kidd, ii. 52. i. 387; varieties of, bean, Kidney
Khandesi,"
Khang-hi,
ii.
235,
of
255.
Jessamine,
Kidneys,
the
compensatory
the,
ii.
Jesse,
41.
G.
R.,
on
bulldog,
i.
in birds
281;
influenced
by
John,
Johnson,
on
King,
from
of
the
pelvis,
from
ii. 325.
King,
doves
Col.,
domestication
the
on
D.,
of in
young
wild
pigs
Orkneys,
of rock i. 190,
191.
78.
Jordan,
of
A.,
on
on
Vibert's
King, King,
27."
Kirbv
of
Dr.,
P. and
P.,
on
365;
wild
Jourdan,
i. 345; gin oriof the apple, i. found of pears ii. 239. in the parthenogenesis the
vine,
Spence,
ii. 26.3.
the
growth
galls,
Kirgiiisian sheep,
Kite,
1.32.
i. 99.
in
breeding
captivity,
of
il.
dogs
on,
i. 26.
on,
Kleine,
variability
bees,
i. 308. i.
Fernandez,
dumb
dogs
i. 26.
Jufilans
rcgia, i. 371. foundland NewJukes, Prof., origin of the dog, i. 42. cation Julien. early domestiStanislas, of i. 69; pigs in China, of the domestication antiquity i. in the silkworm of China,
311. i. 237. i. 377.
crossing
breeds,
of
peas, of ii. 106; persistency i, 338, gin orii. 340; of varieties peas, i. 3.""0; hybridisat the of peach, morello by the of i. 361: on Elton cherry, the ty variei. 361: cherries, seedling att.icked 1"y not apple of the
coccus, i.
of fowls, breed a Jumpers, of the, Juniper, variations Juniprrus suecica, 1. 377. Jussima grandiflora, ii. 149. Jussieu, A. de, structure ii. in Carthamiis, pappus
363;
intercrossing
i. 3(J6;
strawberries,
broail
the of 298.
i. ,3M ; cock's-comb. the of nnd the in cherry bud- variation white of crossing i. 390; plum, ex1. 409; and grapes, purple
448
periments
422,
in
ii. in
KNOX.
INDEX.
LAYARD.
crossing
on
apples,
disease
i.
ii.
410;
of
cattle
lOiJ; hereditary
i. 444; crossed
the
ing, interbreedcultivated of varieties 410; cereals tercrossing found of in107; necessity in, in ii. 154; plants, in, i. 343. on observations variation, ii. 235, 236; effects Lamare-Piquot, on i. 403, ii. 25S; budof grafting, half bred North American in ii. 272; variation i. 21. a plum, wolves, correlated variation of head and A. Lambert, B., on Thuja pendiila ii. .305. limbs, or filiform is, i. 378. of the Lambert Mr., breeding Knox, eagle family, i. 437, ii. 51. in owl captivit}', ii. 132. on i. Lambertye, strawberries, in the 366, Koch, turnip, degeneracj^ 367; five-leaved of variety i. 337. Fro'jaria vollinu, i. 367. i. 335. Kohlrabi, Landt, L., on sheep in the Faroe in hybrids, reversion i. ii. 78. Kolreuter, Islands, sterility of ii. 415, ii. 9; acquired on Lankester, Ray, longevity, crossed varieties of i. 365. plants, wild La 373, ii. 76; ab.sorption of MiraPlata, dogs of, i. 26; hilis M. feral cat by vulgaris from, i. 47. longiftora, of ii. 63; of crosses ii. 291. species Larch, ii. 69, 82; on the lyhock, holinsect Vcrhascum, Larkspurs, sary necesagency ii. 82; full for the crossing varie'ies fecundation of ii. 84; tobacco, beneOts of of, i. 4.53. Larus crossing plants, ii. 107, 108. 154, arfj^ntafus, ii. 1,36, 283. in VerhasLarus 155; self-impotence tridncti/lus, ii. 283. tions condiii. 114; effects of merino in different cum, Lasterye, sheep of i. 100. growth fertility countries, upon in velopment Latent deMirabitis, ii. 143; great ii. 2.5-31. characters, in of tubers fowl the not hybrid on ing breedLatham, ii. inheritance of in 151; the extreme plants, ii. north, ii. 220: 140. plasticity, variability of of hybrids ii. 244; ii. 11, Mirabilis, Lathyrus, of a cause repeated crossing Lutliyrus apJiava, ii. 324. ii. 240, 247; number variation, Lathiirus odoratus, i. 416, 452, ii. of for 66, 69, 292. pollen-grains necessary ii. 345. fertilisation, La Canadian J. D.. on a Touche, i. 68. Krauseschwein." with dimidiate apple fruit, i. the double on 415. Krohn, tion reproducof Medusa?, ii. 368. i. 1.58. Latz-Taube," i. 140. i. 1.50, 213. Kropf-Tauben," Laugher pigeon, Laurns sassafras, ii. 255. of feral the tusks boars Labat, on of Lawrence, a J., production in the West i. 78; breed of foxhounds, Indies, on i. 40; new French in wheat the of in mares, occurrence en nines grown West the ture culi.50: on Indies, ii. 288; on three-p irts-bred horses, in of the vine the West i. .55; on inheritance in the il. 280. Indies, horse, i. 444. see Laburnum, Lawson, Adam's, of the Cytisus Mr., varieties tato, poreversion i. 343. adami; oak-leaved, of, in i. 398; in the pelorism the, ii. 327; Laxton, Mr., bud-varialion i. 406. i. 391; of Waterer's, gooseberry, crossing and Lachmann, on varieties of the i. 418, '410; gemmation pea, fission, ii. 340. weakness in of transmission LachnanfJies double-flowered Huctoria, ii. 205, 320. ii, 41; peas, Lactation, ii. 147. imperfect, hereditary, peas. i. 440; deficient, of wild animals E. of a L., resemblance Layard, in captivity, ii. 137. the Caffre to dog Esquimaux Ladrone i. 24, ii. 267; of, i. 86. Islands, cattle breed, crossing La individual ation variProf., of the domestic Felis Gasca, cat with in i. 326. ferrtl in wheat, citffra, i. 44; pigeons wegian Norresemblance of i. 106 Laing, Mr., Ascension, domestic ; and Devonshire of i. ?12; cattle, pigeons reylou. on I. 83. Gnlliis stniil yi, i. 24.J; on Idaf^!'skinned Lake-dwellings, sheep of, i. 95, Ceylonese fowls, i. 264.
plants,
sence 410; abin, i. 253; of, i. 330, ii. plants of, i. 330-3.32; peas i. 339; beans found fowl
of,
ii.
"
"
*'
450
Linnaeus,
wlieat
LTNN^US.
INDEX.
LUBBOCK.
summer as on
Loochoo
Lord,
21. Lori 200. Lorius Lotan
"
'"
J.
of,
latrans,
i. 53. i. 1.
singleity steril-
leaved
of
i. 367;
rajah,"
produced,
Alpine plants in gardens, of individual ii. 142; recognition ii. the bv reindeer Laplanders, in of tobacco 230 : growth
Sweden,
Linnet,
Linota
cannahina,
garrultis, ii. 260. tumbler pigeon, i. 1,54. J. W., varieties of Loudon, the i. 338; short carrot, duration of varieties of i. 341; on the peas, of i. 357; glands peach-leaves,
"
captivity,
ii.
129, 130. of, 1. 115. Lipari, feral rabbits striped young Dr., Livingstone, mestic i. 78; doZambesi, the pigs on 113;
in
use
i. food
of 1.
Africa,
character
319;
the
planting
Batokas,
fruit-trees
by
of in
320;
of
ii.
half-castes,
animals
among
ii.
21;
the
taming
Barotse,
187.
139;
practised
185,
South
cause a Mr., disuse Livingstoue, ii. 282. of d)-ooping ears, tail of in, Lizards, reproduction
ii. 275.
Llama,
Lloyd,
of, ii. 186. the of wolf, taming i. 25; English dogs in northern i. 35; fertility of the Europe, tion, domesticaincreased by goose
selection
Mr.,
of bloom Russian on i. 363; ties origin of varieof the ties apple, i. 363; varieof the i. 369; gooseberry, the on nut-tree, i. 371; varieties of the i. 376; ash, fastigiate (J. succica), i. 377; on juniper Ilex aqiiifoUum pror, i. 377; varieties of the Scotch fir, i. 378; varieties the of 1. hawthorn. in the 379; variation persistency the elm of leaves and on ish Turki. 378; of oak, importance cultivated varieties, i. 379; varieties Rosa of i. fipinosissima, of variation dahlias 383; from the i. 385; same seed, tion producof Provence from roses seeds of the i. 395; moss-rose, effect of the grafting purpleleaved the common upon hazel, i. 409; ii. intercrossing melons,
presence
apples,
number laid of eggs i. 297; ii. 87; breeding wild the goose, in the of capercailzie tivity, capii. 135. rabbits domestic at, i. Loanda,
by
113.
species hybrids
in.
of,
of,
and
ii. 145.
cardinnlis,
114.
106; Cornish nearly evergreen ii. 291. variety of the elm, the Low, ney G., on pigs of the OrkIslands, i. 71. Low. of Prof., pedigrees hounds, grey1. 436; the origin of i. 15; dog, instinct burrowing of half-bred heritance a dingo, i. 27: inof qualities in horses, i. 51; of comparative powers English race-horses, Arabs, "c., i. .55; British breeds of cattle, i. 81; wild of cattle Chartley,
i. 85; effect of abundance of food the size of i. on cattle, effects 93; the of climate on skin of cattle, i. 9.3. ii. 308; ii. 92; selection on interbreeding, in Hereford cattle, ii. 192; of formation new n. breeds, .sheeted 223; on cattle. ii. 330. i. 310. hive-bees. TiOwe, ^Ir., on Rev. of Lowe. the Mr., on range and P. malus Pi/rus acerba, i. 362. ii. 322; on Lowne, Mr., monsters, ii. 360. gemmules,
" ' "
Chinese
pigeons,
ii. 2.55.
i.
originals .318;
varieties of Mongolian wheat, of the in 324; characters ear i. 325; acclimatisation wheat, wheat in Europe, i. of of change climate i. .327; "on the on wheat, posed supthe of dent coincinecessity variation of and weeds cultivated tage plants, i. .328; advanof change of soil to plants, ii. 124. Lolium variable trmulentum, ence presof barbs in, i. 325. Long-tailed sheep, i. 95. exotic of effect 327;
Lowtun 1.54.
"
tumbler
pigeon,
1.
Loxia
Lubbock, the
of
LUCAS.
INDEX.
MAMJije.
451
i. 196; birds, I. i. 297; number
in and tame ety vari-
Lucas,
53;
eye,
of cross-breedeffects ing reditary hei. 425; the female, i. 440, ii. 52, diseases, of affections the hereditary of inheritance i. 442, 443;
P.,
pigeons
number
275:
,
in
of
Scotland,
vorlebrse
geese, of wild
on
on
wild
eggs
of
anomalies
and
in that
in
the
liuman
eye
ducks,
G., peculiar
of the of the horse, 1. 443, potato, i. 343. of polydactylMackenzie, in 444; inheritance P., bud-variation morbid the i. 447; i. 391. currant, uniformity ism, heritance Mackiunon, ini. 448; same family, in the of Mr., horses the i. 457; Falkland of mutilations, i. 52; Islands, feral of cattle of the cross-reversion, Falkland persistency Islands, of character i. 87. ii. 9; persistency in animals wild of breeds MacKnight, in C, on interbreeding of ii. 38; prepotency cattle, ii. 93. countries, 43; ii. 39, MacNab, seedling posed supMr., on transmission, ing weepin transmission of rules birches, i. 450; non-production sexual of ii. 43; the beech animals, weeping crossing by of transmission of seed, i. 4.50. limitations cats tion of, i. 46. Madagascar, peculiarities, ii. 46. 47; absorp-
of
races,
the
minority
in
crossed
Madden,
Madeira, Magnolia
H.,
on
interbreeding
tle, cat-
blending
ii. 68;
without
ii. 93.
characters,
ii. 92; interbreeding, on duction, reprovariattility dependent ii. 229; period of action ance inheritof variability, ii. 248; deafness and complexion of 319. in cats,
Magnus, i. 412;
414.
graft-hybrids,
i.
413,
constitution,
structure
Maize,
Lucaze-Duthiers,
its unity of origin, i. 331; husked antiquity of, i. 332; with said to wild, i. grains grow ularities of, i. 333; irreg332; variation
in the
growth
of
masked the pig, Trof., on Lucae, i. 70; on pigs. ii. 280. of a mond peach-algrafting Luizet, i. 352. a on peach, pelago, ArchiCaroline of the Liitke, cats i. 46. of vegetative Luxuriance, orgnns, of sterility in plants, ii. cause a 148-150.
acclimatisation
i.
ii. 294, 328; crossing of. Peruvian ii. 79, 80; extinct 420. varieties of, ii. 409. fowl. i. 23.3. Malay
Malay
55;
Archipelago,
short-tailed
voung wild
horses cats
of,
i.
of, i. 46;
i.
Lvonnet,
ii. 340.
on
the
scission
of
Nais,
striped
78; ducks
pigs
tlie 417-426;
on
of,
dated fecun-
of,
i. 289.
Lysimnchia
of,
ii. 149.
nummularia, trimorphic
sterility species
161;
Male,
influence
of,
i.
on
female,
posed sup-
Lythrum,
ii. 382.
of,
con-
of,
offspring,
of, maize,
..
appearance in flowers
affecting
the
Malformations,
Malingie-Xouel,
in species of, bred Moracus, tivity, ii. 131. Lord, improvement Macaulay, ii. 191. the horse, English variability Dr., M'Clelland, fresh-water 238. fishes
on
cap-
^.,
France,
of of ii.
Mulra,
345. Mnmestra
in
India,
Mamma?,
the
dingo,
of
or
i. 24. in soil
bitter
from
seed,
1. of
348.
