MANUFACTURING PROCESS

1.0 METAL CASTING

INTRODUCTION
Several different methods such as casting, molding, forming, powder metallurgy and machining are available to shape metals into useful products. One of the oldest processes is casting, which basically involves pouring molten metal into a mould cavity where upon solidification, it takes the shape of the cavity. Casting was first used around 4000 B.C. to make ornament, copper arrowheads and various other objects. The casting process is capable of producing intricate shapes in one piece including those with internal cavities such as engine block. Almost all metals can be cast in, or nearly in, the final shape desired, often with only minor finishing operations required.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this course the student will be able to: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Explain the principle of metal casting Describe the conventional casting processes State various types of contemporary casting processes Describe various operations of contemporary casting processes State the metals for casting Explain some important product design considerations

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this course the student has the ability to: 1. 2. Explain various types of casting processes Explain the material and design considerations in metal casting

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1.1

THE FUNDAMENTAL OF METAL CASTING

Casting is a process in which molten metal flows by gravity or other force into a mold where it solidifies in the shape of mold cavity. The term casting also applied to the part that is made by this process. It is one of the oldest shaping processes, dating back 6000 years.

The principle of casting seems simple: melt the metal, pour it into the mold, let it freeze and removing the metal from the mold.

The word casting is used both for the process and for the product. The process of casting is the manufacture of metallic objects by melting the metal, pouring it into the mold cavity and allowing the molten metal to solidify as a casting whose shape is a reproduction of the mold cavity. This process is carried out in a foundry, where either ferrous or non-ferrous metals are cast.

Casting processes have found widespread application because it produces hundreds of intricately shaped parts of various sizes like plumbing fixtures, furnaces parts, cylinder blocks of automobile and airplane engines, pistons, machine tool beds and frames, wheels and crankshafts. Casting processes are most often selected over other manufacturing methods, for the following reasons: Casting can produce complex shape with internal cavities or hollow sections It can produce very large parts The cast components may not require further finishing operation, thus reducing the overall production time. Casting is competitive with other processes High rates of production Improve properties of materials

After molten metal is poured into a mold, a series of events takes place during the solidification of the casting and its cooling to ambient temperature. These events greatly influence the size, shape, uniformity and chemical composition of the grains formed throughout the casting, which in turn influence its overall properties. The significant factors affecting these events are: The type of metal The thermal properties of metal and mold

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The geometric relationship between the volume and surface area of casting The shape of the mold

1.2

METAL CASTING PROCESSES

Many casting processes have been developed over many years. As in all manufacturing, each process has its own characteristics, applications, advantages, limitations and costs. Metal casting processes can be devided into two categories; i. ii. Conventional foundry processes Contemporary casting processes

1.2.1 CONVENTIONAL FOUNDRY PROCESSES (SAND CASTING)

The traditional method of casting metals is in sand molds and has been used for millenia. Although the origins of sand casting date to ancient times, it is still the most prevalent form of casting.

1.2.1.1 SANDS
Most sand casting operation use silica sand (SiO2), which is the product of the disintegration of rocks over extremely long periods of time. Sand is inexpensive and is suitable as mold material because of its resistance to high temperatures. There are two general types of sand: a. b. naturally bonded (bank sand) synthetic (lake sand)

Because its composition can be controlled more accurately, synthetic sand is preferred by most foundries.

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Schematic illustration of the sequence of operations for sand casting

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1.2.1.2 TYPES OF SAND MOLD

Sand molds are characterized by the types of sand that comprise them and by the methods used to produce them. There are three basic types of sand molds: a. green sand mold b. cold-box mold c. no-bake mold

The most common mold material is green molding sand, which is a mixture of sand, clay and water. The term green refers to the fact that the sand in the mold is moist or damp while the metal is being poured into it.

In the cold-box mold process, various organic and inorganic binders are blended into the sand to bond the grains chemically for greater strength. These molds are dimensionally more accurate than green-sand molds but more expensive.

In the no-bake mold process, a synthetic liquid resin is mixed with the sand; the mixture hardens at room temperature. Because bonding of the mold in this and in the cold-box process takes place without heat, they are called cold-setting process.

