Economic Geology Vol. 82, 1987, pp.

546-570

Strata-Bound Cupriferous Sulfide Mineralization Associatedwith Continental Rhyolitic Volcanic Rocks, Northern Chile: I. The JardlnCopper-SilverDeposit
RALPH B. LORTIE

LAC Minerals Ltd., Suite 485, 146 FrontStreetWest,Toronto, Ontario,Canada MSJ2L7

AND ALAN H. CLARK

Departmentof Geological Sciences, Queen'sUniversity, Kingston, Ontario, CanadaK7L 3N6

Abstract

The Jardlnarsenian Cu-Ag depositof the Copiap6miningdistrict,northernChile, is in many respects representative of the volcanic-associated, disseminated, cupriferous manto

mineralization characteristic of thissegment of the central Andean orogen. Containing ca. 1 to 2 millionmetrictonsof ore with a gradeof 1.75 percentCu and140 g/metrictonsAg, the crudelystratiformdepositis hosted by the upper,brecciatedand unweldedpart of a 75m-thick,continental rhyoliticignimbrite andby an overlying2-m succession of tuffaceous lacustrine sedimentary rocks.The ignimbriterepresents the localbasalunit of the Paleocene HornitosFormation.The reduced,ore-hosting, sedimentary horizonswere depositedin an ephemeralsalinepond and comprise coarse and fine breccias, tuffaceous sandstones and siltstones, andcalcareous-carbonaceous shales containing thin coalyseams andaccumulations of
plant debris. The greaterpart of the mineralization occurs asdisseminations, discontinuous veinlets,thin

concordant lenses and, moststrikingly,cylindrical bodies,1 to 8 mm in diameter,oriented perpendicular to bedding. Chalcocite, bornite,andtennantite (ca. 1-4.3% Ag) are the major ore minerals andare associated with minorsphalerite, digenite, covellite, chalcopyrite, wittichenite, nativesilver,acanthite, stromeyerite, mckinstryite, jalpaitc,andthe ruby silvers. Pyriteandmarcasite are subordinate constituents of the ore andwidelydisplay evidence of replacement by the Cu andAg minerals. Mineralization in boththe ashflowandsediments is associated with moderate argillicandcarbonate alteration. The hanging wall of the orebody lies within a red fanglomerate, encroachment of which terminatedthe accumulation of the
lacustrine strata.

Thesulfidic pipes commonly display concentric mineral zonation suggestive of thesuccessive, in part open-space, precipitation ofpyrite andthe Cu-Agminerals. Texturalevidence suggests that at leastthe introduction of pyrite into thesebodiesoccurred prior to the deposition of theimmediately overlying strata. Thepipes, bothindividually andin aggregate, donotresemble rhizoliths or dewatering structures. More probable origins are asScolithus sp.lebensspuren or as gregarious hydrothermal conduits directly reflectingthe upwardpenetrationof oreforming fluids. Sulfide-free pipesare extremely rare, andwe favorthe latterinterpretation. The Jardln mineralization displays features characteristic of several ore deposit types, particularlyof the red-bedandepithermal clans. Although the temporal relationships of Cu-Ag mineral depositionand lacustrinesedimentation are uncertain and direct evidence of the conditions of mineralization unavailable, ourpreferredgenetic modelinvolves the convective flow of metal-bearing groundwatersthroughthe permeable upper zone of the ignimbrite intothemantling lacustrine strata, during boththe fumarolic stage of the tuff andthe deposition

of thesediments. If thisbe thecase, theemplacement of thedisseminated mineralization may

havetakenplacein lessthan, a century;the temporalconstraints wouldbe reducedif the CuAgminerals formed largely through replacement of earlydiagenetic pyrite.Thehydrothermal fluids areinferredto have beenC1rich,low temperature, neutral to weakly alkaline, andwith anfo exceeding the hematite-magnetite buffer;theyprobably derivedtheir metals andarsenic fromnearby, weathered, UpperCretaceous base andprecious metaldeposits exposed by the sub-Hornitos Formationerosion surface. Ore deposition occurredin response to reduction,
neutralization and moderatecoolingon contactwith the roof zone of the ignimbriteand the carbon-and sulfur-richsediments; there is no evidencefor sulfidereplacement of organic
detritus.

The Jardlnmantomayperhaps bestbe interpreted asan unusual, Ag-rich,red-bedcopper deposit nucleated in partby an ashflowcooling on the floorof anintermontane basin. However,
0361-0128/87/663/546-2552.50 546

JARDiN CU-AG DEPOSIT: N. CHILE

the Paleocene epochin the Copiap6districtsawthe development of numerous Ag-Cu-As epithermalvein systems, andthe depositcouldalsorepresent an analogous centerin which ore deposition wascontrolled by a sequence of permeable reducedsediments ratherthanby
faults.

547

Introduction

second paper (in prep.) we presentdescriptions of two suchmineralized systems in whichthe environmentof sulfide deposition ismost clearlydefined: the JardlnCu-Ag andAmolanas Cu deposits (Fig. 1). Particularattention is paidto the stratigraphic andlithdisseminations within submarine or subaerial volcanic ological relationships of the host rocks and to the fabflowsand, locally, in associated sedimentary rocks. ric of the ores. A brief summary of our preliminary Several of thesemanto-type deposits in northernand hasbeenpresented elsewhere (Lortieand centralChile havemadea significant contribution to conclusions copperproduction. Carter (1960), Rulz et al. (1965, Clark, 1976). 1971), Oyarz6n (1975), and Sillitoe (1977) have Geologic historyof the region drawnattentionto theseintriguingdeposits, andthe The predominantly volcanic andvolcaniclastic sulast-named author(1978) hassuggested that they may pracrustal sequences in the axialdomain of the central indeed be characteristic of mineralization formed alongAndean-type convergent plate margins. Carter Andean orogenin northern Chile constitutea comi.e., pre-Mid(1960), Losert(1972), and Camus(1980) have pro- parativelythin coveron a pre-Andean, die Triassic, basement (Clark et al., 1976). The Anvided descriptions of individualmanto deposits in andvolcanic strataexposed on the Mesozoicmarine strata,but the lessimportantsub- deansedimentary presentPacificslopeof the CordilleraPrincipalare aerial centers in Chile have received little documenin general onlygentlyfoldedbut are affected by very tation. numerous, high-angle normal and reverse faults. We have carried out (Lortie, 1979) field and labFollowingitsinitiationin the Early Jurassic (Quirt, oratoryinvestigations of severalcupriferous mantos of thisclass in the Copiap6 mining district ofnorthern 1972; Zentilli, 1974; Clark et al., 1976), plutonicand broadlyconsanguineous, volcanicactivity Chile (ca.27 S;Fig. 1) in the course of research into associated, has occurred at closely spaced intervals to the Recent. the metallogenetic evolution of the 26 to 29 Stranshows, overall,anunsectof the Andeanorogen(Clark et al., 1976). The The majorfocusof magmatism continent-wardmigration (Farrar coppermineralization, with or without economic sil- usuallysystematic et al., 1970; Clark et al., 1976). A transitionfrom ver, occurs within the entirelycontinental, Paleocene dominantly marine to subaerial depositional environHornitos Formation and displaysgeologicrelationments,in the now-exposed supracrustal assemblage, took placein the early Late Cretaceous (Segerstrom and Parker, 1959), during deposition of the ChaffarcilloGroup.The earliestfelsicignimbriteflowsrecognizedin the area (Zentilli, 1974) were erupted during the accumulation of the succeeding Upper Cretaceous CerrillosFormation(Segerstrom andParker, 1959). The Cerrillos Formationis overlain,with low- to high-angle unconformity, by over 2,500 m of continental volcanicand sedimentary strataassigned to the HornitosFormation by Segerstrom andParker.

