MANUFACTURING PROCESS

2.0: METAL FORMING

INTRODUCTION
The initial material used in forming and shaping metals is usually molten metal, which is cast into individual ingots or, more recently continuously cast into slab, rod or pipe. Cast structures are converted to wrought structures by the deformation processes. The forming means changing the shape of existing solid body. The body, which is called the workpiece, stock or blank may be in the shape of a plate, a sheet, a bar, wire or tubing of various cross-section. An important consideration is the workability and formability of materials, meaning the maximum amount of deformation a material can withstand in a particular forming and shaping process without failure. The term workability is generally applied to bulk deformation process such as forging, rolling and extrusion in which the forces applied to the workpiece are predominantly compressive in nature. In contrast, the term formability is usually used for sheet-forming processes such as bending, stamping and deep drawing in which the forces applied are primarily tensile.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this course the student will be able to: Explain the cold, warm and hot working of metal Give the advantages/disadvantages of hot/cold working State several types of processes in metal forming Explain the various processes in metal forming

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this course the student has the ability to: Explain the principal operations for various metal forming processes Identify suitable metal forming operation for certain kind of products

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2.1

INTRODUCTION
There are many methods, mechanical, electro-chemical, chemical etc. for shaping the metals to the desired shape, size and quality. Each method however has certain limitations. The mechanical of shaping the metals usually termed mechanical shaping of metals, use external force to deform the metals plastically. The plastic deformation of the metal takes place when the stress caused in the metal reaches the yield point. Plastic deformation, which distorts the crystal lattice and breaks up the blocks of initial equiaxed grains to produce a fibrous structure or thin plates, increases the free energy level of a metal.

If the temperature of the metal is increased to a certain degree, new equiaxed grains form. The process of formation of new refined grains is called recrystallisation. The temperature at which this process is completed is called recrystallisation temperature. When plastic deformation is carried out: at room temperature or slightly above, it is called cold working above the recrystallization temperature but below melting point temperature it is called hot working above room temperature but below the hot working temperature, it is called warm working

The Temperature ranges for these 3 categories of plastic deformation are given below Process Cold working Warm working Hot working T/Tm < 0.3 0.3 to 0.5 >0.6

Where,

T = working temperature

Tm = melting point temperature T/Tm is known as homologous temperature (Dimensionless quantity)

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2.2

HOT WORKING
In the manufacture of metal components, basic alternatives available for the production of a desired shape include casting, machining welding and deformation process. Hot working is a deformation process. Hot working is plastic deformation of metal above their recrystallisation temperature. Recrystallisation temperature varies with different materials and ranges approximately between 0.3Tm to 0.5Tm. Some recrystallisation temperatures of common metals are listed below.

Metal Aluminium Copper Gold Iron Lead Magnesium Nickel Silver Tin Zinc

Recrystallisation Temperature C 150 200 200 450 Below room temperature 150 590 200 200 At room temperature

Recrystallisation decreases the density of dislocation, lower the strength and increase the ductility of the metal. Therefore it is possible to alter the shape of the metal drastically with moderated forces by hot working and without causing fracture.

2.2.1 ADVANTAGES OF HOT WORKING

Porosity in the metal is largely eliminated. Most ingots contain many small blowholes. These are pressed together and eliminated. Impurities in the form of inclusions are broken up and distributed throughout the metal. Coarse grains are refined. Physical properties are generally improved, principally as a result of the grain refinement. Ductility, toughness and resistance to impact are improved. The amount of energy necessary to change the shape of steel in the plastic state is far less than that required when the steel is cold.

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2.2.2

DISADVANTAGES HOT WORKING

The surface finish is poor due to the scale formation and oxidation at high temperature. The close tolerances cannot be achieved. Tooling and handling costs are high. The life of the tools used is reduced because they work under high temperatures.

2.3

COLD WORKING
The metal is cold worked when a metal is rolled, extruded, drawn at a temperature below the recrystallisation temperature. Most of the cold working processes are performed at room temperature where in this situation the temperature of metals remains below their recrystallisation temperature. In cold working, it does cause a temperature rise; it is not much as hot working.

Hot working is performed on metal in the plastic state and refines the grain structure, while cold working distorts the grain and does little toward reducing the size of the material. It improves strength, machinability, dimensional accuracy, and surface finish of metal.