Schematic illustration of a sand mold showing various features

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1.2.1.3 PATTERNS
Patterns are used to mold the sand mixture into the shape of casting. They may be made of wood, plastic or metal. The selection of a pattern material depends on the size and shape of the casting, the dimensional accuracy, the quantity of castings required and the molding process.

There are 2 classifications of patterns; i. ii. Removable pattern Disposable pattern

Types of removable pattern;

a.

Solid pattern

This is the simplest form of a pattern, which is generally used for simpler shapes and low-quantity production. They are generally made of wood and inexpensive. Many patterns cannot be made in a single piece because difficult to remove them from the sand.

b.

Split pattern

Patterns are made in two parts & each part forms a portion of the cavity for the casting. Split occurs at the parting line of the mold. In this way, casting of complicated shape can be produced.

c.

Match-plate pattern

These patterns are used for high production quantities of casting. Match plate provides a substantial mounting for pattern. Holes in the plate allow the top and bottom sections of the mold to be aligned accurately.

d.

Cope-and-drag pattern

Similar to the match-plate pattern except that split pattern halves are attached to separate plates. Cope and drag sections of the mold can be fabricated independently.

e.

Gated pattern

This pattern can be used where many casting s are required. Such patterns are made of metal to give them strength.

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f.

Loose-piece pattern

Pattern with two loose pieces are necessary to facilitate withdrawing them from the mold. The projections have to be fastened loosely to the main pattern by wooden or wire dowel pins.

Types of patterns; A) Solid pattern B) Split pattern C)Loose-piece pattern D) Gated pattern E) Match plate

1.2.1.4CORES
For casting with internal cavities or passages, such as found in an automotive engine block or a valve body, cores are utilized. Cores are placed in the mold cavity before casting to form the interior surfaces of the casting and are removed from the finished part during shakeout and further processing. The core is usually made of sand compacted into the desired shape. The actual size of the core must include allowances for shrinkage and machining. Cores may be classified as greensand core and dry sand core. Green sand cores are formed by the pattern and made from the same sand as the rest of the mold .Dry sand cores are formed separately to be inserted after the pattern is withdrawn but before the mold is closed.

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The core is anchored by core prints. These are the recesses that are added to the pattern to support and hold the core in place and to provide vents. For large and intricate cores, additional support in the form of chaplets is placed in the mold. Chaplets are made of a metal with a higher melting temperature than the casting metal.

Examples of sand cores supported by core prints

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1.2.1.5 SAND MOLDING MACHINES

The oldest known method of molding, which is still used for simple casting, is to compact the sand by hammering or ramming it around the pattern. For most operations, however the sand mixture is compacted around the pattern by molding machines. Machines can reduce number of workers in molding and also produce better molds. Molding machines includes such as jolt, squeeze, joltsqueeze and sandslinger machine.

a. Jolt machine Molds weighing up to 5850 kg can be made on the larger machines. The table is raised a short distance by means of air pressure and then dropped. This action causes the sand to be packed evenly about the pattern. The sand density is greatest around the pattern and parting line.

b. Squeeze machine Squeezer machine press the sand between machine table and squeeze head. The compaction is the highest at the squeezing head.

c. Jolt-squeeze machine Many machines use both jolt and squeeze. Thus more uniform compaction can be obtained by combining them.

d. Sandslinger machine Sandslingers fill the flask uniformly with sand under high-pressure stream. They are used to fill large flask and are typically operated by machine. An impeller in the machine throws sand from its cups at high speeds. The machine not only places the sand but also rams it appropriately.

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Mechanical molding equipments

1.2.2 CONTEMPORARY CASTING PROCESSES

1.2.2.1DIE CASTING
Die-casting is a permanent mold casting process in which the molten metal is injected into the mold cavity under high pressure. The typical pressures are 7 to 350 MPa. The pressure is maintained during solidification. The pressure may be pneumatic or hydraulic. Since the molten metal is formed under high pressure in the die, this method produces superior castings than obtained by sand casting. Typical parts made through die casting are motors, business-machine and appliance components and hand tools.