THE wide spectrum of hydrothermal baseand precious metal mineralizationconstitutingthe central Andean metallogenetic province (Petersen,1970; Sillitoe, 1976) includesa group of unusualstrataboundcopperand copper-silver deposits, in which chalcocite andother sulfideminerals occurlargelyas

ships strongly suggestive of an originthroughhydrothermalactivitybroadlycontemporaneous with the

consolidation of subaerial felsic flows. In this and a

The age of this formationhasbeen shownby K-Ar dating(Quirt, 1972; Zentilli, 1974) to be Paleocene:
the bulk of the succession was laid down between 60

and 63 m.y., and the lowestmembers are probably ca. 65 m.y. in age. Thick ignimbrites,largely of rhyodaciticand rhyolitic composition, constitutea major and characteristic component of the Hornitos
Formation.

FIG. 1. Locations of the JardlnandAmolanas copperdeposits in the Copiap6miningdistrict,Atacama Province, northernChile.

Subsequent to the deposition of thisformation, episodicigneous activitypersisted throughthe Ceno-

548

R. B. LORTIE AND A. H. CLARK

zoic, culminatingin the developmentof enormous surrounding the Jardlndeposit. The almost-continuandesitic-dacitic stratovolcanoes of earlyMioceneto ousbedrockoutcrops in the mineareaare dominated Pleistocene age (Quirt 1972; Mortimer, 1973). Fur- by continental volcanic andsedimentary strataof the ther eruptionof regionally extensive felsicignimbrites Cerrillos and Hornitos Formations. These are intruded and lesswidespread rhyolitic lavasoccurredepisod- by epizonalstocks of Paleocene granodiorite, with ically in the earlyEoceneandin the middle Miocene- whichare associated numerous vein andbreccia pipe earlyPlioceneinterval (e.g., Clark et al., 1967; Mor- baseand precious metal deposits. Althoughsuchintimer, 1973), closely coinciding with periodsof epei- trusive rocks cropoutwithin10 kmof theJardln mine, rogenicuplift of the cordillera. Strata-bound sulfide we considerthem to have no direct relationship to mineralization, however,hasbeenencountered only the strata-bound mineralization. in the Paleocene rhyolites. The oldest rocks in the areaof the Jardln mineare thoseof the Upper Cretaceous Cerrillos Formation, The]ard(n mine:Location, production, which underlies the northwestern and southeastern
and dimensions

In the Copiap6 district, the Jardln (or E1 Jardln) Cu-Ag depositis the only substantial concentration of ore-gradesulfide mineralizationwhich displays both spatialandtemporalrelationships to a rhyolitic ignimbrite. Sulfidedeposition here took place both in the upper 1 to 2 m of the ash-flow tuff, whichconstitutesthe local baseof the Hornitos Formation, and
in a 2- to 3-m-thick succession of tuffaceous sedimen-

portions of the maparea(Fig. 2). Thisformation comprises a greatvarietyof andesitic lavas andpyroclastic
breccias, with subordinate volcanic sandstonesand conglomerates. To the southeast, the Cerrillos strata

taryrocks immediately overlying the ignimbrite sheet. The Jardlnmine (2745'30"S; 7011'30"W) is situated on the southwest marginof the valley of the Copiap6River, 50 km south-southeast of the city of Copiap6(Fig. 1). The mine is reachedfrom Copiap6 by wayof the principal valleyroad.Production figures for the mine are incomplete, but over the period 1969-1972, output was increasedfrom 100 to ca. 200 to 250 metric tonsper day. The averagegrade oforeproduced to dateisestimated tobe 1.75 percent Cu and 140 g/metricton Ag; r'iher zonesattain3.7 percentCu and over 200 g/metricton Ag (Ortlz and Franquesa,1964). Lortie (1979) hascalculatedthat the exploredpart of the depositoriginallycontained ca. 0.5 X 106 metric tons of ore. However, the ore zoneincreases in width at depth, and the mineralization is continuous for at least 3 km to the south of the

have been intruded by a number of smallstocksof intermediate to basiccomposition andby manydioritic dikes.North of Jardln,the Cerrillosrocksare steeplyfoldedand intenselyfaulted. In the centralportionof the maparea,sedimentary
and volcanic rocks of the Hornitos Formation form a

northeast-trending belt. The Hornitos-Cerrillos contact is conformable to slightlyunconformable or, in places,faulted. The Hornitos Formation succession is characterizedby ash-flowtuffs of variousthicknesses anddegrees of welding, whichareintercalated with conglomerates, sandstones, and andesitic lavas. Alongthe easternmarginof the belt, Hornitosstrata havebeen intrudedby subvolcanic plugsanddomes of rhyoliticandtrachyticcomposition, andby andesitic hornblende-porphyry dikes. OtherthantheJardln deposit, the hypogene sulfide deposits of the immediate areaarevery smallandfew in number. The Elisa(deBordos) mine(Fig.2) worked fault-controlled Ag-Cu mineralization in the vicinity of the Cerrillos-Hornitos Formations unconformity (Lortie, 1979).
The Hornitos Formation, named after the hacienda

Jardlnmine. Thus,the depositis estimated to aggre-

gateapproximately i to 2 X 106metrictonsof ore Stratigraphyof the HornitosFormation

situatedin the center of the map area (Fig. 2), was first described by Segerstrom and Parker (1959). In the Jardln-Elisa de Bordos area,our mapping shows
that the formation can be subdivided into six litho-

over a strikelengthof 1,000 m and a breadthof 200 m, includingpastproductionandprobablereserves. In 1969-1970, the Jardln mine comprisedfour separate workings; they are fromnorthto south,Zulema,Candelaria, SanPedro,andSofia.Only Zulema and Candelariawere being exploited at the time (CandelariawasrenamedSanAntonioin 1971). The depositis stratiform,dipsat 15 to 40 , andis mined by the room and pillar system, via an inclinedshaft (Pique Maquina).Sulfideconcentrates, producedat the nearbyElisade Bordosplant, are smeltedat Paipote, near Copiap6.
District Geology

stratigraphic members (Table 1): (1) a basalwelded ignimbrite,with which both the Jardlnand Elisa de Bordosdeposits are spatiallyassociated, (2) a thick lensof coarse volcanic conglomerate, (3) a member consisting predominantly of volcanic sandstones whichis the thickest,(4) a unit of andesitc flowsand breccias, (5) an upper ignimbritesheet,and (6) an upper volcanicsandstone unit similar to the thickest
member of the formation. The total thickness of the

Segerstrom (1967) provides a succinct description HornitosFormationin this area rangesfrom about of the geology of the areaof centralAtacama Province 1,100 to almost 2,000 m.

JARDiN CU~AG DEPOSIT: N.CHILE

Geology of the
'
(

549

JARDN- ELISA DE BORDOSAREA

!