Macgillivrav,
the
rock-dove,
domestication i, 191 i
ii. 136. In number in variable occasional ocrudimentary, 75; i. 7."; rudimenrary, pier, the pig, of, in full development four ii. 300; ent presi. 88, cows, able varii. 96; sheep, in some I. rabbits. in number in functions of, In male latent
107;
feral
animals,
U,
26,
300.
45S
Mangles,
the
MANGLES.
INDEX.
MELONS.
Mr.,
annual
heartsease,
of
of of
genesis, Pan-
within
in
ovules,
the
ii.
375;
sion rever-
Mautegazza,
spur
abnormal
growth
on
cock,
ii. 359.
ii. 354;
of birds by ii. 139. domestic in fowl noticed Manu, the Institutes of, i. 254. effect the fertilof, on Manure, it}' of plants, ii. 142. Manx cats, i. 45, ii. 40. Marcel de Serres, fertility of the ostrich, ii. 135. Marianne varieties of Islands, Pandanus in, ii. 235.
Mantell,
the
spiral-leaved ing weepi. 399; on willow, peloric ii. flowers, ii. 31; on Opuntia, in 267; a pelorism clover, ii. 327; position as of pea cause lorism,
ii. 328.
Masters,
of 452;
on on
Mr.,
of
hollyhocks,' ii.
peas
82;
lection se-
of Hibiscus
for
seed,
ii. 177;
version re-
syriacus,
by
the
tlie
in
Markham.
i. 104.
ii.
Gervaise,
182.
on
rabbits,
of the 102. Channel
Markhor,
parents
i.
of the cattle i. 81. inheritance in the Marrimpoey, i. 444. horse, i. 372. Marrow, vegetable, of asses Capt., breeding Marryat, in ii. 215. Kentucky, of Gallus notice Marsden, gigantei. 242. us, Dr. Gallus sonMarshall, W., on nirutii, i. 241. Mr., selection Marshall, voluntary of pasture tation by sheep, i. 97; adapand wheats to of soil i. Dutch-butclimate, 327; tocked cattle, i. 440; gation segreof herds ii. 78; of sheep, of soil to of change advantage wheat and ii. 124; potatoes, in the horns fashionable change of cattle, ii. 188; sheep in Yorkshire, ii. 214.
Marquand,
Islands,
syrian Ason an i. 16, ii. 412; monument, i. 35, ii. 258. Tibetan, Matthews, forest Patrick, on trees, ii. 216. Matthiola 1. 419. ^51, ii. 68. annua. MaWiiola 1. .397, 419. inainn, merino Mauchamp sheep, i. 101, Mauduyt, and crossing of wolves i. 23. dogs in the Pyrenees, Maund, varieties of Mr., crossed ii. 107. wheat, axiom of least Maupertuis, tion," aci. 12.
"
Mauritius,
importation
of
goats
leaves
"
"
Martens,
ii. 27.
E.
von,
on
AchatineUa,
Martin,
C. W. L., origin of the dog. i. 15; Egj'ptian dogs, i. 17; River barliing of a Mackenzie hounds in dog, i. 2(j; African Tower i. 31; on the menagerie, dun horses and asses, dappled i. 56; breeds of the i. 49; horse, wild breeds i. 52; Syrian horses, of
asses,
stripes,
i. 425; ii. 16.
without
of in
breeding cross-
do^cs,
mules,
of
striped
legs
of
instincts
self-fertilised capsules ii. 112. Maxillaria tion fertilisaatro-ruhcns, of, by M. squalens, ii. 111. Maxiniowicz. direct action of pollen, i. 420. i. on Mayers, gold-fish in China, 307. in M., Mayes, self-impotence ii. 117. Amarj/Uis, the number of digits, on Meckel, i. 447; correlation of abnormal in muscles the ii. leg and arm, 304. of, ii. 352, Medusae, development 368. i. Meehan, Mr., weeping peach, of parasites, ii. 265; 450; effects of and comparison European American ii. 267. trees, ii. l.'^O. Mrlrs taxus.
Maxillnria,
of,
Melons,
holm, Stockfruit-trees of ii. 288. bud-variation in the W., Mason, ash, i. 398. bud-variation Masters. Dr.. on i. 394; and reversion, potato1. on 411; pollen grafting,
Martins,
C,
posed supa
of
varieties
of,
i. 419.
ii. 83,
106; times,
culture
climate,
of
correlation
MEMBRANES.
INDEX.
MORLOT.
453
63. ii. 63. I, 5
the
314;
analogous
variations
in, ii.
Mirahilis Mirahilis
Invgif^ora,ii.
vufqarm,
and
Membranes, Menetries,
Strix
the
stomacli
of
Misocampm Mitchell,
of
Cecidomyia,
of
son poi-
Mitford,
of
Mr.,
horses
notice
by
Erichthonius,
organs,
Merrick,
potato-grafting,
ii. 179.
Mivart.
Mr., rudimentary
Metzger,
the on supposed species of i. 324; of tendency Avheat, i. 326; variation to wheat vary, i. 332, 333; cultivation of maize, in American maize of Europe, i. on i. 334, ii. 328; cabbages, of acclimatisation 337; 336, in i. wheat Germany, Spanish of of change 460; advantage ii. on soil to plants, ii. 124; rye,
ii. 299. Moccas Court, oak weeping i. 449. horses Mogford, poisoned fool's parsley, ii. 321. Moller, L., eft'ects of food on ii. 261. Mole, white, ii. 315.
Moll and
at.
by
sects, In-
Gayot,
188.
on
cattle, I. 81,
shells
ii. 71,
Mollusca,
260.
change
In
of, Ii.
of different ii. 2-10. kinds tan Mexico, spots dog from, with i. 28: of colours the on eyes, horses feral in. i. 61. of bananas, ii. on seeding Meven,
2.33;
cultivation of wheat,
culture of the panMonke, Lady, sy by, i. 383. Monkevs, rarely fertile in captivity, ii. 131.
Monnier,
winter
147.
Monsters, Monstrosities,
domesticated
to
of,
and
in
Mice,
not
grey
and
blended of
rejection
Ii. 210;
white, colours of, ii. 67; l)y crossing, bitter almonds by,
feral
plants, persistence
animals i. 381.
of
Michaux,
horses
origin
on
of 353.
domestic
raising
Michel,
I.
in of horses horses ii. 181; of account on slight preferred ii. 187. characters, effects pillars, caterof food on Michely, ii. 261; hcson Bomhyx ii. 285. prruf!, associated with Microphthalmia, ii. 311. defective teeth, remains of dogs Middens. Danish, in, i. 17. ii. 410. ii. 216, 292. Mignonette, i. 387. Millet, Mills, J., diminished fertility of first turned when out to mares ii. 1^0. grass, the on Milne-Edwards, ment developof the ii. 352, Crustacea,
F..
medli3eval
times,
ii. 30: version, reii. .30-33; of a cause sterility, ii. 145, 146; caused by injury to the embx\vo, ii. 248. J. H.. deterioration of the Moor, in Malasia, i. 53. horse Hasorn Mr., on wheat, Moorcroft, i. 324; selection of white-tolled melon ii. 184; of Knshyaks, "mir, ii. 255; varieties the of In cultivated Ladakh, apricot of the walnut varieties i. 358; I. 371. in cultivated Kashmir, of pigeons. breeds Mr., on Moore, I. 152,
embryonic occurring by
1.59. 214-216;
i. 224.
on
ground
tumblers,
Mooruk,
ii. 135.
of original form Moquin-Tandon. of the m.nize, i. 3.32: variety i. 380; peloric columbine, double a as ii. 33; position flowers, ii. in t]owers, of pelorism cause of polorlc flowers 326: tendency
to become in the
Milne-Edwards,
with
a
A.,
on
cean crustaeye-
irregular,
ii.
ii.
monstrous
monstrosities, of
2.33;
on 44; correlation
ii. 373. ii. 1.32. Mimuhis luteus, ii. 105. and W. Minor, C, gemmation fission In annelids, ii. 340. MiraJ)iUs, fertilisation of, ii. 3i5; of, ii. 108. 148. 245. hybrids Mirahilis jalapa, i. 398, 415.
peduncle,
MilvuH
niper,
plants,
on
axis ii.
a
and
appendages
fusion in
302;
bean and
homologous 322-324;
leaflets, of parts
parts stipules
ii. 324: of the
flowers.
plants.
with
of Ii.
strous mon-
abortive of conversion
Ii. 375.
Morlot,
dogs
Danish
Mid-
454
MORMO'DES.
IN^DEX.
NATHUSIUS.
dens.
the
i. 17;
Bronze
of
Mor
modes
Morocco,
in, 408;
ignea,
pigeons
i. ceolaria, Cal-
ii. 278; on tion gemmafission, ii. 340; special affinities of the tissues, ii. 3G3. Miiller, Max, of antiquity culture, agrieye, and
of
the
ii. 223.
Morren,
on
in 32: ii. 327; non-coincidence of donble flowers and gated varieleaves, ii. 147. of the Morris, IvesMr., breeding trel in captivity, ii. 132. Morse, Dr., digits of birds, ii. 305. effect of tion fecundaMorton, Lord, Arab on an by a quagga i. 424. mare, Morton, Dr., origin of the dog, i. 15.
of grafts pelorism,
Abntilon,
ii.
Multiplicity hypotheses
200.
of
Niata Muniz, F., on cattle, i. 91. the fertilisation R.. Munro, on of orchids, ii. 110; reproduction of Passiflora alata, ii. 115; selfsterile Passiflora, ii. 115. Murassa i. 148. pigeon, of Murie, il. Dr., size hybrids,
" "
109.
Murphy,
the eye
J.
not
ii. 200.
Moras
alba, i. 347.
rabbits of cold
Moscow,
etfects ii. 288.
of,
on
i.
107,
122;
at,
pear-trees
Mosses,
343.
ii. 62. alexandrinus, sapientium, chinensis, and cavendishii, i. 392. Muscari ii. 164, 297. comosum, effects of use ii. 278. Muscles, on. feral Musk-duck, hybrid of, with the common duck, i. 196.
Mus Musa
Moss-rose,
probable
origin
of,
Mutilations,
inheritance 3S0.
Rosa from centifolia, i. 395; Provence roses from produced seeds of, i. 395. the on Cada, introduction Mosto, of rabbits into Porto i. Santa, 114. mutilation of feathers Mot-mot, inherited, i. 458. of fruits and Mottling flowers, i. 420. Mountain ash, ii. 209. ii. 130. Mouse, Barbarv, Moven-taube,"" i. 152. the of Mowbray, Mr., on eggs i. 256; fowls, early game nacity pugof i. 258; cocks, game diminished of the fecundity in captivity, ii. 134. pheasant dation fecunMoAvbray, Mr., reciprocal of and Pafisiflora alata ii. 11.5. racemosa, character Mulattos, of. ii. 21. i. 347. ii. 2."!.5. IMulberry. Mule and differences in hinny, ii. 42. the. Mules, of. ii. striped colouring 16; obstinacy of, ii. 19: production of. among the Romans, ii. in the 85: noticed Bible, ii. 179. Miiller. of Fritz, reproduction orchids, ii. 111-113; ment developof ii. 352; rect diCrustacea,
"
or
non-
455,
ii.
five-leaved a variety i. 367. strawberry, i. 441. Myopia, hereditary, of lost Myriapoda, regeneration in, ii. 275, 347. parts
on
Myatt,
of
tlie
Nails,
growing
ii. 374. scission
on
stumps
of
gers, fin-
Nais, Nnmaquas,
ii. 185.
cattle
i.
89,
gle sin-
Narcissus,
in poor
on
double,
Narvaez.
of
tive na-
Natas."
American 90-92.
or
Niatas,
breed of
on
South
i.
cattle,
Nathusius,
horses,
Swiss the
H. i. 60:
von.
on
striped
of the
the
pigs
i. 69: on lake-dwellings, of pigs, i. 66-70; races vergence conin highlyof character bred pigs, i. 74, ii. 219; causes in tlie of of form the changes in pig's skull, i. 73, 74; changes breeds of i. pigs by crossing, of form in the 80; change pig. ii.
action
2.59;
effects
of
disuse
of
the
face
and
teeth
dogs. i. 34, 74, ii. 326. Miiller. J., tendency to variation, ii. 231: of the atrophy optic on destruction nerve consfquent
77:
on
on
period
of
pig, ii. 2S0; period in tlie pig. i. 75; the to in pigs, jaw Sus i. 70; plicicps, in sheep, 1. gestation
98;
Niata
cattle,
1.
90;
on
NATO.
INDEX.
NILSSON.
455
primignihiH
ou
terbreeding, Inof in
Bns
Jonr/ifronsand
92;
ii.
in
in
she"'p,
scious uncon-
pigs,
98;
cattle
pigs.
and
variability
races,
of
i. 82; cattle of the, distinct from the original spfcles, 1. 88; domestic in goat the, 1. of 102; cereals the, i. .328.
the,
highly-selected
P., Nato, I. 407. Natural Nature,
is
11. 217.
orange,
Nerve,
optic, atrophy
of
the,
II.
the
Bizzarrla Its
selection.
i. 2-14.
sense
general
the of
term mission trans-
principles,
Neubert, i. 412. potato-grafting, the Neumeister, on Dutch and German pouter pigeons, i. 142;
on
in
which
the
duplication
feather
plants, 11. of hybrids, ii. the nature 42; on of the species 23, 24; essences 11. 370, sion 383; reverin hybrids, ii. 9, 23, 24; of hybrids, in flowers by stripes reversion of ii. 11; hybrids blotches, and purpurea, Linaria vulgaris and In 11. Linaria, pelorlsm ii. 69; Linaria of pelorlc crossing 31; ii. 45; normal the form, with 11. 245; varial)illty in Datura, and Datura Iwvis of hybrids i. 415; prepotency stranionium,
crossing
of
on
coloured breed of peculiarly pigeons, Staarhlilsit^e Taube," i. 165; fertility of hybrid geons, pi-
i. 198;
mongrels
of
the
pigeon, ii. 41; period trumpeter in of perfect plumage pigeons, of ii. 52; advantage crossing pigeons, 11. 10.3. Neuralgia, heredit.ary, ii. .54.