2.3.1 PRINCIPLES OF COLD WORKING

During solidification, all metals are crystalline. The metals are composed of irregularly shaped grains of various sizes. Each grain is constructed of atoms in an orderly arrangement known as lattice. The orientation of atoms in a given grain is uniform but differs in adjacent grains.

When material is cold worked, the change in material shape brings about marked changes in the grain structure. Structural changes that occur are:

Grain fragmentation Movement of atoms Lattice distortion

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In cold working, greater pressures are needed than for hot working. The metal will not permanently deform until stresses exceeding it elastic limit. There is no recovery from grain distortion or fragmentation since there will be no recrystallisation of grains in the cold working range. When grain deformation occurred, greater resistance happened where this will results in increased strength and hardness of the metal. In this case, the metal is said to be strain hardened. The ability of a metal to be cold work is dependent on its ductility. The higher the ductility of a metal the more it is able to be cold worked. Pure metal has a greater amount of deformation than metals having alloying elements. When metal is deformed by cold work, residual stresses are set up in the metal. To remove this undesirable stresses, the metal is reheated below the recrystalline range temperature. Heating into the recrystalline range eliminates the effect of cold working.

2.3.2 ADVANTAGES OF COLD WORKING

Accurate dimensional control is possible because the size reduction is slight. (Normally hot rolled products are finally finished by cold rolling) The surface is smooth as no surface oxidations results during the process. Hardness and strength of the products are increased. Hardness of those metals could be increased which do not respond to heat treatment. Do not require any other finishing operations. Since the physical properties increase hence material saving can be effected by using smaller sized components.

2.3.3 DISADVANTAGES OF COLD WORKING

Due to residual stresses are removed by heat treatment, the heat treatment is essential for restoration of original structure. Cold working results in increased brittleness of the metal and loss in ductility. A fragmentation or distortion of grain structure is created. This process is limited to ductile metals only. Heavier equipment and higher power are required for cold-working Operations.

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2.4

ROLLING
Rolling is a process (deformation process) of reducing the thickness or changing the cross-section of a long workpiece by compressive forces applied through a set of rolls.

The ingot is rolled into intermediate shapes: blooms, billets and slabs. These blooms, billet and slabs are further rolled into plates, sheets, bar stock and structural shapes. A bloom has a square cross section with a minimum size of 150 X 150 mm. A billet is smaller than a bloom and may have any square section from 38 mm up to the size of a bloom. Slab may be rolled from either an ingot or bloom. They have a rectangular shape with minimum width of 250 mm and minimum thickness of 38 mm.

Schematic outline of various flat and shape-rolling processes

In hot rolling, it is important that the metal be uniformly heated to the proper temperature before processing. Prolonged exposure to elevated temperatures is usually required, the process known as soaking. In the process of rolling, the rolls rotate with a surface

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velocity exceeding the speed of the incoming metal. Friction along the contact interface acts to propel the metal forward. The metal is squeezed and elongated with a decrease in cross sectional area.

The metal emerges from the rolls traveling at a higher speed than it enters. In rolling, the quantity of metal going into a roll and out of it is the same but area and velocity are changed. One advantageous effect of hot rolling is the fact that there is a grain refinement. Refined grains usually possess better physical properties.

The rolling process (specifically, flat rolling)

2.4.1 ROLLING MILLS

Rolling mills stands are available in a variety of roll configurations. Most primary rolling is done in either two-high or three-high configurations with rolls of 600 to 1400 mm diameter.

Types of rolling mills are: 1. Two high rolling mill (reversing) 2. Three high rolling mill 3. Four-high rolling mill 4. Cluster mill rolling 5. Planetary mill

In the two-high reversing mills, the piece passes through the roll, which are then stopped and reversed in direction. The space between the rolls can be adjusted by raising or lowering the upper roll. The rolling mill is normally used to roll the ingot. To reduce the ingot to bloom, more than one pass is required. To

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achieve it, the rolls are reversed in direction so that the ingots go back to original position. The space between the rolls is now reduced and direction of rotation restored to original condition. This is repeated till the desired size is obtained. The three-high mill is less expensive to manufacture and has a higher output than the reversing mill. Three rolls are arranged one over the other. The upper and lower rolls rotate in the same direction whereas the middle rolls in opposite direction. Production rate is higher since two or three pieces may be passing through the mill simultaneously. Four- high and cluster roll arrangements use backup rolls to provide the necessary support for the smaller rolls. These backing up rolls prevent deflections of the working rolls. These configurations are used in the hot rolling of wide plate and sheet.