MINE
CU PROSPECT

EXPLORATORY
SHAFT

COPIAPO

DISTRICT

CHILE

FAULT
3

1
km

,OAD
747 ELEV METERS

ANTICLINE /"/SYNCLINE

2743 S

/'
-_

//

Ba, Bb

Th

. ZUeLEM

/Ba

STRATIGRAPHIC

UNITS

QUATERNARY ALLUVIUM MIOCENE PEDIMENT GRAVELS

Ba, DOMES, Bb .LAVAS

INTRUSIONS

' SODA TRACHYTE ' REMATITE-APATITEF FANGLOMERA MEMBER /[''1 ANDESITIC DIKES - CBETCEOLJS CFRRrLLS r
MAGNETITE PIPES

UPPER SANDS MEMB

UPPER IGNIMBRITE ANDESTE MEMBER

LOWER

SANOSTONE

MEMBER

corbonate-fe

im

BZSA L

IGNMBRITE

FIG. 2. Geologicmap of the Jardin-Elisa de Bordos-CerroBuenosAires district (modified after Segerstromand Parker, 1959, and Lortie, 1979).

The stratigraphy of the formation, relatively simple stratigraphic interval between the andesitic(4) and in the southernand northernparts of the map area, upper ignimbrite(5) members is occupied by a thick is considerably morecomplicated in the centralarea, succession of rhyoliticlava and pyroclastic deposits where a north-south belt of intrusive and extrusive interbeddedwith clasticsedimentaryrocks, chiefly rhyolitic rocksis exposed (unit B in Fig. 2). In the ferruginous sandstones. Discordantrhyolite bodies vicinity of the BuenosAires ravine (quebrada),the associatedwith these extrusive rocks, herein termed

550
TABLE 1.

R. B. LORTIE AND A. H. CLARK

Stratigraphyand Lithology of the Hornitos Formation, Jardln Mine Area Lithotypes Thickness(m)
<50
100

Unit
stone member

6 Upper (volcanic)sand- Fine- to medium-grained sandstones; conglomerate lenses

5 Upper ignimbrite
4 Andesitic member

Welded and unweidedrhyolitic ash-flowtuff Andesitic flowsandbreccias; intercalated siliceous sediments andair-fall tuffs,locally interdigitatedwith underlyingunit 3 Lower (volcanic)sand- Coarse,greenandbuff iithic sandstones; intercalated conglomeratic lenses, bedsof stone member calcareous mudstone and ferruginous limestone,thin (<1 cm) gypsumhorizons,
and felsic air-fall tuffs

100-250

500-80O

2 Volcanicconglomerate Polymicticconglomerate: variousvolcaniclithologiesin poorly sortedmatrix of crystal (fanglomerate) and lithic fragments; thinsfrom north to south,fining to lithic sandstone in mine
area

<200

I Basalignimbrite

(a) Basalthin-beddedunweldedash;(b) intermediate+ 40-m welded zone; (c) upper + 25-m unweldedzone;aphaniticrock fragments(< 3 mm), feldsparcrystals, and
matrix of devitrified shards

<75

Unconformity
Cerrilios Formation

the Buenos Aires Complex,haveintrudedthe lower this contacthasnot been faulted,but the ignimbrite sandstone (3) andandesitic (4) members to the south and the fanglomerate havebeen brokeninto several of HaciendaHornitos.Around theseintrusivedomes, blocks by a system of normalfaults whichstrikenorththin ash-flow and air-fall tuffs and coarser breccias are northeastto east-southeast (Fig. 2). An east-west set locallyintercalated in the upperpart of the sandstone of thesefaults,which dip steeplynorthward,hasan member.The largestsingleunit of the rhyolitecom- estimated vertical throw of 50 to 75 m, with a downplex, underlyingthe BuenosAires dome, is 350 to throwonthe northside.The fanglomerate in thisarea 500 m thick. The maximum total thickness of the is cut by a very prominentset of fractureswith an BuenosAires complex,includingthe BuenosAires orientation(N 30o-35 E/90-85 SE)very closeto domeflow, is probablyabout1,000 m. that of the majority of the veinsand stringers in the Jardln mine (see below). The northern part of the Structuralgeologyof the area Jardlnorebodyis cut by a fault alongthe ignimbriteOver much of the area shownin Figure 2, the fanglomerate contact.Although this postore fault the Jardln structuralgeologyof the HornitosFormationis un- couldnot be tracedto the northwestacross complicated. In general,strataare tilted at smallto valley, it is probablypart of the system described Thus,it is evidentthat a faultsystem extending moderateangles towardthe southeast. Southof the above. Jardlnmine, small-scale foldingis locallyevidentin fromJardln to the Elisamineparallels a zoneof overbeds of the sandstone member. To the southeast of

the mine,a broadshallow troughanddomestructure, probably relatedto localintrusions, hasbeenmapped. The basalignimbriteand fanglomerate members of the formation havenot been folded,exceptfor a gentle deviationin attitudeimmediatelynorth of the Jardin gorge.The gypsiferous bedsof the volcanic sandstonemember, however, have been steeply folded andoverturned alongan axisextending fromthe Jardin mine to a point about6 km to the northeast. On the eastsideof thisfold, youngerHornitosstrataare not overturned, indicating that the syncline mustbe paralleled by a reverse fault.Thisfault,although only vaguelydiscernible north of the river valley, is well exposed on the southeast sideof Jardlngorge,where the fanglomerate isthrustoverthe younger evaporitic

turningand reversefaultingin evaporitebedsextending fromJardln to Mina de Yeso,andbeyond.

Mine Geology

Host-rockstratigraphyand petrography

The geologyof the immediatemine areais shown in Figure 3. Throughout the Zulema,Candelaria, San Pedro,andSofiaworkings, several lithologically distinct sedimentary horizons lie within I to 3 m of the uppersurface of the basal Hornitos ignimbrite. Above the ignimbrite,sevenunitshavebeen distinguished; six of these contain,at least locally, copper-silver mineralization.In order to reconstructthe depositionalhistoryandsedimentary environments of these beds,over 40 stratigraphic sections were measured beds. in the mine area.The salientlithological features and Another persistentfault followsthe lower contact stratigraphic relationships of unitsI to VIII are sumof the basalignimbritesouthward fromthe Elisamine marized in Table 2. The areal distribution of the lithunitsobserved in the ZulemaandCandelaria to the Copiap0River.On the south sideof the valley, ological

JARDiN CU-AG DEPOSIT: N. CHILE

551

o
meters

lOO

LEGEND

Alluvium
HORNITOS FM.

:'

Calcareous sandstone :.:i[] Conglomerate, c.g. sst. ] Ashflow tuff

CERRILLOS FM.