New cultivated Newfoundland of, I. of, i. 322. modification dog, i. 42. of, in England, Newman, E., sterility of Sphincertain conditions, gidis under ii. 137.
Zealand,
feial
cats
47;
plants
transmission
when
of
Datura
monium stra-
crossed,
ii.
42;
and of MirahiUs fertilisation 1. 405; of hvbrids. cultivated of Mirahilifi, ii. 345; i. 372, 376, ii. Cucurbltacese, in tendrils rudimentary 83; Cucurhitw, gourds. Ii. 297; dwarf the between relation II. 314; fruit the of and number size gous ii. 325; analoin Cucnrhita pepo, in Ciirurhita;, ii. variation of Cucurbi330; acclimatisation
the
pollen
Newport,
Yanessce
G.,
in
non-copulation
of
of ii. production 294; tacese, Cueurbifruit by sterile hybrid melon. the 11. 151; on tacefp, of i. 375, ii. 83, 255; incapacity with to cross cucumber the other species, 1. 374. derived 350-357: 1. Nectarine,
"
ii. 136; continement. in baof the ovule fertilisation ii. 345. trachia, in the, I. 447. Newt, polydactylism sexual absence of A., Newton, in the distinctions Columbidse, " blacki. 167; pi'oduetion of a " the shouldered peahen among ordinarv hybrid kind, i. 300; on ii. 136. ducks, cattle of, i. 89. Lake, Ngami, " " respmcattle, i. 90-92; Niata i. 90: blance of, to Siratherium. of transmission of prepotency
"
by.
"
ii. 40.
on ou
rabbit, i. 108.
Dr.. i. 45; i. 99.
the cats of of
from
the
peach,
of,
i. 350,
hybrids
of
characters
353;
on
origin
356; persistency
353,
Antigua, Antigua,
the
sheep
peach-trees, 1. peaches,
varieties of crossing Nicotiana, potency and species of, ii. 8.3, 84; preof characters of transmission in species of, ii. 42; conin, of female organs tabescence
ii. 145. Nirotiana Niebuhr.
u. glutiiiofia, on
of leaves in the i. 389; glands variation ii. 200; analogous the, in. ii. 330. of, in pansies, Nectary, variations i. 385. of odour in the Nees, changes on plants, ii. 255. " " cat, i. 46. Negro in, i. 447; polydactylism Negroes, selection ii. 185. of cattle
84.
the
heredity
in 39. ii.
of
some
tal men-
characteristics
families,
man Ro-
Night-blindness,
10. Nilsson.
11.
non-reversion
,
to,
,
practised by,
domesticatioDi
Neolithic
period,
, or barking the on Prof., 26: parentage i. wolf, voung a of cattl*^, I. of "European breeds m Bos frontosus on 83; 82, 83. i. Scania,
6$
456
NIND.
INDEX.
OWElf.
Nind,
"
Nisus 337.
on Nitzsch, oil-gland in
of
the i.
certain
causes
Columbse,
150.
Non-inheritance,
"
of, i. 4u8-
4G0. Nonnain
24.
"
Nordmann,
of pollen of, ii. 66; formation a petai in, ii. 375. ii. 258. Icucotricha, Opuntia i. 347-349; of, crossing Orange, i. 419, the with ii. 66; lemon, ii. naturalisation 349; of, in variation ii. 2S9; of, in Italy, riety North Italy, ii. 235; peculiar va1. bizzarria, of, ii. 314;
by
i.
407;^trifacial,
Orchids,
424,
ii. 110-113.
i. 4u8.
reproduction
Lord,
of, i. 423,
ages appendof, with the under jaw, i. 70. striped ponies of, i. 58. Norway, the origin on Gliddon, and Nott Normandy,
of
the
dog,
on an
i. 15;
mastiff
sented repre-
Assyrian
dogs, dog,
tomb,
i. 17; i. 21.
cause on
i.
IG;
the
on
Egyptian
Indian
crossing greyhounds bulldog, i. 41. origin of. i. 12. Organisms, in, i. 8. Org:inisation. advancement and aborted, rudimentary Organs, of abnormal, ii. 296-298; multiplication Orford,
with the ii. 373.
Hare
Noti/Jia, ii. 113. of, a excess Noiirishment, ii. 236. of variability, of, in importance Number,
ii.
Oriole,
assumptions by a male
of
in
age hen-plum-
confinement,
21.3.
the original ptilorhyncha, 'Nmnida i. 304. Guinea-fowl. of the to i. ItJO; known Nun pigeon, i. 213. Aldrovandi, ii. 21G. Nutmeg-tree,
Islands, pigs of, i. 71; of, i. 190. pigeons of hind regeneration Orthoptera, legs in the, ii. 275. Orkney
Orthosia Orton, ii. 136. muiida, of crosseffects the R., on i. 425; the female, ))reeding ou ii. on 40; Manx the cat, on from the silk-fowl, ii. mongrels
Oak,
i. 377, 449, ii. 220; weeping, i. Hessian, i. 377; pyramidal, less valuei. 378; late-leayed, 377; of the timber at Cape as ii. 255; in, changes Good Hope, i. 403; galls on age, dependent of
in Quito, 41; infertility of geese ii. 140. inherited mottling Dr., Osborne, of the iris, i. 443. black on fowls, preying Osprev,
the,
Outs, Oberliu,
to
ii. 208.
lake-dwellings,
the
change potato,
Osten-Sacken.
Baron,
on
can Ameri-
Odart,
varieties of the Count, tion vine, i. 346, ii. 258; bud- variain the vine, i. 390. ii.
CEcidium,
oak-galls, ii. 263. of pigs, i. characters Osteological 67, 68, 72, 76; of rabbits, i. 117of i. 167-173; of 131; pigeons, i. 291-293. ducks, diminished fertility of Ostrich, in the. captivity, ii. 135. of dogs by the, selection Ostvaks,
ii. 184. ii. 1.30. Otter sheep of Massachusetts, i. 101. cattle in, i. feral humped Oude, 81. ii. 131. in Europe, Ouistiti, breed variation of, in Cucurhiia Ovary, i. 374; development moschata, of pollen, i. of. independently
Otter,
"
i. 446; blance resemphalanges, ii. 231, 232. of twins, absence of, in fantail Oil-gland, pigeons, i. 150, 164. of estimation ropean EuMr., the natives dogs among ii. 193. of Australia, affected stock Oleander, by grafting in the, i. 408. of the osteum periOilier, Dr., insertion
"
Oldtield,
of
skin of
a
the beneath a dog rabbit, ii. 354. reproduction of, ii. 112,
Onions,
liable
crossing
to the
white,
of fungi and disease, ii. 206, 319. self -fertilisation apifera, Ophrys
423. i. 100. Oris montana, ture and buds, identity of naOvules of, ii. 342. stiff-haired cats Owen, Capt., on i. 46. at Mombas, Prof. R., Owen, palsieontological of the to as origin evidence skull the of the i. 14; on dogs, fossil Niata cattle, i. 90; on
"
"
458
Pasture
of breeds
PASTURE.
INDEX.
PfiRStA.
aud of
climate, sheep
of
adaptation
to.
to seed
the
in
attacks
Patagonia,
i. 78.
crania
reversion
Peccary,
rabljit, the K., on
287. i.
of birds, ii. 209; the terminal by the pod, ii. 328. of the, in capbreeding tivity,
of,
Patagonian
I'aterson.
moth,
106. silk-
ii. 128.
Arrindy
Pedigrees
of
horses,
cattle,
and
hounds, grey-
ii.
game-cocks,
pigs,
i. 436. the i. 386, Paul, \V., on hyacinth, varieties of cats Pegu, 387; of, i. 46; horses pelargoniums, of, i. 53. weakness sion transmisi. 394; of in ii. 41; provement Pelargoniums, imhollyhocks, multiple origin of, i. 380; ii. of budzones of, i. 381; pelargoniums, variation 194. in, i. 393; variegation Pavo cristatus and in, accompanied 1. mutictis, brids hyby dwarfing, 400; pelorism in, ii. 146, 326; by of, i. 300. Pavo ii. 32; of i. 300-302. nigripennis, reversion, advantage soil i. 144. of provement imchange Pavodotten-Taube," to, ii. 125; ii. i. 330-357; derived from Peach, of, by selection, the i. 3.""0; stones almond, 194; scorching of, bers of, ii. 207; numcontrasted from ii. with 351; of, raised seed, figured, of i. 352; of almonds, ing, double-flower213; effects conditions life 1. 351, 352, 357; ii. 254; on, hybrids of, ii. of, stove-variety i. 353; correlation of of contracted races 292; persistency of, leaves and i. trees flowers 353; tarines, necin, ii. 314, producing i. 353; variation conditions PvlarQonium in, i. fulgidum, of bud-variation fertility in, ii. 14.3. 355, 356, ii. 234; Columbian i. 4.50; vabreed a in, i. 3S9; pendulous, Pelones," riation of cattle, i. 89. by selection in, ii. 196; Peloric of the, ii. 206; flowers, peculiar disease of, to tendency the the normal leaves of on glands acquire the, ii. form, ii. 44; of ii. 289; 210; the. fertility or sterility of, ii. 145, antiquity increased 146. of hardiness ii. the,
'"
"
forcing,
varieties for of, adapted ii. 292; yellow-fleshed, to certain ii. diseases,
Peloric
and
races
of
Gloxinia
spccioaa
i. 381.
Antirrhinum
majus,
in
Jamaica,
ii.
ii. 31-34; Pelorism. 326, 327. characters Pelvis, of, in rabbits, in i. i. 172; in 125; pigeons, i. 277; in ducks, i. 293. fowls, panned jaPembroke i. cattle, i. 82. Pendulous i. 377, ii. 329; i. trees,
in
fertiliij' of,
states,
uncertainty
i. 4-19-i51.
of
transmission
of, hybrid
goo.se,
87,
Pears,
white, ii. 31.5. i. 365; bud-variation in, in i. 391; reversion seedling, ii. in 4; inferiority of, Pliny's time, ii. 193; Avinter tacked nelis, atii. 21u; softby aphides,
248; barked
varieties
Penguin
of the, i. 291.
ducks,
with
Pennant,
curs
at
Duke
wood-boring of good vaiieties origination of, in woods, ii. 238; Forelle, resistance
of. to frost, ii. 287. i. 338-^.343; origin of. i. 338; Peas, varieties in of. i. 33.S-,343; found Swiss i. lake-dwellings, 328, fruit and seeds 331, 338-343;
by
cattle, i. 85. seeds as Pennisetum, of, used in the i. 320. Punjab, seeds Pennisetum distichum,
used
as
food
in
Central
of, Africa,
in
esses proc-
i. 319.
Percival,
horses,
Perdix
Mr.,
i. 444;
on on
figured,
i.
341;
fertility
of
riability, va-
418,
the
ii.
106;
of
crossing
in.
i.
on
female
ii. 134. of. in captivity, of of action causes Period ii. 248. Periosteum bone in ii.
a
419;
of
dog,
producing
in
ii. 147;
maturity
rabbit,
149.
ii. 354.
by
of.
selection,
Periwinkle,
sterility of,
estimation of
land, Eng-
selection, liable
Persia,
pigeons
In,
PERSISTENCE.
INDEX.
PIGEONS.
4r"o
1. 211; tumbler
of,
i.
pigeon of, i. 143; pigeon of, i. 1.j4; cats 45-47; sheep of, i. 9!).
of colour
in
carrier
Pieljalds, pn"l)ably
ii.
due
to
sion, rever-
11.
horses,
i. i.
i. ii.
generic
peculiarities,
of of maize wild
Incas
antiquity peculiar
selection
in,
from,
animals
potato
the
practised
186.
by
of,
Petals,
i. 158. Perucken-Taube," in cultivated rudimentary, pollen, plants, ii. 297; producing ii. 875.
Petunias,
380.
multiple Dr.,
origin
of,
ogy, teratol-
i.
the M., on ribs of horses, i. 50. Pigeaux, hyl)rids of the hare and rabbit, ii. 131. Pigeon a era i. 1.52. vale, Pigeon i. 14(;, 147. bagadais, Pigeon co(|iiille, i. l";u. Pigeon i. 147. cygne, Pigeon henrte, i. 160. Pigeon pattu 1. 161 plongeur. Pigeon polonais, i. 148. Pigeon roniain, i. 146, 147. i. 159. tambour, Pigeon i. 143. turc, Pigeon origin Pigeons, of, 1. 134, 1.37.
Pietreniont,
Peyritsch,
"
vegetable
i. 150.
ii. 31.
186-210 breeds
classified
i. l.'{9:
table
of.
Pfauen-Taube,"
in, ii. 327. pelorism of. ii. 46. Phalanges, deficiency chalcoptcra, ii. 331. Phaps Phas'olus miiltiflorus, ii. 290, 304. Phasrolus vulgaris, i. 343, ii. 290. Phasianus pictus, 1. 284.
PJialwnopsis,
I. runt, i. 148-1 .'.O; fanturbit and owl, i. 154-158; dian Infrill-back, i. 158; Jacobin, i. 158; i. 1.59; other trumpeter, breeds of, i. 1.59-161; difference's 14"3-148; barbs, tail, i, 150-152; i. 152; tumbler,
143;
carrier,
pouter, i. 143-146;
of i. 140-
Phasianus
anihei'stiw.
i. 284.
of,
equal
to
generic,
i.
162;
dividual in-
Pheasant,
plumage
wildness
the
common
male of assumption the ii. 25; hen, by of of, with hybrids fowl, ii. 19; prepotency
over
Ii, 42;
of the, diminished
the
fowl,
of
herst's, Am-
variations of, i. 162165; variability of peculiarities of characteristic breeds in. i. 166; sexual variability in, i. 16'!, i. 167-173; 167; of, osteology
correlation
fecundity
the, in Pheasants,
177, 176,
ii.
of growth in, i. 173of .303; young some rieties vanaked when i. hatched, ii. 315; effects of disuse
i. 252. Pheasant-fowls, of limbs regeneration Philipeaux, ii. 348. in the salamander, varieties of the on Philippar,
in, i. 177-183;
in trees,
settling
and
ing roost-
floating in the Nile i. 187; to drink, dovecot, i. 191, 192; for unitv argiiments
of
i. 186;
wheat,
i. 325.
origin
various
of
of,
i.