Types of die casting machines There are two main types of die casting machines i. ii. Hot chamber die casting machines Cold chamber die casting machines

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Hot chamber die-casting

In hot-chamber machines, the metal is melted in a container attached to the machine, and a piston is used to inject the liquid metal under high pressure into the die. Typical injection pressures are 7 to 37 MPa. To improve die life and to aid in rapid metal cooling, dies are usually cooled by circulating water or oil through various passageways in the die block. Hot chamber die-casting imposes a special hardship on the injection system since much of it is submerged in the molten metal. The process is therefore limited in its applications to low melting point metals that do not chemically attack the plunger and other mechanical components. These metals include zinc, tin, lead, and sometimes magnesium.

Cold chamber die casting

In cold-chamber machines, molten metal is poured into an unheated chamber from an external melting container, and a piston is used to inject the metal under high pressure into the die cavity. Injection pressures used in these machines typically 14 to 140 MPa.

Cold chamber machines are typically used for casting high melting point alloys such as aluminium, magnesium and copper. Compared to hot chamber machines, cycle rate are not usually as fast because of the need to ladle the liquid metal into the chamber from an external source.

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(a) Schematic illustration of the hot-chamber die-casting process

(b) Schematic illustration of the cold-chamber die-casting process

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Types of Cavities

Die casting cavities may be made of;

1. 2. 3. 4.

Single cavity dies Multiple cavity dies with several identical cavities Combination cavity dies with several different cavities Unit dies

Various types of cavities in die-casting die

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Advantages

1.

High rates of production because dies can be filled quickly (production rates up to 100 cycles/minute are possible)

2. 3.

Produce high quality parts with complex shape. Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish, thus little or no machining is necessary.

4.

The scrap loss is low because the sprue, runner and gates can be remelted.

5.

The ability to produce parts that have thin walls (as thin as 0.5 mm)

Disadvantages

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

High cost of equipment and dies The process is not economical for small production volume. Large castings size cannot be produced The dies must be very strong and rigid. Die casting machine must be very rugged.

1.2.2.2CENTRIFUGAL CASTING
Centrifugal casting refers to several casting methods in which the mold is rotated at high speed so that centrifugal force distributes the molten metal to the outer regions of the die cavity. There are three types of centrifugal casting:

i. ii. iii.

True centrifugal casting Semi centrifugal casting Centrifuging

True centrifugal casting

In centrifugal casting, molten metal is poured into a rotating mold to produce a tubular part. Examples of parts made by this process include pipe, tubes, bushing, gun barrels and rings. The axis of rotation is usually horizontal but can be vertical for short workpieces. Molds are made of steel, iron or graphite and may be coated with a refractory lining to increase mold life. The high speed rotation result in centrifugal forces that cause the metal to take the shape of the

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mold cavity. Thus the outside shape of the casting can be round, octagonal, hexagonal or other. However the inside shapes of the casting is perfectly round due to the radially symmetric forces at work.

Semi centrifugal casting

In this method, centrifugal force is used to produce solid casting rather than tubular parts. In semi centrifugal casting process the mould is rotated about the vertical axis only and the metal is poured through a central sprue. To get hollow casting, a central core is used. The speed of spinning is not high as in true centrifugal casting. This process is used for relatively large castings, which are symmetrical in shape such as gear, blank, sheave, wheels and pulley.

Centrifuging

In centrifuging, mold cavities of any shape are placed at a certain distance from the axis of rotation. The molten metal is poured from the center and is forced into the mold by centrifugal forces. A variety of shapes could be cast and nonsymmetrical casting could be produced.

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Various types of centrifugal casting

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1.2.2.3 SHELL MOLD CASTING

Shell mold casting is a process in which the mold is a thin shell with wall thickness between 0.3 to 0.6 mm. Shell mold is an investment casting process but the investment material is sand with a resin binder rather than refractory slurry. The mold in this process is made up of a mixture of dried silica sand and phenolic resin formed into thin, half-mold shells that are clamped together for pouring.