' :'"'"'
Pits

':::..':.: Andesites
contours Cm

...[: Dum13s o/ To0ogra0hic

Stratigra13hic orientation

Ore manto

Adit

FIG. 3. Geologyof the Jardlnmine area (Lortie, 1979: modifiedafter Ortlz and Franquesa,1964). C.g. sst. -- conglomeraticsandstone.

sections of the mineis shown in Figure 4A to C, and an alluvial fan, encroachedfrom the northeast and a schematic northeast-southwest section across the eastduringthe accumulation of finersediments with and eventuallyterdepositin Figure 5. Units II throughVII are not a local or westerlyprovenance, knownto occurbeyondthe mine areaandwouldin- minatedthe ephemeral lacustrine environment. Units tervenebetweenunitsi and2 in the largerscalestra- II to VI are slightlyto markedlyreduced. tigraphy ofTable1. MineunitsI andVIII correspond, The upper 1 m of the tuff (unitI) is widelybroken respectively, to units i and 2 of Table 1. alongirregularly spaced fractures whichare filled in Of the stratigraphic unitsexposed in the mine,sev- by fine sediment; blocksof up to 50 cm in diameter eral (II, III, IV, and V) apparentlycoveredvery re- have been only slightlydisplaced. The ignimbrite stricted areas or display radicalfacies changes outside sheetwasevidentlyerodedfor onlya shorttime beofthe minearea: e.g.,thebuffsiltstone unit(VI) shows fore being coveredby sediment. Unit II, the intraa southward transition from dominant siltstone, formational tuff-slab breccia(Fig. 7A andB), clearly through calcareous shale, to interlaminated calcareous formed through limiteddownslope transport of locally shale andgypsum horizons. The arealdistributions of deriveddebrison the surfaceof the ignimbriteand the units stronglysuggest that they were deposited wasprobably concentrated within shallow, northeastin a shallowtopographic depression, on the locally trendingtroughs (Fig. 4A). The overlying greenpebhummocky uppersurface (Fig. 6) of the ignimbrite ble conglomerate (unit III) comprises (Fig. 7C and sheet(unit I), which wasthe site of a restrictedlake D) a widerrangeof clast lithologies thandoes unit II or pond.Interdigitation of unitsV, VI, andVII with and is inferred to have been depositedby a small unit VIII demonstrates that the latter, representing streamor by periodic run-off, flowing toward the

552

R. B. LORTIE AND A. H. CLARK

TABLE 2.
Strati-

Petrologyand Stratigraphic Relationships of Ore-HostingStrata,JardlnMine

graphic unit

Dominantlithotypes

Lithology

Stratigraphic relationships

VIII

Boulder conglomerate Subangular to rounded boulders andcobbles Regional unit (see Table 1); directlyoverof andesitic porphyries in grit matrix lyingunit I to north of mine;interbedded with unitsV and VI in southZulema; overlying V in north Candelaria
Red sandstone

VII

(siltstone); max
thickness, 1 m

Buff siltsone

(mudstone, sandstone); max thickness, 1-1.5 m

Single massive bed 50-100 cm thick; fine siliceous ashrich in Fe+a,with lenticular calcareous concretions; negligible organiccomponent but sparse reduced intervals;siltstone shows wavy graded bedding Tuffaceous siltstone, with argillizedigneous detritus in calcite-quartz-pyritecement, locallyglauconitic; generalupward coarsening from darker green mudstone, throughgreenishto buff siltstone(0-90 cm) to sandstone (0-40 cm); planar crossbedding widespreadin sandstones and flame and slumpstructures in siltstones; shales and limey mudstones in
south Candelaria, calcareous mudstone

Directly overlyingunitsIV andV in north Zulema;locallyoverlapping unit VI; unit representedby siltstonein
Pique Maquina

Interbedded

with unit VIII

in south

Zulema; mudstone forms small fan in north Zulema; sandstonerestricted to Zulema; siltstonesextend from north Zulema to south Zulema; distal

calcareous-gypsiferous faciesin south directly overlies unit I

and gypsumhorizonspredominateto
south of mine

Black shale; max thickness,0.5 m

IV

Black breccia; max thickness, 3 m

Thin-beddedfissilerock, lackingtuffaceous clasts 1 mm in size;wide rangeof lithotypes,includingsilicatedetritus-, carbonate-, plant stem-,and carbonaceous (coaly)-dominated Massiverock comprising angularfragments
of tuff in black matrix of finer tuffaceous

Overlying unit IV, with slightly more restricted and westerly areal
distribution; Interbedded with units

III and VI in upper Zulema

Thickens southward from ca. 35 cm

III

Green pebble conglomerate; max

thickness, 1 m

II

Tuff-slab breccia; max thickness, 1.5 m

material, organiccarbon,and finegrainedcarbonate;tuff fragments strongly carbonatized andargillized Subrounded to roundedpebblesof rhyolitic tuff in gritty to silty matrix rich in pumice fragments,and with abundant chlorite-richargillaceous material; vertically oriented streaksof carbon abundantin groundmass Angular slabsof unit I (to 10 )< 4 cm) in fine, ashy(-carbonaceous) matrix; fragments displayargillizationand carbonatization of variable intensity, which predatedand postdated
sedimentation

(north Zulema) to 3 m (south Candelaria);usuallydirectly overlying

unit II, with similar areal distribution

Restrictedto upper north Zulema; thin lens, tapering to southeast

Overlying unit I in much of Zulema and

Candelaria sections; areal distribution

suggests restrictionto northeasttrending, shallowtroughs

Basalignimbrite

Unwelded upper zone comprising1 to 2 percent of exoticrock fragments and cognatepumicesin groundmass of finegrained quartz, carbonate,clay minerals, and sulfides; shardtexturesrarely observed, but someare preserved, replacedby calcite

Regionalunit (seeTable 1).

Averageaggregate thickness of unitsII throughVII is 2 m

breccia attainsca. 15 percent in finer facies.The brecciacommonly displays an abrupt contact(Fig. 8) Units IV, the black breccia, and V, the black shale, with the overlying, thin-bedded, carbonaceous shale. a wide variationin lithology,beingreprepresenta distinctlycarbonaceous interval. Unit IV Unit V shows coaly seams, or mats (Fig. 7E and F) is an unusualrock of mixed organic resentedlocally by carbonates, The latter are carbonized rods,0.5 and tuffaceous origin, its massive nature and poor of plant remains. sortingimplyingrapid deposition and a local prove- to 1.0 mm in diameter, with crescentic crosssections nance(largelyfromunit I). The carboncontentof the (Fig. 9A and B), similarto celery stalks,and with a gentle depression in which the earlier unit had accumulated.

JARDiN CU-AG DEPOSIT: N. CHILE

553

A
ZULEMA CANDELARIA o
met res

so

;';:: :::
(inclined shall)

";'

Tn :F]

c
FIG. 4. A-C. Serial plansshowingareal distributionof units I through VIII in the Candelaria and Zulema sections of the Jardlnmine. Note that the vertical separation of plansA (lowermost)and C (uppermost)doesnot exceed2 m (compareFig. 5).

includes bedsof coalymaterialup to 5 mm in thickness.The carbonatefraction of the unit comprises laminaeconsisting of tabularor lenticularfragments of microcrystalline carbonate, quartz,andsubordinate clayminerals anda smallproportionof shredded, carbonized, plant stems.Someof the clastshave relict vesicles,filled with chalcedonyand/or relatively washed onto a near-shore silt bank. coarse-grained calcite.TheselaminaeevidentlyrepIn the upper levels of northern Candelaria, the resentdetrital accumulations of chemicallyprecipiblackshaleis very rich in carbonaceous matter and tatedcarbonate andmetasomatized pumice. They are

simple vascular system (Fig. 10). They probably represent either a sedge(R. G. Greggs,pers. commun., 1973) or eel-grass ("wild celery") of the genus Zostera (Chapman, 1960). Well-preserved stems in greenish-gray siltstone in the uppermost part of Zulemaare mattedin parallelgroups, possibly reflecting originalgrowthpositions or clusters of detached stems