The planetary mill configuration enables extremely large reduction to be performed in a single pass. Each roll consists of a set of planetary rolls carried about a backup or support roll, much like a roller bearing.

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Various roll configurations used in rolling stands

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2.5

FORGING
Forging is mechanical working of metal in which desired shape and size are obtained by applying compressive force through hammer, a press or an up setting machine on the heated metal. Forging is an important industrial process used to make a variety of highstrength components for automotive, aerospace and other applications. These components include engine crankshaft and connecting rods gears, aircraft structural components and jet engine turbine parts.

Like other metal forming processes, forging refines the microstructure of the metal, eliminates the hidden defects such as hair cracks and voids and rearranges the fibrous macrostructure to conform to the metal flow. It is mainly the latter factor that gives forging its merits and advantages over casting and machining.

2.5.1 OPEN-DIE FORGING

Open-die forging is sometimes referred to as smith forging and is actually a development of a modern version of a very old type of forging, blacksmithing. Blacksmithing required hand tools and was carried out by striking the heated part repeatedly by a hammer on an anvil until the desired shape was finally shaped.

The modern version of blacksmithing, open-die forging, involves the substitution of a power-actuated hammer or press for the arm, hand hammer and anvil of the smith. This process is used for producing heavy forgings weighing up to more than 300 tons. Operations classified as open-die forging or related operation includes fullering, edging and cogging.

Fullering is a forging operation performed to reduce the cross section and redistribute the metal in a workpiece in preparation for subsequent shape forging. It is accomplished by dies with convex surfaces. Fullering die cavities are often designed into multicavity impression dies so that the starting bar can be rough formed before final shaping. Edging is similar to fullering, except that the dies have concave surfaces. A cogging operation consists of a sequence of forging compression along the length of a workpiece to reduce cross section and increase length. It is used in the steel industry to produce blooms and slabs from cast ingots. It is accomplished using open dies with flat or slightly contoured surfaces.

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Several open-die forging operations: (a) fullering, (b) edging, (c) cogging

2.5.2 IMPRESSION-DIE FORGING

Impression-die forging sometimes-called closed-die forging involves shaping the hot forging stock in counterpart cavities or impression that have been machined into two mating halves of a die set. Under impact (or squeezing), the hot metal plastically flows to fill the die cavity. Because the shape of the impressions restricts the flow of metal, the forged part accurately conforms to the shape of the cavity.

Generally, there are two types of closed-die forging: conventional (flash) die forging and flashless die forging. In conventional flash die forging, the volume of the slug has to be slightly larger than that of the die cavity. The surplus metal forms a flash (fin) around the parting line. In flashless forging, no fin is formed, so the process consequently calls for accurate control of the volume of the slug. If the slug is smaller than the required final product, proper filing of the die cavity is not achieved. On the other hand, when the size of the slug is bigger than that of the desired forging, excessive load buildup will eventually result in the breaking of the tooling or equipment.

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The advantages of closed die forging are: close tolerances and good surface finish greater strength at lower unit weight compared with casting higher production rates compared to machining

Sequence of impression-die forging: (1) just prior to initial contact with raw workpiece, (2) partial compression, (3) final die closure, causing flash to form in gap between die plates.

2.5.3 SWAGING AND RADIAL FORGING

Swaging and radial forging are forging processes used to reduce the diameter of a tube or solid rod. Swaging is often performed on the end of the workpiece to create a tapered section. The swaging process is accomplished by means of rotating dies that hammer a workpiece radially inward to taper it as the piece is fed into the dies. A mandrel is sometimes required to control the shape and size of the internal diameter of tubular parts that are swaged.

Radial forging is similar to swaging in its action against the work and is used to create similar part shape. The difference is that in radial forging the dies do not rotate around the workpiece; instead the work is rotated as it feeds into the hammering dies.

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Swaging process to reduce solid rod stock; the dies rotate as they hammer the work. In radial forging, the workpiece rotates while the dies remain in a fixed orientation as they hammer the work.

Examples of parts made by swaging: (a) reduction of solid stock, (b) tapering a tube, (c) swaging to form a groove on a tube, (d) pointing of a tube, (e) swaging of neck on a gas cylinder.