The sand (free from clay) is mixed with phenol formaldehyde resin. The mixture is then put into a dump box or blowing machine. A metal pattern must be used because it is preheated to 175C to 370 C and sprayed with silicon (parting agent) before being placed on top of the dump box. The box is then rotated upside down causing the sand mixture drop on the pattern and is held there for 15-30s before return it to original position. The high temperature of the surface of the pattern melts the binder and the coated sand grains form a shell around the pattern. The assembly is then placed in an oven for to 1 minute to complete the curing of the resin.

The shell hardens around the pattern and is removed from the pattern using builtin ejector pins. Two half-shells are made in this manner and are bonded together in preparation for pouring. After the casting solidifies, the shell is broken from it and the part finished. Shell molding applications include small mechanical parts requiring high precision such as gear housing, cylinder head, turbine blade (jet aircraft) and connecting rod.

1.2.3.3.1 ADVANTAGES
1. High quality of the finish casting therefore reduce cleaning, machining and other finishing cost 2. 3. 4. Little molding skill is necessary and sand requirements are low Complex shape can be produced with less labor and low cost. Good dimensional accuracy is also achieved, with tolerances of 0.25 mm possible on small to medium-sized parts. 5. Large and many types of casting can be produced by this process

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1.2.2.3.2 DISADVANTAGES
1. The process requires metal patterns. The metal pattern is costly than wooden pattern. 2. Expensive equipment for making and heating the mold

Diagram of shell molding process

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1.2.2.4 INVESTMENT CASTING

The investment casting is also called as lost-wax process. The term investment comes from the word invest which is to clothe or surround (to cover completely). In the casting practice, the investment is slurry of a refractory (heat resistant) material that used to coat the pattern, thus forming the mold. The pattern is made of wax or a plastic such as polystyrene. The pattern is made by injecting molten wax or plastic into a metal die in the shape of the pattern.

Typically the workpiece is small so that a number of copies of the pattern are attached to a central wax sprue tree by wax runner. Coating with refractory is usually accomplished by dipping the pattern tree into slurry of very fine-grained silica mixed with plaster to bond the mold into the shape. After this initial coating has dried, the pattern is coated repeatedly to increase the thickness. The mold is dried in air for about 8 hours to harden the binder and then heated to temperature of 90-175 C for about 12 hours in an inverted position to melt out the wax. After the mold has been poured and the metal has solidified, the mold is broken up and removes the casting. Examples of parts include blades, gears, cams, valves, jewelry and dental fixtures.

1.2.2.4.1 ADVANTAGES
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Intricate forms with undercuts can be cast A very smooth surface is obtained with no parting line Good dimensional accuracy; tolerances of 0.076 mm are possible. Additional machining is normally not required; this is net shape process Wax can be usually be recovered for reuse Suitable for casting of high-melting point alloys

1.2.2.4.2

DISADVANTAGES

1. It is a relatively expensive process because many steps are involved in this casting operation. 2. Parts made by investment casting are normally small in size.

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Schematic illustration of investment casting process

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1.2.5 CONTINUOUS CASTING

Continuous casting (strand casting) process is used in the heavy metal

industry. Continuous casting is widely applied in aluminum and copper production, but its noteworthy application is in steel making. The process is used for steel production with major efficiency and productivity improvement and significant cost reduction. The process consists of continuously pouring molten metal into a mold that has the facilities for rapidly chilling the metal to the point of solidification, then withdrawing it from the mold. Molten steel is poured from a ladle into a temporary container called a tundish, which dispenses the metal to one or more continuous casting molds. The molten metal travel through water-cooled mold and begins to solidify as it travel downward along a path supported by rollers. Water sprays accelerate the cooling process. The cooling rate is such the metal develops a solidified skin (shell) to support itself during its travel downward at speed hot and typically 25 mm/s. While still

plastic, the metal is bent from vertical to horizontal orientation. The

continuously cast metal may be cut into desired lengths by shearing or torch cutting. After the castings are made, they may be formed into beams, rods or other shapes by forging, rolling and other techniques.

1.2.5.1 ADVANTAGES
1. Continuous casting virtually eliminates the problems of piping and mold spatter. 2. 3. Cost, energy and scrap are all significantly reduced. The products have improved surfaces, more uniform chemical

composition.