Philippine
of
game
Islands,
fowl
in
named
the,
i.
breeds 239.
in
in
places,
194-210; i. 196,
feral,
ii.
7;
in. i. 400.
affection i. 347.
of
the
fingers
the
grunting
i. SO; of a fo\\ 1 of the head in ancient an Egyptian sion, procesof i. 253; seeding ly ordinariseedless ii. 147; fruits, tinction exof ancient Egyptian ii. breeds of and sheep oxen, ancient Peruvian an 408; on gourd, ii. 412. effect of conditions of Picotees, life on, ii. 253. of the names Pictet, A., oriental pigeon, i. 211. of the Pictet, Prof., origin dog,
humped
cattle,
coloration in, i. 201reversion 203; to of mongrel, coloration of C livin, i. 203of the cultivation 210; historv i. 211-213; the of. of history races of, i. 213-218; principal mode of races of production of, i. 218-2.31; reversion in. ii. 21; ii. 14; by produced by age, 21 ; crossing in, ii. 14. potency preof characters of transmission in breeds of, ii. 40. 41; in rieties vasexual ditTerences some of, ii. 48; period of perfect efTect in. ii. 52: plumage ii. 61; of on, presegregation witliin the of, ferent pairing ii. 7S; breed, fertility of. same il. donicstication. bv increased of effects interbreeding 87, 134; II. of necessitv crossing, and to indifference 103; of, 102. ii. 140; of lection seclimate, change
unity
I, 14;
on
fossil
oxen,
i. 82.
460
PIGS.
INDEX.
PLUM.
ii. 180; unconscious the Romans, ity selection of, ii. 189, 192; facilof selection of, ii. 213; of liable to the attacks white, of ii. 208; effects disuse hawks, fed of in, ii. 279; upon parts ii. 284; effect of first male meat,
upon the
i. P.
subsequent
progeny
on Piorry, hereditary disease, 440, ii. 53. Pistacia lentiscus, ii. 255.
i. 426; homology of the female, of the in, wing feathers leg and of two outer toes ii. 305; union in ii. 305; relation corfeather-legged, of beak, limbs, tongue, and nostrils, ii. 30G; analogous variation in, ii. 380, 331; manence perof breeds of, ii. 412. i, lake-dwellings, Pigs, of Swiss from Sus 09; types of, derived scrofd and 8us indirus, i. 66-68; (Sus pliciceps, Gray), Japanese Islands, figured, i. 71; of Pacific
Pistacia
vera,
i. 421.
in cultivated Pistils, rudimentary, plants, ii. 297, 298. Pistor, sterility of some mongrel i. of pigeons, 198; fertility ii. 87. pigeons, Pisum and arvense sativum, i. 338, Pityriasis versicolor, inheritance
of, ii. 54, fossil G., on a Planchon, vine, i. 345; sterility of Jussicea grandiii. 149. fJora in France, of the, i. 378. Plane-tree, variety
modifications of ii. 62; i. 70, Plantigrade carnivora, general testines skull in, i. 70-74; length of insterility of the, in captivity, ii. 130. in, i. 75, ii. 283; period of cultivation of of, i. 75; number of, gestation Plants, progress and ribs of vertebrae i. 316-323; in, i. 75; cultivated, their g" oi. 76, 77; deanomalous velopment graphical i. .321, 322; forms, derivation, of tusks and bristles crossing of, ii. 74, 104; comparative and culiiof, i. 78; fertility of wild in, i. 77; striped young ii. reversion of feral ii. 88; self -impotent, to wild vated. type, i. and 78, 79, ii. 6, 21; production of breeds crossing, changes of, by interi. 79, 80; effects duced promale first by the upon the the of subsequent progeny i. 425, 426; pedigrees female, of, i. 436; polydactylism in, i. 447; cross-reversion in, ii. 8; hybrid, wildness of, ii. 19; disappearance
109-118;
dimorphic
ii.
and
trimor-
phic,
from
109-118;
sterility
conditions,
of,
ii. contabescence of from ii. 144, 145; from anthers, strosities, monfrom ii. 140; 145, of the ii. 146, flowers, doubling seedless fruit, ii. 147; 147; from of excessive from development ii. 148-150; of tusks in male under mestication, vegetative doorgans, ii. 177ii. 49; solid-hoofed, influence of selection on, ii. 412; variation 179; crosses of, ii. 68, 71; by selection, in mutual riability vauseful of, ii. 195-198; fertility of all varieties parts of, ii. 85; increased fertility by of, ii. 216; variability ill effects ii. 86: of, induced domestication, by crossing, ii. 244; mate cliof of of change close ii. direct action in, interbreeding of of selection ii. 257; change riod pe97, 98; influence on, on, ii. 176; of in. ii. 285; tain cervegetation prejudice against to ent differcolours varieties of, suitable in, ii. 188, 207, 320; ii. 295; correlated ii. unconscious selection climates, of,
changed
142-144;
ii. 205, Virginian, of the best similarity breeds ii. 219; of of, change form of disuse in, ii. 259; effects of parts in, ii. 280; ears of, ii. 282; correlations in, ii. 309, 310; white, buckwheat injurious to, ii. 320; tail of, grafted upon
192; 320;
black
variability
of
of,
races
ii.
313-315;
412.
tiquity an-
of, ii.
of, ii. 220. Plasticity, inheritance of amvision phibious the F., on Plateau,
animals, Platessa notice Plato, breeding dogs Plica polonica, of ii. 201. selection in
the
the
back,
older
ii. 354;
races
extinction
of
Pliny,
ity variabili.
Pinks,
the,
in,
397;
ii. 256. of the herd shepcrossing the with wolf, i. 23; dogs of cattle, ii. breed on Pyrrhus' estimation of the 180; geons pion i. the Romans, among described 211; pears by. ii. 193.
on
improvement
Plum,
i. 358-361;
stones
figured,
PLUMAGE.
INDEX.
PRIMROSE.
4C1
hereditary
i 44'"
i.
359;
varieties
of
the,
i. 360,
Portal,
on
peculiar
the eye
in the, 361, ii. 196; bud-variation disease of the, i. 390; peculiar ii. 205; flower-buds of, destroj-ed bullfinches, ii. 210; purpleby liable to certain eases, disfruited,
feral
'rabbits
of,
i,
Potamovhrr.ru
Plumage,
ii
l'"8
hybrid
of,
tubers,
impoteuce ity of,
Plurality
views
on,
change
Potato
ii. of soil
seeds i. as food, Poa, 319; species of, propagated by ii. 149. bulblets, Podolian cattle, i. 81. modification Pointers, of, i. 42; crossed 70. Pois sans with the
sweet,
China,
suited
Pouchet,
of
foxhound,
ii.
Poiteau, i. 406;
Polish
his views on ity plurali. 2. Pouter pigeon.s. i. 140-142; furculum figured, i. 173; history of, i. 214. races,
M.,
fruit-trees,
239.
fowl, i. 235, 257, 262, 263, 271, 272; skull figured, i. of skull section figured, i. of 272; development ance protuberof skull, i. 258; furculum figured, i. 277. Polish i. or Himalayan rabbit, 267, 270;
109. ii. 345, 346; action of, ii. 83; injurious action of, in some orchids, ii. 112, 113; i*esistance ii. of. to treatment, injurious 143; prepotency of, ii. 166. of Sir F., transmission Pollock, Ballnta in leaves variegated local nigra, i. 399; on tendency to ii. 254. variegation, i. 452. Polyanthus, inheritance Polydactylism, of, i.
Lord, Powis, in experiments crossing and humped English cattle, i. 86, ii. 19. Poynter, a Mr., on graft-hybrid
rose.
i. 409.
Pollen,
i. 21. Prairie-wolf, of Precocity highly improved breeds, ii. 303. of pollen, ii. 166. Prepotency of transmission Prepotency of character, ii. ,39,153; in the Austrian
-
emperors
and
some
man Ro-
445-448.
families, ii. 39; in cattle, ii. 39; in sheep, ii. 40; in cats, ii. in ii. 40, 40; in pigeons, 41; fowls, ii. 41; in plants, ii. 41; in the of a variety pumpkin, in i. 372; the the jackal over ass the over dog, ii. 42; in the horse, ii. 42; in the pheasant the fowl, ii. 42; in the penover guin duck the over Egyptian
goose,
Ponies,
and
ii. 42;
discussion
on
of
the
phenomena
Prescott,
known ii. 195.
i. 53. Indian Poole, Col., on striped the horses, i. 59, 60; on young of Eqiius indicus, ii. 17. i. 377. Poplar, Lombardy, Cuban wild Poppig, on dogs, i. 26. found in the Swiss lakePoppy, i. 328, 331; the with dwellings, stamens converted into pistils, ferent in difof ii. 144; India, parts monstrous, fertility of, ii. 145; black-seeded, of, ii. antiquity 412. Porcupine, breeding of, in captivity, ii. 130. Porcupine family, i. 437, ii. 51. of Porphijrio, breeding a species of, in captivity, 11. 135, differences of the. i. 381:
European
flower-garden,
of
ployment em-
and
of to
Dumas,
several
one
on
the
fertilise
spermatoii. ovule,
cumcision, the effect of ciron i. 455. in the variations Price, Mr., in feet of the structure horses, i. 50.
Preyer,
Prof.,
Prichard,
in
Dr.,
negro,
on
polydactylism
bert the Lami. 447; on bino alii. 51; on an family, Plica ii. 214; on negro, polonica, ii. 256. i. 452; double, rendered Primrose,
the
462
by
PRIMULA.
INDEX.
RADISHES.
single
151.
transplantation,
ii.
rowing
of
bitch
to
litter,
i.
Primula,
of species intercrossing in, ii. of, i. 349; contabescence with in hose,' i. 380; hose 145; coloured calyces, eterility of, ii.
'
145. Primula
sinensis,
ii.
variations,
i.
386,
Primula Primula
phic, dimor313: reciprocally ii. 109. veris, i. 4.52, ii. 84. vulgaris, i. 452, ii. 84.
the
silkworm, the wings in the i. 314, ii. 279; silk-moth, of varieties the on mullterry, i. 347; special raising of eggs of the ease dissilk-moth, ii. 175; on of the ii. 206; on silkworm, in monstrosities insects, ii. 249, in the ing breeda 373; on change of the season Egyptian
goose,
the of
ii.
285;
fertilisation
of
intercrossing
i. 366. ii.
Prinssheim,
34i: Prori/on,
ii. 1.30. Prolificness.
on
conjugation,
in
sterility of,
increased ii. 153.
captivity, by
of tication, domes-
to Teredo, ii. 344; tendency best ii. similarity in the races, tourhillon 220; on his vital," ii. the ence exist35; on independent sexual of the ii, elements,
the
"
341.
Protozoa,
359. Prunus
Prunus Prunus Prunus Prunus
reproduction
the,
ii.
cerris, i. 378. Qucrcus robur and pedunculata, Qucrcus hybrids of, ii. 107. on grafted Quince, the, 11. pears
238.
i. 357, 358. armeniaca, i. 361. avium, i. 361, 390. cerasus, 1. 359. domcstica,
Prunus
Prussia,
Psittacus Psitlarus
erithacus,
macoa.
Psophia,
of.
In
Puh\v
Cordillera,
cross-bred
i.
of
rabbits and
for
common
rye,
hares ii.
Piitsche of the
Vertuch,
potato,
effects
Pnvis,
on
apples,
Pyrrhula
bv
vulgaris,
of
the
210;
sumption as-
the 1.37.
male,
his
in breed
their origin, 1. and Sinai geria, Al1. 106; breeds of, 1. 106ish, PolChinese, 114; Himalayan, 1. 109-113, ii. or Russian, 1. 113-116; of Jamaica, 73; feral. of the 1. 113: Falkland lands, Is1. 113; of Porto Santo, i. 114-116. ii. 78, 260; osteological characters i. 117-126; of, discussion of modifications in, 1. 126-1.33; sion transmisone-eared, of of, i. 445; peculiarity reversion In feral, 11. 6; in the ii. 14; of Himalayan, crossing and white coloured ii. Angora, 67; comparative fertility of wi'd and 11. 86; falsified periments extame, in of. Interbreeding ii. often bad 97; high-bred, of, 11. breeders, ii. 97; selection liable to tion, destrucwhite, 182; ii. 208: of effects disuse of parts in, 11. 279; skull fected of. afii. 282; by drooping ears, of intestines in, ii. 284; length and of ears skull In. correlation In variations ii. 306, 307; skull
a
Pvrrhus,
180.
cattle,
ii.
Pi/rus.
of.
Pi/rus
fastigiate
Chinese
species
of of, ii. 332; periosteum bone in. ii. 354. producing Race-horse, origin of, 1. 54.
dog
Races,
of.
Pyrus Pi/rus
P)/rus
Pyrus Pyrus
i. 362. ii. 209. auruparia, i. 365, 391. communis, i. 362, 392. mains, i. 362. paradisiaca, i. 362. prwcox,
impregnation de,
on
and formation ii. 70-74; ral natuand artificial, ii. 224; Pouviews chet's on pluralitv of, i. 1. 213-218. 2; of pigeons, of mate cliW. F., effect Radclyffe, soil on and strawberrips, 1. 368; constitutional differences In 1. .383. ro"es, 1. 338; Radishes, crossing of, ii,
modification
by
crossing,
Quatrefages,
A.
the
bur
60; varieties
RADLKOFER.
INDEX.
RHINOCEROS.