2.5.4 DIE MATERIALS

During their service life, forging dies are subjected to severe conditions such as high temperature, excessive pressure and abrasion. A die material must, therefore, possess adequate hardness at high temperatures as well as high toughness to be able to withstand the severe conditions. Special tool steels (hotwork steels including one or more of the following alloying additives: chromium, nickel, molybdenum and vanadium) are employed as die materials. Die blocks are annealed, machined to make the shank, hardened and tempered; then impression cavities are sunk by toolmakers.

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2.5.5 FORGING MACHINES

Forging machines are generally classified as: Presses Hammers

2.5.5.1 PRESSES
1. 2. 3. Hydraulic presses Mechanical presses Screw presses

Hydraulic presses operate at constant speeds and are load limited or load restricted. A press stops if the load required exceeds its capacity. Compare to mechanical presses, hydraulic presses are slower and involve higher initial cost, but they require less maintenance.

Mechanical presses are basically of either the crank or the eccentric type. The energy in a mechanical press is generated by a large flywheel powered by an electric motor. The force available in mechanical a press depends on the stroke position; it becomes extremely high at the bottom dead center. Mechanical presses have high production rates, they are easier to automate and require less operator skill than do other types of forging machines. Press capacity generally range from 2.7 MN to 107 MN.

Screw presses derive their energy from a flywheel; hence they are energy limited. The forging load is transmitted through a vertical screw and the ram comes to stop when the flywheel energy is dissipated. If the dies do not close at the end of the cycle, the operation is repeated until the forging is completed. Screw press are used for various open-die and close-die forging operations; they are particularly suitable for small production quantities and precision parts, such as turbine blades. Capacities range from 1.4 MN to 280 MN.

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2.5.5.2 HAMMERS
Gravity drop hammers Power drop hammers Counterblow hammers High-Energy-Rate machines

Gravity drop hammers. In the operation of this hammer, a process called drop forging, the energy is derived from the free falling ram. The available energy of the hammer is the product of the rams weight and the height of its drop. Rams weight from 180 kg to 4500 kg with energy capacities ranging up to 120 kJ. Power drop hammers. The rams downstroke is accelerated by steam, air or hydraulic pressure at about 750 kPa. Ram weights range from 225 kg to as much as 22500 kg with energy capacities ranging up to 1150 kJ.

Counterblow hammers. This hammer has two rams that simultaneously approach each other horizontally or vertically to forge the part. The part may be rotated between blows for proper shaping of the workpiece during forging. Counterblow hammers operate at high speeds and transmit less vibration to their bases. Capacities range up to 1200 kJ.

High-Energy-Rate machines. The ram is accelerated by inert gas at high pressure and the part is forged in one blow at a very high speed. Although there are several types of these machines, various problems associated with their operation and maintenance, with die breakage and with safety considerations have greatly limited their actual use in forging plants.

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Schematic illustration of the principles of various forging machines. (a) Hydraulic press, (b) Mechanical press with an eccentric drive; the eccentric shaft can be replaced by a crankshaft to give the up-and-down motion to the ram, (c) Knuckle-joint press, (d) Screw press, (e) Gravity drop hammer.

2.6

EXTRUSION
Extrusion is a compression forming process in which the work metal is forced to flow through a die opening to produce a desired cross-sectional shape. The process can be likened to squeezing toothpaste out of a toothpaste tube. Historically, extrusion was first used toward the end of the eighteenth century for producing lead pipes. It later gained widespread industrial applications for processing nonferrous metals and alloys like copper, brass, aluminum, zinc and magnesium. Recently, with the modern developments in extrusion techniques, lubricants and tooling, other metals, such as steels, titanium and refractory metals, uranium and thorium can also be extruded successfully. The stock used for extrusion is mainly a cast ingot or a rolled billet. The extrusion process is classified as; direct, indirect, hydrostatic and impact extrusion.

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2.6.1 DIRECT EXTRUSION

Direct extrusion also called forward extrusion is used in the manufacture of solid and hollow slender product and for structural shapes that cannot be obtained by any other metal forming process. A metal billet is loaded into a container and a ram compresses the material forcing it to flow through one or more opening in a die at the opposite end of the container. As the ram approaches the die, a small portion of the billet remains, which cannot be forced through the die opening. This extra portion, called the butt, is separated from the product by cutting it just beyond the exit of the die.