554

It. B. LORTIE AND A. H. CLARK

teristicof the "Chile-type"copperdeposits. Asnoted previously, the mantoiscrudelystratiform. It extends from the upper part of the-ignimbrite(unit I) to the buff siltstone (unit VI), or locally,the red sandstone (unitVII). In addition to disseminations, the orebody comprises narrowveins, irregulargangue-free stringers, both crosscutting and parallel to bedding,rare massive lenses, and moststrikingly,thin steeplyinclinedpipes.The generaldistribution of the ore mineralsis illustratedhighly schematically in Figure 5,
and the characteristic format of the mineralization
T
Tr

in

Basal Ignimbrite
Intraformational Tuff-Slab Breccia

'
'vr

Black Shale
Buff Siltstone

Tl'r Green Pebble Conglomerate

Red Sandstone

each stratigraphic unit is detailed in Table 3. The overall distributionof ore minerals,and especially their localemplacement in unitVII, demonstrates the
closecorrelation between mineralization, the oxida-

lv

Black Breccia

VI-13 Boulder Conglomerate

FIG. 5. Northeast,southwest section throughthe Jardlndeposit,schematically showing the mutualrelationships of the ignimbrite andtheoverlying sedimentary units, andthe formof the mineralization. No attemptis madeto indicate precisely the distribution of the ore minerals;the dimensions of the sulfideconcentrations havebeengreatlyexaggerated.

tion stateof iron in the rocks,and the presence of oxidizable organic detritus. The red sandstone records
the transition from Fe +2 and sulfide-rich to Fe+a-riCh

andsulfide-deficient environments. The leaching, or

at least the reduction, of ferric iron around sulfide

bodies in thishorizon(Fig. 14) shows thatthe sulfidegenerating system wassuperimposed on the oxidized sediment. Supergene oxidationis very restrictedin interpretedas slightlyreworkeddeposits of tufa or the Jardln deposit, andsupergene sulfide enrichment absent. travertine.The blackshaleis thereforea depositof is essentially interlaminatedplant remains, tuffaceousdetritus, Argillicandcarbonate alteration iswidespread and carbonatized pumices, plates of precipitated carbon- locallymoderatelyintensein the mineralizedrocks, ate,anddiagenetic carbonate andsilica cement. These particularlyin unitsI, II, and III.
materials accumulated at a time when the influx of clastic sediment was much reduced.

Ore mineralogy

Chalcocite, bornRe,andtennantite(argentian) are The overlyingsediments of unit VI reflect a reandwidespread ore minerals: tensumption of predominantly clastic sedimentation. The the mostabundant mineralin the ashunit coarsens upward(Table 2). The buff sandstones nanriteis the major disseminated unit," whereaschalareclearly tuffaceous andarecomprised of subangular flow tuff and the "carbonaceous predominant in the quartz grains, shards,minute biotite and sericite cociteandbornReare apparently andthebuffsiltstone. The flakes, andshreds of carbonaceous matter,in a matrix greenpebbleconglomerate of sulfidic stringers isgenerally similar to ofcalcite, quartz, anddisseminated pyrite.Rock frag- mineralogy ments andshards are intensely argillized. The sand- that of the disseminated ore which surrounds them. stones locallydisplay (Fig. 11E) ripple cross laminations indicative, in thiscontext, of extremely shallow

waterconditions. The siltstones, similar in composition to the sandstones, are well bedded; flame and

slump structures occur in finer, greener, facies, whereas the coarser buffsiltstones commonly exhibit small-scale planarandtroughcross laminations. The red sandstone (unit VII) is a singlemassive

bed,generally richin ferricironandlacking carbonaceous matter;the contact(Fig. 12) betweenunits VI andVII therefore represents an abrupttransition fromreduced to relatively oxidized conditions ofsedimentation. The occurrence of ill-defined grayintervals in unit VII is ascribed to fluctuations in the oxi-

dation potential of theporewaterduring continuous deposition or earlydiagenesis.

Ore Mineralization

dnis strictly disseminated (e.g.,Fig. 13), a charac- is 20 cm in length).

FIG.6. Underground photograph showing the uppersurface of theignimbrite, with 30 to 40 cmof relief,overlain by black breeeia (unitIV). Fissures in the ignimbrite surface contain carMuchof thesulfide-sulfosalt mineralization at Jar- bonaceous material andsmall lenses of massive ehaleoeite (knife

JARDiN CU-AG DEPOSIT: N. CHILE

555

" 1cm
I , I

r e
-, p

I cm
!

FIG. 7. Lithotypesof units H to IV. A. Unit H: tuff-slabintraformational breccia,composed of ignimbriticclasts andtuffaceous matrix.B. Unit H: tuff-slab breccia,with angularandp]atyignimbrite clasts. C. Unit IH: green pebbleconglomerate, composed of ignimbriticclasts and tuffaceous matrix. Note irregularblack "pipes" and seams orientednormalto the indistinct bedding.D. Unit IH: green

pebble conglomerate withvertically oriented carbonaceous pipes andirregular seams. E. UnitIV: black
brecciacomprising smallignimbriticclasts in a gritty, carbonaceous matrix.F. Unit IV: blackbreccia with smallclasts anda greaterproportion of carbonaceous groundmass (bedding approximately normal to scale).

Quantitative analyses of the tennantite have not

Copper minerals ofminor importance aredigenite

(possiblyanilite), covellite (probably supergene), chalcoPYrite, and wittichenite(very rare). Enargite
has not been observed. Native silver occurs as fine

been undertaken, but semiquantitative electronmicroprobe analysis of several grains shows thatthe Ag andSbcontents are in the ranges, 1.5 to 4.3 wt percentand1.2 to 6.1 wt percent, respectively. The sfiver contents are apparently high for suchSb-poor members of the tennantite-tetrahedrite series,but com-

disseminations, oftenasclusters of small specks in the

ash-flowtuff and the earbonaeeous unit, and alsoin a
few carbonate veins. Where silver occurs as discrete

parablecompositions havebeenreportedelsewhere grainsnot in contactwith coppersulfide,it is assoby, e.g., Chen andPetruk (1980). ciatedwith minoracanthite. In the Ag-Cusulfidic as-

556

R. B. LORTIE AND A. H. CLARK

10mm

FIG. 8. Ignimbrite (bottom of photograph,with limonitecoatedjoint surfaces and troughedupper cuntact)overlainby blackbreeeia(unitIV: medium-gray zone,60-65 emthick),black shale(unit V: darkestzone, 15 em thick), andbuff siltstone .(unit VI: pale,upperzone)units.Note vertically oriented sulfide pipes in the siltstone beds(peneft, 18 em long).