463
Radlkofer,
in 343.
retrogressive
mosses
phosis metamor-
and
algte, ii.
and
i. 25; cats of Paraguay, 46, ii. 61, 12!); dogs of Para^ ii. 62; feral guay, pigs of i;uenos Ayres, i. 78; on the refusal
aguara,
1.
of
on
wild
cattle crossing of Javanese sondaicus, ii. 184. the goat-like, from Earn, Cape ii. 40. Good Hope, on M., appendages Ramu,
throat
the with of
to
atus, 130;
animals to l)reed in captivity, ii. 128; on Dicotylcs Inhiii. 128; sterility of plantigrade
carnivora
on
in
captivity,
ii.
of
goat,
Ranchin,
440.
heredity
of
i.
Cavia ii. apcrca, sterility of Cehus in azarw ii. 131; abortions animals by wild in ii. 137.
'i;-.0;
tivity, capduced protivity, cap-
Range
the
the effects of use and on of ii. 276. disuse organs, Ranunculus ftcaria, ii. 1.50. Ranunculus ii. 147. repens, Rape, i. 337. caudatus, i. 338, Raphanus i, 338. Raphanus raphanistrum, Raphanus sativus, ii. 324. ii. 208. yellow-fruited, Raspberry,
Ranke,
sexual Reproduction, and ual, asexii. 310; unity of contrasted, forms of, ii. 367; antagonism ii. .368. of, to growth, Reseda odorata, self-sterility of. ii 114, 216. Retinitis, in deafpigmentary,
mutes,
ii. 311.
Reuter,
Herr,
potato-grafting,
1.
Reversion, 381-384;
ii.
with experiments Rattlesnake, poison of the, ii. 270. stomach of, affected Raven, by vegetable diet, ii. 283. in A., Rawson, self-impotence hybrids of Gladiolus, ii. 117, 118. the of on R", Comte, assumption a by all varieties yellow colour of maize, i. 333. of effect confinement Reaumur, ii. 26; the cock, fertility upon in fowls most of ii. climates, 140.
fowls, ii. 4;
feral
Reed,
Mr.,
atrophy
of
of
consequent
their
Regeneration
in
man,
of amputated parts man huin the 447, 448; ii. 347; in the embryo, lower vertebrata. insects, and ii. 347. myriapoda, of Regrowth joints, amputated i. ii. 346-348. of the Regnier, early cultivation i. 336; Celts, cabl)age by the selection practised by the Celts, ii. 180.
5-7; in a cross previous dogs, man, pigeons, pigs, and fowls, ii. 7-9; in hybrids, ii. 9; by bud-propagation in plants, ii. 10-13; by in fowls, cattle, "S:c., ii. 12, age 13; partial, from an injury, ii. 12; caused by crossing, ii. 13ters, charac25; explained by latent ii. 2.5-31: strosities, monproducing ii. 31; producing peloric flowers, ii. .32-.34;of foral i. 78 80; pigs to the wild type, of feral rabbits to the supposed wild type, i. 105, 113, 115; of when in coloration, pigeons,
crossed,
in the
ii. 3; 3; in sheep, in ii. 4; in the heartsease, in ii. 4; in vegetables, animals and ii. plants, to characters derived from
i. 203-209;
pansy,
in
247-2.55; in the
silkworm, in i. 384;
i. fowls, i. 312;
a
argonium, pel-
individuals
recognised
ii. 230.
in and
Laplanders, experiments
purpureus
crossing lahurnum,
a
modification
of
Thcsi-
duced reproii. 7. of Rengger, occurrence jaguars with crooked legs in Paraguay, 1. 16; naked dogs of Paraguay, i. 22, 30, ii. 68, 77; feral dogs
children,
in i. 394; themums, Chrysanof i. 395; of varieties in St. the China rose Domingo, in and i. 396; by buds pinks i. 397; of laciniated carnations, norniMl to the varieties of trees in i. form, .398; variegatrd lips, leaves of plants, i. 399; in tuof the suckers i. 402; of the to mon comseedless barberry in i. 400; form, by buds i. 415; of Tropo'olum, hybrids in peplants, i. 431; of crossed gous ii. 44; analoloric snapdragons, due variations to, ii. 329333.
of
La
Plata,
i, 26;
on
the
Rhinoceros, in India,
breeding
ii, 128.
in
captivity
464
RHODODENDRON.
INDEX.
ROSES.
FhoOodcndron,
Rhododendron Rhodod'ndron
rose
from
seeds
of
the
dalhousiw,
of
R.
257. effect
upon,
pollen
421. Rihcs Ribes
nuttalUi
391. i. 368-371, i. 391. number and characters of, Kibs, in of, fowls, i. 275; characters i. 291-293. in ducks, ii. 182; Rice, imperial, of China, Indian varieties of. ii. 235; riety vaof, not requiring walei", ii. 286. H. on D., pendages jaw-apRichardson,
grnssularia,
ruhrum,
vence
moss-rose,
of i.
produced the stock in jessaby grafting on mine, in the i. 408; ash. i. 408; on grafted hazels, i. 409; bridisati hyof a thoin, weeping i. 450; with experiments the seed of the elm and weeping ash, i. 450, 451; variety of the with ii. curled cherry petals,
211.
i.395; effect
pigs, i. 76; pigs in China, of striped in Westphalian pigs, i. young 78; on pigs, ii. 71; on crossing lection sepigs, ii. 98; on interbreeding in pigs, ii. 172.
in Irisli
of Oncidium Riviere, reproduction ii. 111. cavcndishianum, inheritance Roberts, Mr., on in the horse, i. 444. Mr., Robertson, on glandularleaved
peaches,
on
i. 357.
Roliinet.
the
silkworm,
i. 312-
315, ii.
Robinin, Robson,
175.
ii. 2.55.
Richardson,
on
Sir
John,
resemblance American i. 20, 21;
the North
of halfMr., deficiencies bred horses, i. 444. Robson, the advantage of Mr., on of soil to plants, ii. 124, change 125;
on
i. 26; wolves, on broad feet of dogs, wolves, and foxes in North i. America, horses North American 40; on the i. 53. scraping away snow, in ii. annual Ricinus, England, 286. the Riedel, Dr., on Bagadotte the i. 145; Jacoldn on pigeon, i. 158; brid fertility of hypigeon, i. 198; cision, circumpigeons, i. 455. i. 347. Phylloxera, Riley, on ii. 361. Rinderpest, i. Mr., potato-grafting, Rintoul, the
" "
wolves, of burrowing
and
on
dogs the
the ii.
growth
of
the
bena, ver-
254; on broccoli, ii. 292. Rock measurements of pigeon, the, i. 137; figured, i. 138. Rodents, sterility of, in captivity,
ii. 130.
Rodriguczia,
Rodwell,
ii. Ill,
112.
by Rohilcund,
J., mildewed
poisoning
in, i. 81.
the Rolle, F.. on history of ii. 289. peach, i. 1.55. Roller-pigeons, Dutch,
the
Rollestou,
Prof.,
of injuries, in affected
varieties of the orange, i. 350, ii. 289, 314. selection of the Rivers, Lord, on ii. 214. greyhounds, acters of charRivers, Mr., persistency
on
411. Risso.
inherited effects i. 458; incisor teeth in form of cases tubercle, ii. 315.
of the
fowl,
ii.
organs,
of of
Romans,
estimation
i. 211; breeds i.
pigeons
sessed pos-
by,
fowls
i. seedling potatoes, i. 350, 352; 344; the on peach, in the of races persistency i. and 354; 353, nectarine, peach connection between the peach and i. 354; ency persistnectarine, in of character seedling origin of the apricots, i. 358; i. .359; seedling varieties plum, i. 361; of the plum, persistency in seedling of character plums, in
by,
on
the
white
i. 409.
and centifolia, fertile of, i. 382. hybrids Rosa spiuosissimo. history of the culture of, i. 383. i. Egyptian Rosellini, on dogs, 16.
i.
361;
i.
bud-variation
in
the
plum,
390;
bullfinches,
with apples 363; variety in i.
a
plum
attacked
i. bud
382,
383;
variation
wood,
383;
382,
395-397;
production
doubled Scotch, by selection, ii. variation continuous of, ii. of seasonal tions condieffect ii. 254; ii, Noisette, on,
4:66
SALTER.
INDEX.
SEDGWICK.
mission
seed,
sueljers
i. of
by
by
PhJox,
i.
400;
cation appli-
ties to bud-varieselection lative of plants, i. 432; accumutions condiof effect changed the riegation vaof life, ii. 241; on of strawberry leaves, ii. 255; on ovules, pollen within ii. 375. of Gallus S. Salter, J., hybrids sonncraiii
i. and the
common
nana,
131.
fowl,
i. 392; reversion of varieties the in of China St. rose i. 396; Domingo, sterility of in Guiana, tame ii. 1.34; parrots ii. 136; on viduata, Dendrocfjgna selection of fowls in Guiana, ii. 188. ii. 278. Proteus, on Schreibers, Schiitze the I. on Torfschwein, 69. volucella, ii, 131. Seiuroptcrus Sciurus and cinerea, ii. palmarum
of races ii. It); crossing or species of rats. ii. 62. habits of the jackal, i. 23; Salvin, in mot-mot, inherited mutilation
241,
i. 458.
on
inheritance
in
Sanson,
M.,
origin
tfeniopus, Sclater, P. L., on Equus i. 62, ii. 15; on indicus, ii. Equus of character 17; striped young wild of pigs, i. 70; osteology Gallinula the nesiotis, i. 296; on black-shouldered i. 300; peacock, in animals breeding Zoological
Gardens,
in ii.
127;
birds
ing breed-
Saporta,
Sardinia,
Sars.
on
ii. 277. i. 451. on I'istacia, i. 421. ponies of, i. 52. of the development
ii. 353.
ii. Gardens, Zoological the of birds 132; on breeding in captivity, ii. 132, 135. variation Scotch of, i. tir, local 378. Scotch kale and
cabbage,
cross
the
hydroida.
Satiation Saturnia of
in
the
the
stigma,
i. 424.
in
finement, con-
of
i.
333;
of
the bud-
flowers variation
of in i. 402;
maize,
Imatoing cross-
phyUum
of the
miniatum,
plants
as
ii. species of Ycrhascum, Yerhas81, 82; self -sterility of ii. 114; on experiments cum, ii. 84: Prwmlrr. crossing duction reproii. 110: tility ferof orchids, Oneidiiim of divarieatum, acclimatisation of the ii. in 292; India, in numbpr seeds Acropcra ii. 362. and Gongorn, the Scotch deerhound, Scrope, on ii. 48, 97. ii. 348. Scudder. Dr., on regrowth, of Sir effects John, Sebright, in close pigeons, interbreeding taken tion ii. 192; care by, in selecii. 175. of fowls, Srcale rrrfale, ii. 233. of crossing effects W., Sedgwick, ii.
fondness
of,
taming pollen
mals, ani-
143;
sw^eet
foreign
on
pea of
ii. 14,5. Saxifraga q" urn, Mohammed on Musari, Sayzid i. on a 145; carrier-pigeons, the sound utters which pigeon
"
Yahu."
i. 160.
Scanderoons
(pigeons),
of remains in, i. 83. characters in Bos
i. 146, 147.
Scania,
fotmd
frontosus
of, in rabbits, i. 277; in pifowls, geons, i. 172; alteration of, by i. 181. in pigeons, disuse, Scarlet fever, ii. 361. the horses Schaaffhausen on resented repii. in Greek statues, Scapula, i. 126;
191.
on
"
the
female,
i.
425;
on
the
Schleiden,
a cause
excess
of
nourishment
ii. 23i"". the
of
variability,
Dr.,
in of
a
i. 437; on reditary hei. 440; the affections of eye, of polyi. 442, ii. 53; inheritance and anomalies of the dactylism i. 447; formity unimorbid extremities, in the same family, i. heritance i. 4.54; in448; on deaf-mutes,
Porcupine hereditary
man," diseases,
187;
the doers R., on i. 19, 22, Guiana, i. the on musk-duck, in babud-variation the Sir
the to of injury eye, in diseases and atavism i. 457; ii. 7; of anomalies structure, non-reversion to ness, night-blindof limitation ii. 10; sexual of peculiarities the transmission
SEDILLOT.
INDEX.
SHEEP.
40:
in
of
man, hard
ii.
the
ii.
effects
Selwyn,
-
witli baldness ii. 309; of occurrence teeth, in tooth molur place a diseases ii. 874; incisor, lierited in ii. 384.
iu270; delieieucy
Mr., on llu' Dingo, 1. 2 4. Selys Lougi'haniits, on hyldid i. I9(i. Ii. 2ii, i:{(;; hVi.ii.l ducks,
of the
of
of
ring occuran
hudk-liiilcd
goose,
diK.k"
291.
and
Egyptian Seringe, on
i. 364.
i.
the
St.
ValfMv
applf,
alternate
on
generations,
of tions por-
Sedillot,
Seeds, rudimentary,
relative Seeds
and
I. 375, II. :n I. melon, Olivier Serres, wild de. |ioiillrv in I. 245. (Juiana, Sesamiim. anllnultv white-seeded, of
Serpent
position
ii. 326.
grapes, of, in
the,
ii. 412.
Sitarin.
found
in
the
Swiss
lake-
buds,
close
analogies
of, i. 433.
Seeman,
and
of the wolf B., crossing Esquimaux dogs, i. 21. i. of characters, Segregation 414-417.
P.
i. .32S. dwellings, Settegast, liv sheep poisoned ii. .320. buckwheat, Setters, degeneration of. In Indi;), i. 37; Youatt's remarks i. on, 41.
Sex, J.,
on
secondary
ii. 2.5-27;
characters
of
of,
tent, la-
Selby,
210.
the
ing bud-destroy-
parenls.
Iiiflu-
habits
of
the
bullfinch,
ii.
Sexual ii. 170-201; methodical, ii. 171-179; cients anby the semi-civilised and people, of 179-188; trilling chai'acii.
Selection, i. 220,
ii. ters,
i.
ii. 246. of, on hybrids, sometimes lost cliaractcrs, in ii. 49. domestication, of Sexual limitation characters,
ence
ii. 46^9.