Hollow section for example tubes, are possible in direct extrusion. The starting billet is prepared with a hole parallel to its axis. This allows passage of a mandrel that is attached to the dummy block. As the billet is compressed, the material is forced to flow through the clearance between the mandrel and the die opening. The resulting cross section is tubular. Semi hollow cross-sectional shapes are usually extruded in the same way. The starting billet in direct extrusion is usually round in cross section but the final shape is determined by the shape of the die opening. Obviously, the largest dimension of the die opening must be smaller than the diameter of the billet. An infinite variety of cross-sectional shapes is possible in direct extrusion.

Direct extrusion

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(a) Direct extrusion to produce a hollow or semi hollow cross section; (b) hollow, (c) semi hollow cross sections.

2.6.2 INDIRECT EXTRUSION

Indirect extrusion also called backward extrusion. In indirect extrusion the die is mounted to the ram rather than at the opposite end of the container. As the ram penetrates into the work, the metal is forced to flow through the clearance in a direction opposite to the motion of the ram. Since the billet is not forced to move relative to the container, there is no friction at the container walls and the ram force therefore lower than in direct extrusion. Limitations of indirect extrusion are imposed by the lower rigidity of the hollow ram and the difficulty in supporting the extruded product as it exits the die. Indirect extrusion can produce hollow (tubular) cross section. In this method the ram is pressed into the billet, forcing the material to flow around the ram and take a cup shape. There are practical limitations on the length of the extruded part that can be made by this method. Support of the ram becomes a problem as work length increases.

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Indirect extrusion to produce a solid cross section

Indirect extrusion to produce a hollow cross section

2.6.3 HYDROSTATIC EXTRUSION

One problem in direct extrusion is friction along the billet-container interface. This problem can be addressed by surrounding the billet with fluid inside the container and pressurizing the fluid by the forward motion of the ram. Consequently, ram force is significantly lower than in direct extrusion. The fluid pressure acting on all surfaces of the billet gives the process its name. It can be carried out at room temperature or at elevated temperatures. Special fluids and procedures must be used at elevated temperatures. Hydrostatic extrusion is an adaptation of direct extrusion.

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One disadvantage of the process is the required preparation of the starting work billet. The billet must be formed with a taper at one end to fit snugly into the die entry angle. This establishes a seal to prevent fluid from squirting out the die hole when the container is initially pressurized.

Hydrostatic extrusion

2.6.4 IMPACT EXTRUSION

Impact extrusion is performed at higher speeds and shorter strokes than conventional extrusion. It is used to make individual components. As the name suggest, the punch impact the workpiece, rather than simply applying pressure to it. The products are not necessarily cylindrical with a circular cross section. In fact, the range of shapes possible is very broad, including even irregular symmetrical shapes. The high speed characteristics of impacting permit large reductions and high production rates, making this an important commercial process. Impacting can be carried out as forward extrusion, backward extrusion or combinations of these.

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Several examples of impact extrusion: (a) forward, (b) backward, (c) Combination of forward and backward.

2.6.5 EXTRUSION DEFECTS

The extrusion defects can be classified into the following categories: 1. 2. 3. centerburst piping surface cracking

Centerburst, is an internal crack that develops as a result of tensile stresses along the center line of the workpiece during extrusion. The greater material movement in the outer regions stretches the material along the center of the work. Conditions that promote centerburst are high die angles, low extrusion ratios and impurities in the work metal that serve as starting points for crack defects.

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Piping is a defect associated with direct extrusion. It is the formation of a sink hole in the end of the billet. This defect is usually encountered especially when the original billets are relatively short. The use of a dummy block whose diameter is slightly less than that of the billet helps to avoid piping. Other names given to this defect include tailpipe and fishtailing.

Surface cracking is a defect results from high workpiece temperatures that cause cracks to develop at the surface. They often occur when extrusion speed is too high, leading to high strain rates and associated heat generation. Other factors contributing to surface cracking are high friction and surface chilling of high temperature billets in hot extrusion.

Some common defects in extrusion: (a) centerburst, (b) piping, (c) surface cracking.

2.7

DRAWING
Drawing is basically a forming process that involves pulling a slender semi finished product like wire, bar stock or tube through a hole of a drawing die. The general features of the process are similar to those of extrusion. The difference is that the work is pulled through the die in drawing, whereas it is pushed through the die in extrusion. Although the presence of tensile stresses is obvious in drawing, compression also plays a significant role since the metal is squeezed down as it passes through the die opening. Accurate dimensions, good surface quality, increased strength and hardness and the possibility of producing very small sections are some advantages of the drawing process.