FIC..9. Plant debris in black shale (unit V). A. Carbonized plantstems (specimen slabbed parallelto bedding). B. Plantstems showingcrescenticor "celery stalk" crosssections(specimen slabbed normalto bedding).

veins contain subordinate quartzanda fewhaveminor

barite. One vein in the San Pedro section contains

globulesof a hard bituminous substance. The vein

carbonates show a wide variation in color. The calcite

occurs in colorless, white,pink,anddarkred varieties, semblage, native silveris accompanied by stromey- the latter two probablybeingmanganoan. Dolomite erite, and lesser jalpaite and mckinstryite. Small variesfrom white to yellow-brownand is probably amountsof proustReoccur with ehaleopyriteand ankeritie.Sideriteoccursin a few barren veins.Barite, tennantitein calciteveins,but the ruby silveris more althoughscarce, alsodisplays wide color variations, abundant in the sulfidepipes,where it is associated fromwhite to yellow-brown to salmon pink. with ehaleoeite, tennantite,andbornite,or with pyrite. Rare pearceRe occursin the veins.Sphalerite, galena,and cinnabarare foundin smallquantities in a few of the calciteandquartz-carbonate veinswhich
cut the disseminated ore.

The iron sulfides, pyrite and martasite,are minor minerals at Jardlnbut occurin several habits.Pyrite occurs: (a) as very fine disseminations in the upper meter or two of the ash-flowtuff (scarce); (b) in carbonateveinswith ehaleopyrite, sphalerite, cinnabar, and minormartasite(uncommon); (c) asa coatingon fragments in the blackbreccia(rare); (d) asrounded masses in blackbreccia(uncommon); (e) asdisseminations in crossbedded sandstone and as framboidal

aggregates in sulfidepipes;and (f) disseminated, in pipes, and aroundconcretions in green mudstones, commonly with martasite. The gangue of theveins at Jardln ismineralogically FIG. 10. Photomicrograph (plane-polarized transmitted light) vascular structure in carbonized plantstems in blackshale. simple. Carbonates formthe bulkof most veins. Many showing

JARDiN CU-AG DEPOSIT: N.CHILE

557

L 20mm

20mm

D
5mm
5mm

20mm ,
--

_ F '
20ram

FIC. I 1. Suifidic pipesin buffsiltstone (unitVI). A. Chalcodte-tennantite pipes.Note the diffusion of suifides andsuifosalts into the siltstone adjacentto the pipes(beddingfacesright). B. Pyrite pipe in fine sandstone. Carbonaceous material (black)is concentrated at the core of the pipe (beddingfaces left). C. A pyritic silt-filled pipe. Beds are upturned adjacentto pipe. D. Minute pyritic pipe (leftcenter)with mushroom top beneathdomedmudstone laminations. Note the smallpyritic rings;these havea cylindricalform and were probablyderivedfrom localerosion of pipesduringsedmentation.

Ore mineral textures

The texturalrelationships betweensulfide andsul-' fosalt minerals in manysamples of theJardln oresreveala fairly consistent succession of mineraldeposition.The textures mostsignificant in thisregardare observed in the pipesandveins, whereas the sulfide disseminations in the various hostrocks are largely
monomineralie on the small scale.

The predominantly pyritie pipes of Zulema, re-

stricted to theuppersandstone bedsof the crossbedded siltstone unit, containvery minor quantities of tennantite,ehaleoeite,and proustitc,which appear to havecoated andreplaced the ironsulfide. Textures clearlyindicating the replacement of framboidal pyrite have been observed in the copper sulfide-rich pipesin the siltstone bedsof thisunit (Fig. 15A and B);in general, pyritehasbeenreplaced by tennantite, whichwassubsequently replacedby ehaleoeite and bornitc(Fig. 16A). In some pipes,minoramounts of

558

R. B. LORTIEAND A. H. CLARK

FIG. 12. Red sandstone (unit VII: darkerzone),overlyingbuff siltstone (unit VI) (knife, 20 cm in length).

FIC. 13. Photomicrograph (plane-polarized transmitted light) of ignimbrite(unwelded tuff), showing outlinesof carbonatized shards (palestgray),secondary quartz,andsulfidegrains(black).

ruby silver rim the copper sulfide masses. From these

and chalcocite in some specimens may imply relationships, it is apparent that the sulfides andsul- bornitc deposition. fosalts were deposited in the order:pyrite,tennantite, contemporaneous Textures in veinscontaining largeproportions of chalcocite andbornRe,and proustitc. and tennantitegenerallyreveal that Texturalrelationships among the various sulfides ehaleopyrite and sulfosalts in the veins are similar and allow ex- ehaleopyrite wasdeposited beforeandafterthe tengrains of ehaleopyrite contain verymitrapolation of the paragenetic sequence to include nanrite.Some of bornitc,but wherebornitc lessabundant minerals suchas chalcopyrite, sphal- nor (<5 vol %) lamellae erite, andcinnabar] In veinsdominated by the assem- is locally predominant, the reverserelationship is veinsgenerallycontain blagetennantite-chalcocite, earlyformed tennantite common.Chaleopyrite-rieh bands are coated with younger chalcocite layersand minor amounts ofsphalerite andverysmall quantities a 2 to 3-mmcutby stringers of chalcocite. Apparent replacement of galena.One bandedvein contains texturesbetween chalcociteand bornitc commonly wide layerof eolloform blacksphalerite andthinner and pyrite. Mareasite indicatereversals in depositional order.The mutual bandsof calcite,ehaleopyrite, mostcommonly asminuteinclusions in pyrite boundary textures andmyrmekitic intergrowths of occurs
TABLE 3.
Stratigraphic
unit

Mode of Occurrence of SulfideMineralization, JardlnMine

Extent of mineralization

Mode of occurrence

VH
VI

Very local
Considerable

Vertically oriented Cu sulfide-bearing pipes, ca. 2 mmin width(Fig. 14), with bleached, Fe+a-poor halos
Cu sulfidedisseminations; thin laminations; roundedto irregular aggregates; vertical pipes

(esp.Zulema section)
V Considerable and wide-

spread
IV Considerable and wide-

spread
III Erratic

Cu sulfide disseminations; bedding planestringers; verticalpipes;myriads of verticalpolygonal cracks in coalyseams, filledby calcite, clays, goethite, covellite, andchalcocite; bedsof coalymaterialcontainfinelydispersed calcite,chalcocite, and sphalerite Disseminated su!fides in tuff fragments andmatrix,in association with clays and carbonates; mineralized tuff cut by discontinuous sulfidestringers (0.5 mm wide), carbonate-pyrite veinlets, andbranching fractures Minutesulfide grains sparsely or densely disseminated in matrix; some tufffragrite, bornitc,andearthyhematite; quartz-clay-carbonate alteration in manytuff
fragments

ments intensely mineralized; round masses (max. 1 cm,diam) of chalcocite, py-

II

Erratic

Moderate

Disseminated sulfides in hydrothermally alteredtuff fragments andbreccia matrix, associated with secondary quartz,calcite,and chlorite Disseminated sulfides in tuff groundmass, associated with clusters of relatively coarse-grained quartz,extremely finesericite (?illitc), andcarbonates (Fig. 13)