Sexual in domestication
220,
most
by
i.
9(;;
of,
in
198;
of
produced variability,
as
103-169,
of
202-211;
genera,
as
the
origin
species,
ii.
groups,
favourable
i. 2.59-263; transfer fowls, of, i. 263-265. I. Sexual variability in pigeons, 166, 167. ii. 49. Sexual selection, i. 348. Shaddock, the Sluiiler, moss-rose, Mr., on i. 395. Slian ponies, striped, i. 59. i. 2;-{3. i^hanghai fowls,
of, towards tendency ii. 218-221; possible influence of limit of, il. 221; ii. 222-224; time summary on, effects ii. 226-228; of subject, of tle, catbreeds of, in modifying the i. 93; in' preserving rity pu212-218; extremes,
of 102;
in
Shanghai
i.
sheep, disputed
their
98.
Sheep,
origin
breeds
of
sheep,
in in
i.
producing
varieties
the
liOof
ii. 2"!0; 99. in horns, mamniw. variations of, 1. 97; characters other and induced characters of. sexual 1. 97; adaidaby domestication.
breeding
goose,
ti'on of,
i.
to
climate
and
pasture.
299;
in
the
the
gold-fish,
canary, i. HOQ;
i. 310, 311; i. 334; and cereals, cabbages 347 i. white ; mulberry, i. ,370; applied gooseberries, i. 328-330: exemplified wheat, carrots. "c., i. 338; in potato,
of gestation 98; periods the of heat on of, i. 98; effect fect fleece of, i. 99, 100, ii. 260: ef-
97,
of
"
selection
"
"
ancon
or
"
on, otter
1. 100"
1m2:
breeds
of,
i. i.
344;
in
the
melon,
i.
375;
flowering hyacinth,
bud-varieties illustrations
plants,
i. 387.
of
in the
to
of (Jer102: cross ii. "'4: black, merino, and man ii. 20'.; KaraTarentiiio. of the losities calwith Jaffna, ii. 2.59: kool, ii. 2S2: knees, the on
101; 101,
Mauchamp
no." meri-
Chinese,
Bronze
plants,
i.
433;
ii. 406-414. ii. 49. Selection, in plants, ii. 109Self-impotence ii. in individual plants, 118; 114-116; of hybrids, ii. 153.
of, sexual,
tylism
duction breeds
colour
of the Danish, 410: pojy.lacperiod, occasional iiroin. I. 447: hornless in horns of of riMcrsion of, ii. 3;
ii. 296;
ii.
in.
on
ii.
3:
infineiu ii.
f
sex-
male,
oftspring,
43;
468
SHEEP-DOGS.
INDEX.
SMITH.
i. 311-315; crossing of, ii. disease effects in, ii. 206; of disuse of in, ii. 279; parts ii. 175, selection with, practised variation of, ii. 215; 177; thenogenesis parii. in, ii. 345. value of, cross-bred, ii. 87: variations Silkworms, of, i. 310fertility of, 95, 96; diminislied ii. less 313; yielding white conditions, certain '111(1 cocoons, or selection liable to of, unconscious disease, ii. 320. 140; in selection natural Silver-grey rabbit, i. 108, 110, 122. ii. 191; of eggs tion reductlie raising of Simon, on breeds of. ii. 20.3, 205; in ii. 175. iudithe silk-moth China, bones of in, ii. 221; of maturity J. B., period differences Simonds, of, ii. 230; vidual in breeds various of the fleece in of, local cattle, changes generation i. 88; differences in the ii. 259; periods partial dein England, in ii. of dentition Australia, sheep, i. 97; on of. in in the teeth horns and of cattle, sheep, "c., 258; correlation ii. 303; of suthe on perior on breeding feeding fleece in. ii. 308; ii. 174. of, rams, fish, ii. 284; acclimatisation Sir resistance of, Simpson, regenerative J., il. 286; mountain, human of the ii. 293; white, embryo, to severe weather, power ii. 347. crispum, poisoned by Hypericum in the branchifSlrcdon, breeding ii. 320. i. wolves, erous stage, ii. 368. resembling Sheep-dogs, in i. tail inherited, captivity, ii. Siskin, breeding 23; mutilated 133. 458. of resemblance ii. and Sivatherium, the, dextral, Shells, sinistral to Niata cattle, i. 90. 27. obstacle to E. Size, difference of, an Shirley, P., on the fallow-deer, ii. 76. crossing, ii. 78, 96. gous, homoloof its appendages, varieties new Skin, and Shirrefif, Mr., ii. 307; tions affec326 ; crossing i. hereditary on wheat, of of the, ii. 54. ii. 80; variability wheat, R. tling setation variS., on i. 400; continuous Skirving, pigeons wheat, in i. 186. trees of ii. 220. on Egypt, wheat, of the of the, in breeds tic domesSkull, characters Short, D., hybrids of pigs, Felis i. 44. of dogs, i. 35; in breeds and cat ornata, i. 117-122, i. 72; in rabbits, 1?A; of, i. of, i. 46; horses Siam, cats in breeds of pigeons, i. 168-170; 53. in of fowls, wild breeds i. 268-275; of range Siberia, northern in i. 291. horses ducks, in, i. 53. of and of Skull correlation deafness the horns, Sichel, J., on blue ii. with cats white the, ii. 316. eyes, ii. 133. 312. Skylark, ii. 129. of the the Sleeman. on cheetah, pedigrees S., on Sidney, cross-reversion Sloe, i. 358. pigs. i. 436; on ii. 361. of in pigs, ii. 8; period Smallpox, tion gestathe Smiter in (pigeon), i. 161. tion pig, i. 75; productle, catCaffrarian of pigs l)y intercrossing, Sir A., on of breeds Smith. of numerous i. 80, ii. 71; i. 89; on the use fertility South in food of interbreeding as of the plants pig, ii. 87; effects ual differences
of
ixiin, ii. 48; or tion segregacrossing breeding ii. 61, 71. 77, 78; interon, of of, ii. 95, 96; effect ttie fertility of, on nourishment
fliience
by,
74;
on on
the
colours
Smith,
207.
Siebold,
290. Siebold.
on
the
potato,
ii.
Carl on genesis, parthenovon, ii. 342. contabeseenee Sihnr, in, ii. 145. Silk-fowls, i. 237, ii. 41. ii. 287, 294; Silk-moth, Arrindv, ii. 136. Tarroo, i. cated, domesti310-315; Silk-moths, species of. i. 310; history of modification of, i. 311; causes in, I. 311; differences presented
i. 319. the Colonel on Hamilton, of the odour jackal, i. 29; on i. 15; of the the origin dog, i. 26; wild dogs in St. Domingo, the Thibet mastiff and the on of the alco, i. 28; development of hind the feet fifth in toe in the i. 35; differences mastiffs, of of dogs, i. 33; history skull
Africa,
the
of breeds
the the
the
on
ears
the
of
horses,
SMITH.
INDEX.
STEENSTRUP.
460
of,
of
figured,
ing distinguish4:
coiivor-
I.
53;
on
Equus
Six'cios. difliculfy
from
sion of varit'tlt'S
feral ii. 17; pigs of i. 78, 79. Jamaica, of J. Sir E., production Smith, and nectarines by the peaches Viola amcesame tree. i. 354; on Tinea i. 384; sterility of na, ii. 149. in England, minor of the J., development Smith,
ovary in N. Bonatea
Jirmionus,
varicilcs, I.
into,
i. 5; of
gin ori-
of,
398;
by
natural
sch'ctlon,
ii.
rieties, va-
by
mutual
sterility
ii. 16:{-167.
selection
on
In
"
the
I.
vival sur-
of
the
fittest." fertility by
8(5;
on
6: Ii.
crease InI
domes!
Smith, Smith,
H.,
transmission
in race-horses, character the intercrossing W., on i. 3G6. of strawberries, ii. 62. Snake-rat, viscera of the form in, Snakes,
of ii. 39.
cation,
life.
12t",
156;
changes
conditions,
ii. 325.
Snapdragon,
bud-variation of crossed
ii.
in,
colour with
i.
ii. 277; of use on ascent organs, ii. 277; in trees, of the eorsap in the Iri-h relation exemplified ii. ."{17. ."US; on elk. pliysioii. .'I'.O: .-intagological units," of and nism growth tion, reproduc'"
ii. .367.
form,
45,
of
asymmetrical
ii. 304.
variation of
69; the,
i.
on
Spermatophores
ii. 3("7.
of
the
poda, cephalo-
plums
on
to,
zones
Sperniatozoiils. ii. 345. 346. ity, Sphingidpe. sterility of, in captivii. 1.3t;.
of,
the
pelargoniums,
i.
381;
the variegation i. 382; on of i. 399; advantages of leaves, of, ii. 123-126. change effects of, on and climate, Soil i. 368. strawberries, of spenon-intercrossing cies Solanum,
Spinola, produced
on
the
injurious
flowering
by
white i. 30.
on
pigs,
ii. 320. of
on
Spitz dog. W. C, cross-breeding Spooner, sheep, i. 101. ii. 71, 72, 96;
the
on
effects
of,
Solanum 401.
ii. 66.
crossing
tuberosum,
i.
343,
344,
vidual
sterility,
Spores,
i. 75. of horses,
forms
reproduction
bv. i. 399.
of
al)nornial
i.
Somerville,
of
fleece the on i. cros.son 99; sheep, selection ii. 96: on ing sheep, tility ferof sheep, ii. 173; diminished
Lord,
Merino
Sports, i. "388; in pigeons, i. 219. Spot picreon. i. 16(\ 213. diehogamons C K.. on Sprengei. the hollyho.k, plants, ii. 66; on
the ii. 82: on ii. 154. funciioiis of ers, flowof transmission Mr., Sprouie, hare-lip. i. 454. ment developi. 263: of fowls, Spurs,
of
from
merino
sheep
brought
Spain,
ii. 140.
i. 238, 264. fowls, i. 388. Sorghum, vation cultithe Ferdinand de, on Soto. ida of native plants in Flori. 322. in, monogynous Spain, hawthorn i. 379. in rabbits feral on Spallanzani, Sootv
of, in
htnis, i. 373.
ii. 30"".
cnpfinement, con-
Squirrels,
"
breeding flyin;,'.
ii. 131.
In
Lipari,
i.
115;
in
salamanders,
with
I. i"".". Taube.' Staarhiilsige ity supposeil heredStag, one-horned, of ii. 186. character
in.
in the
i. 445;
generacy de-
meat,
in
ii.
284.
of,
'
Highlands,
of
,
Spaniels,
Stamens,
tarv 374. ii
occurrence i.
pistils,
233.
297: 381;
conversion
into
rudlnienof. Into
,,
petals.
H.
figured,
of
i.
234;
early
i^tapht/Irn, ii.
Steenstrup,
1 h.
-
sexual
characters
in,
Trof.,
on
the
dog
of
470
the the 27.
STElNAJf.
INDEX.
SWINHOE.
Danish
obliquity
on
effects
254.
of
on
soil
on,
ii.
Steiuan,
habits the J. F., on Stephens, i. 314. the Bombyeidae, consequent Sterility, in dogs,
close from
gated,
ii.
Strickland,
of the
A.,
the
tion domesticaand
eases, disof
Anser
ferus, i. 297;
bill
on
legs
on
confinement,
of crosses,
i.
of
and
wild
swine,
of key, Tur-
pigs
of conditions in the 126-i44; ii. occurring life, animals wild of descendants dividual, ii. 1.3'J; inin bred captivity, from ii. 141; resulting
changed
cuttings, hybrids, ii. 157-1 GO, 371, 393, 394; in specific i. 200; of pigeons, hybrids
bulbs,
propagation "c.,
by
buds,
ii. 148;
in
natural of
lection, se-
173,
181;
of
in
fowls,
on
effects 181-183.
disuse
on
Stewart,
H.,
hereditary
of
Stigma,
the,
Cucurbitacese,
satiation
in i.
374;
Stocltholm,
of the, i. 424. fruit-trees of, ii. 288. bud-variation in, i. 397, Stocks, the of crossing 398; effect upon seed of the colour of, i. 419; true of, by seed, i. 452; crosses of, produced by ii. 68; varieties reversion by selection, ii. 197; in the the seeds pods of, upper ii. 329. of
the normal ab-
i. 78; Jamaica and 79; of fruit and flowers, i. 419, ii. 11; in i. 56-61; in horses, the i. 63-65; production of, ass, species of Equidse, by crossing ii. 15-17. mrix grallaria, ii. 283. Sfriw passerina, ii. 133. i. 160. Strupp-Taube," of the D., Struthers, osteology in solid-hoofed feet pigs, i. 76; i. 446, 448. on polydactylism, of sion transmisprepotency Sturm, of in sheep and characters of the cattle, ii. 40; absorption ii. 63; in crossed minority races, correlation of twisted horns, and curled in sheep, ii. 308. wool livia Sub-species, wild, of Columba other i. 210. and pigeons, Succession, geological, of organisms, i. 11, bud-variation by, i. 400. Suckers, ous sterility of, in variSugar-cane, ii. 148; countries, sporting white, of, i. 400: liability of, to disease, ii. 206. 320.
"
Suicide,
i. 440,
hereditary
ii. 53.
tendency
to,
transmission in
of man,
peculiarities
438.
i.
tion producthe,
i. 367. fected af-
Stomach,
structure
by
food,
of ii. 283.
hereditary,
the of on maturity Stonehenge, of effects dog, i. 34; inherited i. between cross 458; injury, ii. 63; and greyhound, bulldog of close interbreeding hound, greyfleetness ii. 96; ii. 221. of J., pedigree of
horses, race-
the horses Admiral, on i. 53; Falkland of the Islands, lands, IsFalkland wild pigs of the cattle of the i. 78; feral feral i. 87; Islands, Falkland of the Falkland rabbits Islands, i. 113. Sultan fowl, i. 236, 262. ii. 85. Sliis indicufi, i. 66, 68-70, Siis pliciceps (figured), i. 71. Sus scrofa, i. 67, 68, ii. 85. f^us scrofa palustrls, i. 69. i. 69. Sits scnnariensis, Sus vittatus, i. 68. i. breed of pigeons, a Swallows,
Sulivan,
163. Sweet
peas.
ii. 66;
crosses
of, coming
true
Storer,
93.
cattle,
ii.