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2.7.1 THE DRAWING PROCESS

In drawing, the cross section of a round rod or wire is typically reduced or changed by pulling through a die. The major variables in drawing are similar to those in extrusion: reduction in cross-sectional area, die angle, friction along the die-workpiece interfaces and drawing speed. The die angle influences the drawing force and the quality of the drawn product.

Drawing of bar, rod or wire Drawing through dies with different profiles can produce various solid crosssections. The initial cross-section is usually round or square. The wall thickness, diameter or shape of tubes that have been produced by extrusion or by other processes can be further reduced by tube drawing processes. Tubes as large as 0.3m in diameter can be drawn by these techniques. Mandrels of various profiles are available for these operations.

Examples of tube-drawing operations, with and without an internal mandrel. Note that a variety of diameters and wall thicknesses can be produced from the same initial tube stock (which has been made by other process).

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2.7.2 DRAWING EQUIPMENT

Bar drawing is accomplished on a machine called a draw bench, consisting of an entry table, die stand, carriage and exit rack. The carriage is used to pull the stock through the draw die. It is powered by hydraulic cylinder or motor-driven chains. The die stand is often designed to hold more than one die so that several bars can be pulled simultaneously through their respective dies.

Hydraulically operated draw bench for drawing metal bars

Wire drawing is done on continuous drawing machines that consist of multiple draw dies, separated by accumulating drums between the dies. Each drum called a capstan is motor driven to provide the proper pull force to draw the wire stock through the upstream die. It also maintains a modest tension the wire as it proceeds to the next draw in the series. Each die provides a certain amount of reduction in the wire, so the total wire reduction is achieved by the series.

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Continuous drawing of wire

2.8

SHEET METAL FORMING

Sheetmetal working includes cutting and forming operations performed on relatively thin sheets of metal. Stock thickness can be as small as several thousands of an inch, but most sheetmetal thickness is between 0.4mm and 6mm. When thickness exceeds about 6mm, the stock is usually referred to as plate rather than sheet. Products made by sheetmetal forming processes include metal desks, file cabinets, appliances, car bodies, aircraft fuselages and beverage cans. Sheetmetal parts are generally characterized by high strength, good dimensional accuracy, good surface finish and relatively low cost. Most sheetmetal processing is performed at room temperature. The three major categories of sheetmetal processes are (1) cutting, (2) bending and (3) drawing. Cutting is used to separate large sheets into smaller pieces, to cut out a part perimeter or to make holes in a part. Bending and drawing are used to form sheetmetal parts into their required shapes.

The tooling used to perform sheetmetal work is called a punch and die. Most sheetmetal operations are performed on machine tools called presses. The term stamping press is used to distinguish these presses from forging and extrusion presses. The sheetmetal products are called stampings

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2.8.1 SHEARING, BLANKING AND PUNCHING

There are three principal operations in pressworking that cut metal by the shearing mechanism just described: shearing, blanking and punching.

Shearing is a sheetmetal cutting operation along a straight line between two cutting edges. Shearing is typically used to cut large sheets into smaller sections for subsequent pressworking operations. It is performed on a machine called a power shear or squaring shear. The upper blade of the power shears is often inclined to reduce the required cutting force.

Blanking involves cutting of the sheetmetal along a closed outline in a single step to separate the piece from the surrounding stock. The part that is cut out is the desired product in the operation and is called the blank. Punching is very similar to blanking except that the piece that is cut out is scrap, called the slug. The remaining stock is the desired part.

Shearing operation; (a) Side view of the shearing operation; (b) Front view of power shear equipped with inclined upper cutting blade

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(a) Blanking and (b) Punching

2.8.2 BENDING OPERATIONS

Bending in sheetmetal work is defined as the straining of the metal around a straight axis. During the bending operation, the metal on the inside of the neutral plane is compressed, while the metal on the outside of the neutral plane is stretched. The metal is plastically deformed so that the bend takes a permanent set upon removal of the stresses that caused it. Bending produces little or no change in the thickness of the sheetmetal.

(a)

Bending of sheetmetal (b) both compression and tensile elongation of the metal occur in bending

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V-bending and Edge bending Bending operations are performed using punch and die tooling. The two common bending methods and associated tooling are V-bending, performed with a V-die and edge bending performed with a wiping die. In V-bending, the sheetmetal is bent between a V-shaped punch and die. Included angles ranging from very obtuse to very acute can be made with V-dies. V-bending is generally used for low-production operations. It is often performed on a press brake and the associated V-dies are relatively simple and inexpensive. Edge bending involves cantilever loading of the sheetmetal. A pressure pad is used to apply a holding force to hold the base of the part against the die, while the punch forces the part to yield and bend over the edge of the die. Because of the pressure pad, wiping dies are more complicated and costly than V-dies and are generally used for high production work.