JARDiN CU-AG DEPOSIT: N.CHILE

559

on the surfaces of carbonates in vugs.In somecases, thecavities arelinedwithchalcopyrite andfilledwith cinnabar. The vugs in onecarbonate veinin the Candelaria workings contain radiating clusters offinegoldenneedles of goethite, aswell ascinnabar crystals. Fromthe mineral assemblages andtextures of the veins,threedepositional sequences canbe inferred reliably.Excluding the exsolved phases, theseare: pyrite-sphalerite-chalcopyrite (galena)-cinnabar, chalcopyrite-tennantite-sphalerite-pyrite, and tennantite-chalcocite (bornitc).Tennantite, chalcocite, andbornitchavethe same relationships in bothveins andpipes. Theveins aredistinguished by thepresence of relatively abundant chalcopyrite andsphalerite and FIG. 14. Red sandstone unit (VII) of Zulema mine section. by small quantities of galena andcinnabar. Although Left: three samples of sandstone with sulfidepipesandbleached pyrite occurs in both typesof mineralization, it was aureoles; right: characteristic red silty sandstone. the first-formed mineralin sulfidicpipesbut a late phase in veins. Bornitc andpyriteappear nowhere to an equilibriumassemblage. but also formsthin discontinuous bandsin pyrite- constitute chalcopyrite veins. Pipes,veins,and stringers Nativesilveroccurs assmall(ca.0.2 ram:Fig. 16b) Thegenetic model tobepropos edfortheJardln discrete grains (commonly rimmed by tennantite and chalcocite-bornite) or asinclusions in chalcocite, bor- mantodrawsextensively on the detailedstructures mineralization(see nitc, tennantite,chalcopyrite, and the copper-silver displayedby the disseminated sulfides. Stromeyerite, jalpaitc,andmckinstryite oc- above),and more critically,by the sulfide-bearing
cur as blebs and lamellae in tennantite and in chal-

pipes.

Sulfide pipes: The mostunusual bodies of sulfidic cocite-bornite intergrowths, fromwhichtheyappear to have exsolved, implyingthe existence of tie lines mineralization in the Jardln depositare the rodbetween bornitcandjalpaitcandmckinstryite in the shaped structures, orientedapproximately normalto systemAg-Cu-Fe-S at low temperatures.PearceRe bedding,in the buff siltstone unit of the Zulema is observedalong contactsbetween native silver workings (Fig. 11A-F). The sulfidepipesvary in diand chalcocite and as irregulargrainsin tennantite ameterfromaboutI to 8 mm andattainlengths of at stringers. least15 cm. Mostpipesconsist of a coreof nearly sulfides, with only minorsiliceous detritus, In all veinscontaining cinnabar, it wasclearlythe massive finesulfide grains dislastsulfide to be deposited, occurring assmall crystals andanouterzoneof extremely

FIG. 15. Microscopic ore textures. A. Photomicrograph (plane-polarized incidentlight) showing spherical bornite-chalcocite bodies in a sulfide pipe. Left-hand field (dark)is the inner part of pipe, filledwith sediment; right-hand darkdomain iswallof pipe.Noteremobfiized bornite-chalcocite stringer on right. B. Photomicrograph (plane-polarized incidentlight) showing pyrite framboids, displaying various degrees of replacement by tennantite, bornitc,andchalcocite (seealsoFig. 16A).

560

R. B. I.,ORTIE AHD A. H. CLARK

CC

100p. m

FIG. 16. A. Bornitc(bn),chaleocite (cc),andtennantite(tn) spheroids, with irregularatollsofpyrite (plane-polarized incidentlight). B. Native silver(palestgray),rimmedby tennantite(tn) andchalcocite (ce), in black shale(plane-polarized incidentlight).

seminated in the sedimentary rock(Fig. 11A andB). In partsof the Zulemasection, where the pipesare developed to the extentof hundreds per cubicmeter of siltstone, this mineralization constitutes rich ore (Fig. 17).

Mineralogieally, thepipes fall intotwogroups: py' rite rich and coppersulfiderich. Pyritie pipesare much less abundant andareiestrieted to a small area of the Zulemaoperations. In the copper-rich pipes, whichcommonly contain minorpyrite, the latter has

FIG. 17. Swarmof chalcociteand tennantite-richpipesin buff siltstone unit, overlyingblack shale (Zulemamine section: knife, 20 em in length).

JARDiN CU-AG DEPOSIT: N. CHILE

561

clearly beenreplaced by the copper minerals. Some of the pipesexhibita concentric mineralogical zonation from a core of tennantite and chalcocite,

throughrichly-disseminated chalcocite and bornitc, to an outerzoneof sparsely disseminated pyrite. In mostinstances where the beddingof the sedimentadjacent to the pipes has beenvisibly disturbed, the laminations are warpedupward(Fig. 11C), suggesting that the bedswere penetrated from below. Upwardwarpingmight,however,be caused by differentialcompaction of thepipe materialandthe host

rocks, andthispossibility cannot be discounted. In

mostof the rare cases in whichthe beddingis downwarpedtowardthe pipes,the tubularstructures con-

tain onlytraces of sulfides, beingmainlyfilledwith silt.We inferthatsuch tubes mayhavebeenfilledby

sediment slumping inward,afterintroduction of some sulfide,from the wallsor topsof the pipes. Apparently features of thisnaturehaveonlyrarely beenrecordedfromdisseminated copperdeposits in either sedimentary or volcanichostrocks.Because the sulfidic pipesare entirelyenclosed in clastic sedimentary rocks, theydifferfromthe chimney clusters
associatedwith the more massive sulfide-sulfate min-

eralization at oceanic spreading centers(Hekinianet al., 1980) andin the Ballynoe-Silvermines Pb-Zn-Ba deposit, Eire (Larter et al., 1981). The Jardlnsulfide pipes have,we consider, fourpossible modes of origin. FIG. 18. An upward-branching chalcocite-tennantite pipe in Theseare (1) by replacement of rhizoliths, (2) by en- finesiltstone of the buffsiltstone unit (specimen, 15 cm in length). trainmentin, or replacement of, fluid-escape or dewateringstructures, (3) by filling or replacement of animalburrows,and (4) assmall' hot springs, which were directlyfilled in by sulfides precipitated from representreplacementsof rhizoliths, even of sandascending water. These mechanisms, of which we filledrootcasts (see,e.g.,Bracken andPicard,1984). consider (3) and(4) to be the mostprobable,are conAn origin through replacementof fluid-escape
sidered in order below.
structures merits more extensive consideration.

Although (see above) plants flourished intheJardln Broadlytubular dewateringstructures in clay-rich

lacustrine basin,perhaps particularlyduringdepositionof the blackshale(unitV), the pipeshavea morphology differing significantly fromthose ofrhizoliths. Three features characteristic of root systems (ConybeareandCrook, 1968, p. 46), i.e., the presence of carbonaceous matter,a branching form,anda lackof sedimentary materials have been generatedexperimentally (e.g.,Gill andKuenen,1958;Kuenen,1968) and, moreover, the "pillars" of Lowe andLoPiccolo (1974) share features with theJardln pipes. However, no tabularpillarsor associated dish structures have beenobserved in the deposit, andthe pipesare not disturbed bedding, are not generally shown by the rootedin specific sedimentary horizons whichmight bodies underdiscussion. A few of the pyriticpipesin haveactedassemipermeable unitsduringsediment the Zulemaworkings containsmallquantities of car- accumulation. Further, the annular zonation of the bonaceous material, but the vastmajority,including majorityof the pipescontrasts markedlywith the those filledmainly withsilt,contain none. In addition, massive or chaoticinternal fabricsof dewatering there is no evidence in the carbonaceous shale unstructures. Mostcritically,two features argueagainst derlyingthe siltstones to suggest that direct sulfide an originthrough sediment dewatering: the extreme replacement of organic matterwasa factorin ore de- rarity of crosscutting structures dominated by sediposition. Branching of the sulfide pipes has onlyrarely mentary detritus, andthe improbability thatthe thin, been observed,and in suchcases,the structuresbi- generally slowlydeposited, underlying sedimentary furcate upward intotwopipes ofapproximately equal succession could have entrained sufficient water to diameters(Fig. 18); rhizolithsinvariablybranch generatethe swarms of pipes observed in the siltdownward. Finally, the buff siltstone probablycon-' stones. Thus, thesestructures could representdestituted anunfavorable environment forplantgrowth. wateringsystems only if the fluid involvedwasthat We thereforeconsider it improbable that the pipes directlyinvolved in metaltransport.