India,
Sweet able remarki. 365-368; varieties of, i. 367; hautdioecious, i. 367; selection further ii. 377; probable
i. 397.
William,
R.,
on
bud-variation
Chinese
Strawberries,
bois
Swnnhoe, i. 152.
horses,
pigeons,
Chinese
in,
212: on i. 59:
striped
on
the
japanned
modification
of,
ii. 221;
varie-
peacock,
1. 300,
SWITZERLAND.
INDEX.
TEMMINCK.
471
ancient of, i. dogs Switzerland, 18; pigs of, in tlie Neolittiie period, 1. 69; goats of, i. 102. variety of pale-leaved Sycamore,
the,
ii. 314.
Sykes,
Colonel,
on
pariah
dog
deficiency of, la dogs, I. 34; period of appearance of, In breeds of dogs, i. 34; precocity of, in highly-bred 11. animals, 303; correlation of, with hair, ii.
naked
dogs,
i. 33; Turkish
crooked with legs, i. 16; on i. 63; on Indian small asses, the Oallus sonneratii, I. 241; on Kulm Indian cock, of the voice fowl In i, 267; fertility of the ii. 140. most climates,
309;
double
row
of,
Julia
with
dundant re-
Symmetry,
from,
hereditary
i. 445.
departures
i. 400. variegated, Symphytum, ii. 315. Syphilis, hereditary, of, I. 63. Syria, asses garis, vulSyringa persica, chinensis, and ii. 143.
Pastrana, ii. 311; affected in form reditary by hesyphilis and by pulmonary tubercle, ii. 315; developed the on palate, ii. 374. a cat Tegetmeier, Mr., on with monstrous teeth, i. 47; on a swift-like 1. 161; pigeon, on sexual i. 167; naked colours, of some I. 176; pigeons, young I. fertility of hybrid pigeons, white 198; on pigeons, il. 208;
reversion
hair,
in
Tacitus,
Celts 180.
on
the
care
taken
in
breeding
by animals, variety
the
ii.
Tagetes
i. 451.
signata, dwarf
of,
of cultivated varieties Tahiti, plants in, ii. 235. mals, aniwild in curled Tail, never in rudimentary ii. 282; 296. ii. Chinese sheep, in numbers of, Tail feathers, i. 163-165; of breeds pigeons, peculiarities of, in cocks, I. 262; variability of, in fowls, i. 266; and Anas in boschas, curled, tame drakes, i. 289. hairs of Tait, Lawson, presence
-
in
ovarian
tumours,
in crossed of breeds i. 247-252; of chicks the white silk-fowl, i. 256; development of the cranial ance protuberin Polish i. 258; on fowls, in the the skull Polish fowl, 1. the 264, 270; on intelligence of Polish fowls, i. 271; correlation of the cranial and protuberance in crest Polish i. 284; fowls, in of the web the development feet of Polish ly fowls, i. 267; earof several development culiarities pein I. cocks, Spanish in the comb Spanish 258; on the Spanish fowls, i. 261; on of gamefowl, ii. 287; varieties fowls, i. 259; pedigrees of gameof female fowls, i. 436; assumption
fowls,
plumage
i. 260;
by
game-cock,
i. 440. hereditary, ChillingEarl of, on Tankerville, ham cattle, i. 85, 94. disuse of Prof., effects Tanner, of parts in cattle, ii. 280. ity, Tapir, sterility of the, in captivTalent,
ii. 129.
Targioni-Tozzetti,
on
cultivated
the vine, i. plants, i. 317; on i. of the peach, 345; varieties of the varieties 356; origin and ry, plum, i. 359; origin of the cheri. i. 361; origin of roses, 382.
in of the, variability of i. 267; reproduction a thrush, ii. 347. for their Tartars, preference sheep, ii. 187. spiral-horned of pigeons abundance Tavernier,
in Taxus
Persia,
i. 211.
1.
Teebav,
ii. 12.
Mr.,
number
reversion and
in
fowls,
In
Teeth,
position of,
natural selection in the of ii. 203; pugnacity game-cock, i. 264; length of the game-hens, i. middle toe in Cochin fowls, tam, ban267; origin of the Sebright in the ii. 29; differences of of size fowls, i. 265; effect crossing in fowls, 1. 265, ii. 72; in fowls, effects of interbreeding grels ii. 101, 102; incubation by monof races of non-sitting tion correlainverse ii. 18; fowls, in fowls, comb and of crest of pencilled I. 283; occurrence ii. 14; on a in fowls, feathers Sefrom of the goose variety the fertility bastopol, i. 298; on the Ii. 88; on of the peahen, il. 103. of bees, intercrossing domestic of origin Temminck, cats, 1. 43; origin of domestic Columba i. on 186; pigeons, leucoColumba guinea, i. 188; on tance relucasserted i. 188; crphala, of pigeons breeds of some brid i. 198; sterility of hyto cross, turtle-doves, 1. 199; varU-
64
47^
tlons
a
TENDRILS.
IK^DEX.
TRITON.
of Gallus hankiva, i. 243; of turkeys, buff-coloured breed of number i. 303; eggs ii. 87; breeding laid by the peahen, in ii. of captivity, guans in of behaviour 135; grouse captivity, ii. 135; sterility of the in captivity, ii. 134, partridge in i. 373, Tendrils Cucurbitaceae, ii. 297. Sir J. E., on the Tennent, goose, the the of i. 297; on grovrth ii. 257; on the apple in Ceylon, Jaffna sheep, ii. 283. fertilisation Teredo, in, ii. 344. ii. 224; Terriers, legged, wry ii. subject to distemper, white,
on
-
in rearing Tiburtius, experiments wild ducks, i, 287. in captivity, Tiger, rarely fertile ii. 129.
Tigridia conchiflora, bud-variation in, i. 402. Time, importance of, in the production
of races,
Tinzmann,
potato, Tissues, organic
self-impotence
ii, 115.
Titmice,
shelled
thining attackpeas,
ii. 209.
320.
Teschemacher,
of
on
husked
form
maize,
on
Tessier,
of, i,
of
tion gesta-
pig,
ii.
the of dog, i. 28; of the i. 75; in periments cattle, i. 88; exof on seed, change
125.
Toes, relative length of, In fowls, i. 267; development of fifth, in dogs, ii, 300. of catToilet, Mr., his selection tle, Tomato, Tomes,
ii. 177. ii. 66, inheritance of dental formations, mali. 441. See Tomtits. Titmice. in, ii. 326. feral cattle relation in, i. 86. Texas, of, to the beak Tongue, his notice of the mestic doin i. 174. Theognis, pigeons, of a in fowl, i. 254. Tooth, occurrence molar, notice of the his Theophrastus, place of an incisor, ii. 374. ii. 289. i. 69. peach, Torfschwein," ii. 265. the union of Thcsium, halfTrail, R., on and the tubers of different kinds peach of poMr,, on Thompson, tatoes, the ties variei. 355; on i. 410. nectarine, fication of the apricot, i. 358; classiTrees, varieties of, suddenly duced, proof cherries, of varieties i. 376; weeping or dulous, penSister the ribstoni. 361; i. 377; fastiglate or on ramidal, pyties variei. 364; the on i. 377; with pippin," variegated i, 369, of the or gooseberry, changed foliage, i. 377; early in 370. late or forest leaf, i. 378; the on geons piof William, selection Thompson, non-application to, of Islay, i. 189; feral ii. 216. geons piour colin i. 196; Scotland, Trembleur (pigeons), i. 150, in bill and of the in on legs Trembley, reproduction of Tetrao i. 298; breeding ii. 341. Hydra, geese, struction in captivity, ii. 135; descotius Trevoltini i. 312, silkworms, fowls of black 313. by the ii. 208, Trichosanthes i. 375. osprey, anguina, Thorn, grafting of early and late, of, i. 439. Tricks, inheritance i. 379; i, 379. and ii. 143, Glastonbury, Trifolium minus repens, reconversion into of, Thorns, of Trimorphic plants, conditions in ii. 300. branches, pear-trees, reproduction in, ii. 160-163. asserted of H. Thrush, of the Tristram, reproduction B,, selection in a, ii. 347. the tarsus ii. 183. dromedary, or riety Thuja Triticum pendula fiJiformis, a vadicocciim, i. 330. of T. orientnlif), i. 378. Triticum 1, 331. monococcum, the division of the Triticum on Thuret, Ita, i. 331. sp of an Triticum alga, ii. 361. zoospores turgidum, i. 330. G. cats the of Triticum in H., on Thwaites, Asia, i. vulgare, wild i. 45; twin seed on a 323. Ceylon, of Fuchsia coccinca and In the branchlffulgens, Triton, breeding i, 416. ii. 368. erous stage,
Tetrao,
of species of, in breeding captivity, ii. 135. ii. 135. Tetrapteryx paradisca, Teucrium campannlatum, pelorism
"
"
"
"
"
"
474
Vanessa,
in
VANESSA.
INDEX.
VINE.
of, not copulating 11. 136. Variability, 1. 4, 11. 354-358, 376of, 11. 229causes 378, 389-404; il. 301-321, 335, 250; correlated, of, equable, 336, 403, 404; law tion, of, for selec11. 333; necessity of selected acters, charii. 169; of ii. multiple 217; parts, 11. 323. homologous laws of, 11. 274-337; Variation, possible of, ii. 220; continuity limitation of, 11. 221, 401, 402; gin oriin domestic cats, 1. 45-48; cattle of of breeds by, 1. of 89; In osteological characters species
captivity,
of important 1. 117-133; or 1. analogous 374; in horses parallel, 11. 329-333; i and horse 1. 56; in the ass, 65; in fowls, 1. 251-253; in geese
rabbits,
organs,
in the pro exemplified in cab of fleshy stems bages, "c., 1. 337; in the peach and apricot, 1. 356 nectarine, i in wheat, Individual, 358;
I. 298; duction
325.
Variegation
II. 147. Varieties blance version
of
and resem species, con of, 1. 4. il. 394-396; 1. 5 species, of. Into domestic 11. 397; abnormal, 11. 399. produced, gradually 1. 286 domestic on ducks, Varro, 11. 7; crossing feral on fowls,
the of 11. 184.
wild
and
on
domestic
ass,
of effect tions condichanged of life on, 11. 254. the dark-leaved berry, barVerlot, on inheritance of pe1. 377; culiarities of in trees, foliage of Rosa 1. 377; canproduction from nabifolia by bud-variation in R. alba, 1. 397; bud-variation Aralia gation trifoliata, 1. 398; varieof leaves, 1. 399; colours of tulips, 1. 402; uncertainty of 1. 450; Inheritance, persistency of white flowers, 1. 452; peloric ency 11. 32; tendflowers of Ldnaria, of to formity unistriped flowers 11. 44; of noncolour, of certain allied intercrossing plants, 11. 66; sterility of Pricoloured with mulce calyces, 11. ers, flowfertile 145; on proliferous Irish 11. 146; the on yew, in mellia, Cadifferences the ii. 220; of soil on ii. 230; effect 11. the variegated strawberry, correlated in variability 254; plants, 11. 314. 11. 27, 382. Verruca, bits, characters of, in rabVertebrae, 1. in 1. 122-125; ducks, and variations number 291-293; ber of, in pigeons, 1. 170, 171; numand characters of, in fowls, ber i. 275, 276; variability of numof. In the pig, i. 75, 76. Putsche. See Vertuch. ii. 257. Verugas," in cultivation early Vespucius,
320;
"
Brazil, Mr.,
Vibert's
1. 322.
of the number and in ordinary vertebrae sacral 1. 80; on garian Huncattle. humped cattle, 1. 81. sterility of Ranunculus Vaucher, 11. Acorus calamus, flcaria and 150. reversion cultivated, Vegetables, culture 11. of, 7; European, in, in India, 11. 148. of breeds Velth, horses, Mr., on 1. 49. of intercrossing Ycrhascum, cies speversion reof, 1. 349, 11. 69, 80-82; in hybrids of, i. 415; self -sterility of, 11. 114; contawild plants of, ii. 145; bescent, vlllosity in, 11. 258. ii. 114. Verhascum austriacum, Verbascum blattaria, 11. 80, 81. Verhascum lychnitis, 11. 80, 81, 114. Verbascum nigrum, 11. 114. 11. 82, 114; Verbascum phoeniceum, variable duration of, ii. 286. Verbascum thapsus, 11. 80, 114. Verbenas, origin of, 1. 380; white, 11. 206, liability of, to mildew, 319; scorching of dark, 11. 207,
Vasey,
experiments
of the vine
on
1. 345. Viburnum opulus, ii. 164, 297. into Vicia sativa, leaflet converted tendril in, 11. 374. a selection of, 11. 185. Vicunas, by Vlllosity of plants, influenced 11. 258. dryness, wild of the cultivation Vilmorin, colours 11. 258; 1. 338, carrot, of of tulips, i. 402; uncertainty and in balsams inheritance with 1. 449; experiments roses, of varieties dwarf Saponaria calabrica and Tagetes signata, i. of flowers reversion by 451; blotches, 11. 10; on stripes and variability, 11. 241. Vinca sterility in, 11. 149. minor,
Vine,
parsley-leaved, of, 1. 398; graft-hybrid in the, produced by inosculation of, influenced 1. 409; disease by
1. reversion
345-347;
11. 206; ence influof grapes, ties varieof climate, "c., on diminished ii. 258; of the, of the, 11. of cultivation extent colour
VIOLA.
INDEX.
WATSON.