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Schematic illustration of continuous casting process

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1.2.6 SLUSH CASTING

In most casting procedures, the metal in the mold begins to cool and solidify where it comes in contact with the mold. The metal in the center of the mold remains liquid for a while. In slush casting, the mold is emptied of the molten metal after the outside has started to solidify. This leaves a shell of solidified material. Besides metals, some plastics and porcelain clays can also be cast by this method. The workpiece made by slush casting have an attractive exterior but an uneven interior and wall thickness. They also generally have low strength. Slush castings are used for making decorations, trophy statues, toys and other products. It is relatively inexpensive process but does have limited applications.

Diagram of slush casting

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1.3

METAL FOR CASTING

Most commercial casting are made of alloys rather than pure metals. Alloys are generally easier to cast. Casting alloys can be classified as: Ferrous Nonferrous

1.3.1 FERROUS
Cast iron Cast iron is the most important of all casting alloy. There are several types of cast iron: Gray cast iron Nodular iron White cast iron Malleable iron Alloy cast iron

Typical pouring temperatures for cast iron are around 1400 C, depending on composition. Steel

The mechanical properties of steel make it an attractive engineering material and the capability to create complex geometries makes casting an appealing process. The melting point of steel is considerably higher than for most other metals that are commonly cast. The solidification range for low-carbon steel begins at just under 1540 C. This means that the pouring temperature required for steel is very high, about 1650 C. Tensile strength is higher than for most other casting metal, ranging upward from about 410 MPa. Steel castings have better toughness than most other casting alloys.

1.3.2 NONFERROUS
Nonferrous casting metal include alloys of aluminum, magnesium, copper, tin, zinc, nickel and titanium. Aluminum alloys Aluminum alloys are generally considered to be very castable. The melting point of pure aluminum is 600C, so pouring temperatures for aluminum casting alloys are low compared to cast iron and steel.

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Magnesium alloys Magnesium alloys are the lightest of all casting metals. Other properties include corrosion resistance and high strength-to-weight and stiffness-toweight ratios.

Copper alloys Copper alloys include bronze, brass and aluminum bronze. Properties that make them attractive include corrosion resistance, attractive appearance and good bearing quality. The high cost of copper is a limitation on the use of its alloys.

Tin alloys Tin has the lowest melting point of the casting metal. Tin-based alloys are generally easy to cast. They have good corrosion resistance but poor mechanical strength, which limit their applications to pewter mugs and similar products requiring low strength.

Zinc alloys Zinc alloys are commonly used in die-casting. Zinc has low melting point and good fluidity, making it highly castable. Its major weakness is low creep strength, so its castings cannot be subjected to prolonged high stresses.

Nickel alloys Nickel alloys have good hot strength and corrosion, which make them suited to high temperature applications such as jet engine and rocket components. They have a high melting point and are not easy to cast.

Titanium alloys Titanium alloys for casting are corrosion resistant and possess strengthto-weight ratios. However titanium has a high melting point, low fluidity. These properties make it and its alloys difficult to cast.

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1.4

PRODUCT DESIGN CONSIDERATION

Some important guidelines and considerations to be followed for casting are:

Geometric simplicity Simplifying the part design will improve its castability. Avoiding unnecessary complexities simplifies mold making, reduces the need for cores, and improves the strength of the casting.

Corners Sharp corners and angles should be avoided since they are sources of stress concentrations and may cause hot tearing and cracks in the casting. Generous fillets should be designed on inside corners and sharp edges should be blended.

Section thickness Section thickness should be uniform in order to avoid shrinkage cavities. Thicker section creates hot spots in the casting because greater volume requires more time for solidification and cooling. These are likely locations of shrinkage cavities.

Draft Part sections that project into the mold should have a draft or taper. In expandable mold casting, the purpose of this draft is to facilitate removal of the pattern from the mold. In permanent mold casting, its purpose is to aid in removal of the part from the mold. The required draft need only be about 1 for sand casting and 2 to 3 for permanent mold processes.

Machining allowances Almost all sand castings must be machined to some extent in order for the part to be made functional. Therefore, additional material called the machining allowance must be left on the casting for the machining operation.

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