Two common bending methods; (a) V-bending and (b) edge bending; (1) before and (b) after bending

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2.8.3 DEEP DRAWING

Many parts made of sheetmetal are cylindrical or box-shaped: for example, pots and pans, containers for food and beverage, kitchen sinks and automotive fuel tanks. Such parts are usually made by a process in which a punch forces a flat sheetmetal blank into a die cavity.

(a) Drawing of a cup-shaped part (b corresponding workpart: (1) starting blank, (2) drawn part 2.8.3.1 THE DEEP DRAWING PROCESS In the basic method, a round sheetmetal blank is placed over a circular die opening and is held in place with a blankholder or hold-down ring. The punch travels downward and forces the blank into the die cavity, forming a cup. During the drawing operation, the movement of the blank into the die cavity induces compressive circumferential stresses in the flange, which tend to cause the flange to wrinkle during drawing. Wrinkling can be reduced or eliminated if a blankholder is kept under the effect of a certain force. In order to improve performance, the magnitude of this force can be controlled as a function of punch travel.

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Stages in deformation of the work in deep drawing: (1) punch makes initial contact with work, (2)
bending, (3) straightening, (4) friction and compression, (5) final cup shape showing effects of thinning in the cup walls

2.8.4 ROLL BENDING AND ROLL FORMING

Roll bending is an operation in which large sheetmetal parts are formed into curved sections by means of rolls. As the sheet passes between the rolls, the rolls are brought toward each other to a configuration that achieves the desired radius of curvature on the work. Components for large storage tanks and pressure vessels are fabricated by roll bending. The operation can also be used to bend structural shapes, railroad rails and tubes.

Roll bending Roll forming is a continuous bending process in which opposing rolls are used to

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produce long sections of formed shapes from coil or strip stock. Several pairs of rolls are usually required to progressively to accomplish the bending of the stock into the desired shape. Products made by roll forming include channels, gutters, pipe and tubing with seams, and various structural sections. Although roll forming has the general appearance of a rolling operation, the difference is that roll forming involves bending rather than compression of the work.

Roll forming of a continuous channel section: (1) straight rolls, (2) partial form, (3) final form

2.8.5 SPINNING
Spinning is a metal forming process in which an axially symmetric part is gradually shaped over a mandrel or form by means of a rounded tool or roller. The tool or roller applies a very localized pressure to deform the work by axial and radial motions over the surface of the part. Basic geometric shapes typically produced by spinning include cones, hemispheres, tubes and cylinders. There are three types of spinning operations: (1) conventional spinning, (2) shear spinning, (3) tube spinning.

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2.8.6 CONVENTIONAL SPINNING

Conventional spinning is the basic spinning operation. A sheetmetal disk is held against the end of a rotating mandrel of the desired inside shape of the final part, while the tool or roller deforms the metal against the mandrel.

Conventional spinning bends the metal around the moving circular axis to conform to the outside surface of the axisymmetric mandrel. The thickness of the metal therefore remains unchanged relative to the starting disk thickness. Applications of conventional spinning include production of conical and curved shapes in low quantities.

Conventional spinning: (1) setup at start of process, (2) during spinning, (3) completion of process

2.8.7 SHEAR SPINNING

In shear spinning the part is formed over the mandrel by a shear deformation process in which the outside diameter remains constant and the wall thickness is therefore reduced. This shear straining and consequent thinning of the metal distinguish this process from the bending action in conventional spinning. The process has been applied in the aerospace industry to form large parts such as rocket nose cones.

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Shear spinning: (1) setup and (2) completion of process

2.8.8 TUBE SPINNING

Tube spinning is used to reduce the wall thickness and increase the length of a tube by means of a roller applied to the work over a cylindrical mandrel. Tube spinning is similar to shear spinning except that the starting workpiece is a tube rather than a flat disk. The operation can be performed by applying the roller against the work externally or internally. It is also possible to form profiles in the walls of the cylinder by controlling the path of the roller as it moves tangentially along the wall.

Tube spinning: (a) external (b) internal and (c) profiling

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