475
"
of tlie, in the Indies, ii. 294. Viola, species of, i. 383-385. coloured different Tiola lutea, flowers in, i. 430. in, ii.4, 21. Viola tricolor, reversion the of growth Vircliow, Prof., on cellular ii. 275, 365; on bones, ence proliferation, ii. 276; independof elements the of the the cell-theory, body, ii. 354; on hairs of and ii. 355; presence ovarian ii. in teeth tumours, in hairs the of brain, ii. 354; of the sues, tis374; special aflBnities ii. 363; origin of polypoid ii. and excrescences tumours, 365. of selection seedthe Virgil, on of ii. 180; cattle i. 329, corn, and sheep, ii. 180. Islands, ponies of, i. 52. Virginian
289;
acclimatisation
"
Wahlverwandtschaft
ii. 159. white
cattle i. 86.
of
West
Wales,
tenth
of,
Walker,
425;
on
century, A., on
the
1.
intermarriage,
of 447.
inlieritance
dactylism, poly-
Walker,
of change D., advantage of soil to wheat, ii. 124. in Walker, R., reversion cattle, ii. 8.
Vision, of, i.
hereditary
peculiarities
in 441^48; amphibious ii. 201; varieties of, ii. animals, of organs of, correlated 281; affections
with other peculiarities, ii. 311. 390. Vitis vinifera, i. 345-347, Viverra, sterility of species of, in captivity, ii. 130. of the date-palm, Vogel, varieties ii. 235. of stripes the indications on black kittens, ii. 30. i. of, in fowls, Voice, differences of. in ducks, 267; peculiarities of peculiarii. 290; inheritance ties of, i. 439. the dog, history of the Volz, on of the i. 15; ancient history ducks known unfowl, i. 254; domestic dian Ini. 286; to Aristotle, Macedonia to cattle sent mention ii. 180; by Alexander, ii. 179; in the of mules Bible, of increase of the history ii. 224. breeds, Verbascum Von phoeniceBerg, on ii. 286. um, of Voorhelm, G., his knowledge i. 387, ii. 230. hyacinths,
A. the R., on multiple of i. 25; the dog, on a striped Javanese horse, i. 59; on the conditions life of of feral ii. 5; artificial tion alteraanimals, of the of plumage birds, ii. 260; flies, butteron polymorphic ii. 382; ii. on reversion, 399; the limits of on change, ii. 400. the Wallace, Dr., on sterility of in hatched Sphingidae autumn, ii. 137. Wallachian sheep, sexual arities peculiin the horns of, i. 96. bud-variation Wallflower, in, i. 398.
Wallace, origin
Wallich,
or
Dr., fiUfonnis,
on
Thuja
pendula
i. 378.
Walnuts,
Vogt,
on
i. 371; tacked thin-shelled, ati. tomtits, by 371, ii. 209; grafting of, ii. 239. sects, inattacks of B. D., on Walsh, i. 364; on galls, ii. 263, of equable ability," variLaw 264; his
"
Walther,
ii. 333. F. L., on the history of ing intercrossthe the dog, i. 16; on and of the zebu ordinary cattle, i. 84. ity, sterilindividual Mr., on Waring, ii. 141.
Waterer,
num,,
Mr.,
of i. 406.
Waterhouse,
i. 112.
ter-colouri win-
variabilis,
Waterton,
Vrolik,
Prof.,
on
of the i. 445; influence mother's the pelvis child's head, ii. 325.
polydactylism. shape of
on
less tailwild wildness the i. 287; on ducks, ii. 19; wild of half-bred ducks, characters male of assumption of C, production taming foals, i. 54; on wild British the nonon gin orii. 329; of weeds, variation tion variai. 359: of the plum, i. 362; on mains, in Pyrus on sion reverViola tricolor, i. 384; ity kale. ii. 5; fertilin Scotch tivated, culof Draba sylvestris when ii. 142; British
on
her
drooping
i. 441. behaviour ii. 135.
eyelids of, in
oriental
Moritz,
dogs,
ii.
the on propagation Wahlenborg, of ners, Alpine plants by buds, runbulbs, "c., ii. 149.
distributed 266.
4Y6
Wattles,
WATTLES.
INDEX.
WILLIAMS.
rudimentary,
ii. 297.
in
some
fowls,
Watts,
236.
Miss, Jonas,
on
Sultan
fowls,
i. of
Webb,
interbreeding
the
on
sheep,
Weber,
mother's
hardiness of, ii. 207, 320; Fenii. 211; natural selection in, ii. 211; varieties of, found wild, ii. 240; effects of change of climate ii. 288; ancient ety varion, of, ii. 412.
ton,
shape
her
pelvis
ii. 325.
of the child's
head,
teeth
Wedderburn, Weeds,
their
with
of Mr., correlation hair, ii. 309. for supposed necessity modification, coincidently cultivated plants, i. 328.
and
the on Whitby, Mrs., markings of i. 312; silkworms, on the i. 313. silk-moth, of White, Mr., reproduction pernumerary sudigits after tation, ampui. 448; time in occupied the of blending crossed races, ii. 62.
of of
trees, trees,
1. 377.
cious capri-
White, dogs,
White 321. White
Gilbert,
vegetable
diet
of
animals,
ii. 319-
liability of,
disease,
Weijenbergh,
ii. 34.5.
parthenogenesis,
litter the
mare
Weir,
H.,
large
of
rabbits, japanned
ii. 86.
on Jenner, Weir, i. 301; peacock,
and of
ga,
mule
quagkins, sisfrom
Weismann,
unnatural
Prof.,
reversion
lation, conditions, ii. 24; isoii. 253; dimorphic flies, butterii. 262; causes of variability,
ii. 273. Welsh descended from cattle, Bob longifrons, i. 83. West feral Indies, pigs of, i. 78; effect of climate of, upon sheep, i. 99. effected Western, Lord, change by, in pigs, ii. 97; in sheep, ii. 177.
flowers, most truly reproduced by seed, i. 452. Max, Wichura, on hybrid willows, ii. 24, 108, 246; analogy between the of old cultivated pollen of hybrids, ii. 247. plants and inheritance Mr., of Wicking, the characters of Columha primary livia in cross-bred i. pigeons, of a white 207; production head in almond ii. 176. tumblers, of Mr., on vidual indicases Wicksted, sterility, ii. 141. W^iegmann, spontaneous crossing of blue and white i. 418; peas, of varieties of bage, cabcrossing ii. 106; on contabescence,
-
ii. 144.
Wight, plants
ii. 149.
Dr.,
sexual
propagated
by
Westphalia,
in, i. 78.
striped
J.
young
pigs
ers flow-
Westwood,
of
O.,
on
peloric
ii. 327. inheritance
Calceolaria,
of Wetherell, Mr., on i. 454. mutilations, on Whately, Archbishop, grafting i. 379. late thorns, early and Wheat, or specific unitv diversity of, i. 323, 324, 328; Hasora, i.
Dr., effect of previous i. 425 impregnation, alpine ; ii. 281; breeds, drooping ears, ii. 282; correlation of hair and ii. 308. horns, Sir W. of Wilde, R., occurrence Bos frontosus and longifrons in
Irish
Wilckens,
paid
the
crannoges, breeds to
ancient
Dr. i.
324;
barbs
presence
of
riations va-
33; supernumerary
on
i. 446. the
the the
of,
dahlia,
progeny
and i. 326; deterioration of of, i. .327; crossinc: varieties in the of. i. 328, ii. 72, 8.5, 107: Swiss i. 328-330; lake-dwellings, selection i. 329, ii. to. applied 178; increased fertility of hybrids of, with Mfjilop^f, ii. 8o; of change of soil to, advantage ii. 124; differences ous variof. in of ii. 144; India, parts tinuous convariation in, ii. 178; red.
effects
of
soil
of
tame
animals,
on
Capt.,
among
pigeons
ii. 139.
the
on
Polynesians,
cattle,
Wilkinson.
ii. in 79.
J.,
Mr.,
crossed
Williams,
a
change
hen, i. 366.
Hamburgh
Mr.,
of plumage i. 265. of
Williams.
intercrossing
strawberries,
WILLIAMSON.
INDEX.
YOUATT.
477
of
Williamson, in of dogs
Indian
Wright,
calves
J., production
by
on
short of ii.
horned
In closi'
crippled cattle,ii.
Williamson,
Anrmone
94; 172;
sek'ctiuii
effect
on
ing
of
pigs,
97;
breeding, interby ilosti. 377; sion reverIi. 101. weeping, i. of spiral-leaved weeping, the Wright, Strethill, on ment developof hvbrids the galls of, ii. 246; 11. :ri3. 399; hydroida. .Mata Wymau, of, ii. 263, 264. Prof., on cattle, of notice and similar spot on a F., malformation Willughby, fantail in the a i. 160; on codtish, i. IMj; on pigeons, ian Virgintumbler i. 214; on geons, pipigs, ii. 205; pigeon, browsing der un-
ii. 178.
game-eocks
Willows,
i.
215;
the
on
the and
turbit,
carrier hookthe
i.
water,
ii. 285.
on
215;
billed
on
barb
Wilmot,
crested white reversion in colour, ii. 3, of sheep B. O., brids hyfertility of Wilson,
Mr.,
on
the
colours
of
Turkey-cock,
i.
303;
181.
"
of
cattle
in
humped Tasmania,
the
and
ordinary
of the
Yahu,"
in
the
name
of
the
pigeon
i. 84.
I'ersia, i.
KK).
Wilson,
Manx
Dr.,
over
prepotency
common
Yaks,
cat,
of
ii. i. of
40.
Wilson,
15.
James,
origin
on
dogs,
Wilson.
on
Mr.,
the
prepotency
transmission 174.
in
sheep,
of
ii.
43;
ii.
breeding proportionate
bulls,
domestication of, I. 83; selection il. 184. of white-tailed, of Yam, axillary development bulbs in the, ii. 148. teeth of Yarrell, Mr., deficiencv in hairless dogs. I. 34. Ii. SiYJ; acters chari. 288, Ii. 242; ducks, on of domestic sembling regoose,
those of whiteness variations AnHcr nlbi-
Wings,
in
breeds different of of i. 182, 183; fowls, effects characters i. 279-282; disuse on, i. and variations of, in ducks, diminution of. in birds 293-295; i. 296. of small islands, number of, W^ing-feathers, i. 164; variability pigeons, in in
of
in
ders, gan-
fish, gold-
plumage
ii. 25;
the
by
effect ii. in
cock,
26;
the
skylark
plumage
confinement,
of
ii. 242.
in
of,
ii.
137;
the
fowls,
Wolf,
recent
i. 25;
i. 31.
i. 266. land, existence of, in Ireof i. 15; barking young, the hvbrids dog, of, with
dingo,
Yellow
Yew, Yew,
in Mexico, ii. 257. fastigiate, ii. 220. in New Irish, hardy York,
fever,
Wolf-dog,
Wolves,
blar-k, of
North
Florida,
i. 21. their
same
burrowing
of
of,
the of
i. 377; tion propagaseed, i. 4.50. variations Yolk, of, in the eggs i. 2!"0. of ducks, dog, Mr., Youatt, history of the
of,
by
and common ii. 103; i. 308, bees, i. 308. S. P., Woodward, ii. 235.
Woodbury, Ligurian
Mr.,
crossing
hive-bets,
variability
on
Arctic
Wood,
a
Willoughby,
cross,
15;
on
on
cattle, Wooler.
the
A.,
young
Ilimalayan of persistency
in
a
rabbit,
the
i. coloured
i. 15; variations of the pulse in breeds of dogs, i. 35; liability in dogs. I. 35, il. 205; to disease 1. in dogs, inheritance of goitre I. .'i3, the 444; on greyhoimd, Charles's spaniels, King 41; on I. 41; on the i. 41; on setter, tion variai. 49: of breeds horses, In ribs number of in the of 1. 50; inheritance the horse, I. 443. in the horse, diseases Eastern of introduction 445;
II. horses, into blood P'ngllsh I. Welsh cattle. white 190; on of Brit86, ii. 187; improvement
crossed
i.
380.
Wounds,
healing
YOUATf.
INDEX.
^OPF-TAUBfi.
ish
breeds of
of
horns 11.
cattle,
in
i.
young
on
93;
sheep,
in
ii.
308;
11.
reduction
of ing, interbreedpower
bone
sheep,
11.
221;
on
on
cattle,
cattle,
11.
30, 93;
297;
on
crossed
92;
ii.
the
of
lection, se-
79,
Bakewell's 11. in of
172, relating
173;
to
in
long-horned
of
cattle,
93; cattle,
cattle
tion selec-
the 11.
Bible of
qualities
animals, J.,
on
11. the
179.
174;
degeneration
11.
by
in
Young,
i. 107.
Belgian
Burmese
rabbit,
neglect,
hornless of white
218;
on
the
cattle,
parts
of of
ii.
317;
Yule,
Capt.,
11.
on
hairy
cattle, long-horned
11.
321; by
family,
51,
310.
displacement
short-horned
cattle,
409;
on
on
Zambesi,
the,
1.
striped
78. character J. into
young
pigs
on
Angola
fleece
sheep,
of of
1. i. and
95; 100;
the
sheep,
horns 1.
Zambos, Zarco,
of introduction
the,
Santo
ii. of
G.,
sheep,
breeds of
96;
adaptation
to
Porto
by,
i. of 331.
sheep
1.
climate of
114. Zea
pasture,
lachlan
97;
horns 1.
altissima,
1.
i.
334;
mays,
sheep,
in 1. the 11.
96;
Zebu,
1.
80;
fertile
domestication
the,
with 85.
ass
sheep
of horns
Zoological
286;
occurrence
84;
crossing
i.
of, 84,
11. the
97,
in
European
of of
hornless
breeds
the colour
Zebra,
and
with
3; 3;
on on on
mare,
interbreeding
Merino
rams
Zephyranthes
Zinnia,
of
Candida,
cultivation
on
ii.
143. 241.
95;
of, Malayan
ii.
Germany,
174;
on
effect
penguin
unconscious ii.
sheep,
i.
289. division
192;
on
of
Leicester
of,
in
Algae,
ii.
sheep Hills,
the
Lammermulr
on
ii,
203;
many-horned
Zopf-Taube,"
i.
158.
(2)
THE
END.