562

R. B. LORTIE AND A. H. CLARK

7. Fragments of undoubted pyritizedtubeslying Manyof the Jardlnpipesbear a resemblance to the bedding planes nearthetopof thesiltstone unit slender cylindrical verticalshafts of the nonmeniscate along that localerosion of pipesconendostrataltrace fossil,Skolithussp., which in con- (Fig. 11D) indicate at least, pyritetookplace at several stages in tinental environments commonly represents the pas- taining,
sivelyfilled burrowsof oligochaete annelids. Such
burrows are, for instance,a characteristiccomponent
the accumulation of the siltstone.

of the Scoyenia ichnofacies (Seilacher, 1967; Frey et al., 1984), which has been documented in settings ranging in agefromTriassic to Holocene, andincludingbraidedstream, floodplain,andshallow lacustrine environments (e.g., Brackenand Picard, 1984; Ratcliffe and Fagerstrom,1980). Scolithus sp. concentrations with a density similar to that of the pipe

8. Sulfideminerals commonly showa small-scale textural andmineralogical zonation withinandabout thepipes, particularly inthebuffsiltstones where they
arebestdeveloped. The close controlof ore textures andstructures exerted by the pipesstrongly suggests

that ore deposition tookplaceprior to lithification andprobably evenpriorto burialof the siltstones in which the pipes occur. Thiswouldsuggest, then,that for ascending mineralizing swarms in the Zulema mine have been commonly the pipeswere conduits documented. Ripley et al. (1980) have briefly de- fluids. scribed apparently similar sulfide stringers fromredAlthoughnoneof the abovefactorsconclusively bed copperdeposits in south-central Kansas, noting argues against a tracefossiloriginfor the pipes,we (p. 724) that, although "difficultto interpret[they] that a more satisfactory interpretationis they may represent structures formedby burrowingor- consider
ganisms."

are abioticand representconduits formed and min-

constitution,in itself strongevidence dale et al., 1984, for an excellentreview of trace fossil fide-dominated

Such a genesis ispossible for the Jardln pipes, but eralizedby gasor waterrisingthroughwet sediment. of the pipelikestrucin ouropinion, theydisplay numerous features which Indeed,the moststrikingaspect tures in the sediments is their almost invariablysulimplyaninorganic ratherthanorganic origin(see Ekrelationship betweenpipe formation and characteristics). We draw attentionto the following for a genetic mineralization. The immediate source of the fluids aspects of the pipes: may havebeen one of the following:the siltstone itduringcompaction; the 1. The pipeshavea comparatively large rangein self,the waterbeingexpelled
carbonaceousshale which underlies the siltstone, the diameter (1-8 ram). expelledpore-waterandgases 2. Somepipeshavevery irregularlyshaped cross fluidrepresenting of plantremains; or the sections and includeseveralwhich comprisesetsof rivedfromthe decomposition

ignimbritesheet,the fluid (possibly of meteoricori3. No otherstructures of possible tracefossil origin gin) havingrisenfrom the ashflow, duringits comhave been observed either in the enclostratal domain paction andwelding,asfumaroles andhydrothermal springs. or lying within the plane of sedimentation. Because thepipes extend to thebase ofthe siltstone 4. Numerous pipelike structuresoccur in sedimustbe excludedasa dominant mentswhich,because of their coarseness, were prob- unit, thesesediments ably inhospitable to burrowingorganisms; e.g., the sourceof the fluid agentof pipe formation:clearly, green pebble conglomerate, tuff-slabbreccia, and the gasor water musthave risenfrom beneaththe black breccia. silt, either from the shale or from the ash flow. For 5. Only the sulfidepipesin sandstone andsiltstone two reasons,the black shale seemsto represent an inadequate source. The shale hasanaverage thickness convincingly resembleburrows. before compaction was 6. Many pipesshowevidenceof havingbeenmin- of only 15 cm; its thickness eralized with pyrite, and perhaps,copper sulfides probablyno morethan 50 cm. The volumeof fluid to borethe tubesandkeepthemopen,and while sedimentation wasin progress, namely,(a) some necessary therein, would certainlybe pyritic pipeshavemushroom-shaped tops(Fig. 11D), to depositthe sulfides over which mudstone beds are almost thinned out; severalordersof magnitudegreater than the pore whichcouldhavebeenproduced (b) some pipeshavesilt-filledcores andpyrite-coated waterandthe gases of plant remainsin this sediwalls; and (c) somehave copper or copper-arsenic- by the decomposition rich cores,detrital outer zones,and copper sulfide- ment. The blackbrecciadoesnot containenoughorfor a substantial volumeof or pyrite-cemented walls.Theserelationships indicate ganiccarbonto account Furthermore, the gases produced by plantdecay, that pyrite deposition andinternalsedimentation and gas. capable of boringtubesin wet sand, would burial of the pipeswere contemporaneous and over- although lapping. The intimateassociation of a lacustrine animal not be effectiveagentsof metal transportand depocommunity andfluidscontaining high,probably toxic, sition. The ashflowremains the logicallocalsource of the levelsof sulfur, copper, and even arsenic,seems imgasand/orwaterwhich,we infer, boredthe tubes probable.
short radial fractures.

JARDiN CU-AG DEPOSIT: N.CHILE and depositedthe sulfidesin the crossbedded siltstones and sandstones of the Zulema workings.Ash flowsare indeedknownto havegenerated fumarolic activityof long duration(e.g., Katmaiflow, Valley of the Ten ThousandSmokes,Alaska:Zies, 1929). In orderto haveproduced fumaroles in the buffsiltstones and sandstones, fluidsrisingfrom the basalHornitos

563

andcommonly lessthan 5 m in length,whereas the

latter do not exceed i mm in width and 10 cm in

length.Mosttrend N 30o-55 E/85 SE, the largest quartz-carbonate structures havinga more variable orientation. The small sulfide stringers generally occur in zones,someup to 100 m in lengthand 2 to 3 m in width, within which thousands of stringers,spaced ash flow should have left evidence of their ascent in 0.5 to 5.0 cm apart,are aligned(seeFig. 20). A few the sediments which lie between the ash-flow tuff and sparsely mineralized carbonate veinletsof the same the siltstoneunit, i.e., the tuff-slab intraformational orientationtypicallyoccurwithin the stringerzones. breccia, the green pebble conglomerate, the black Sulfidestringers havebeen found only in the black breccia, and the black shale. The breccia and the breccia-shale unit and, rarely, in the upper few degreenconglomerate are probablytooheterogeneous cimeters of the ignimbrite.Someof the veinscutting in grainsizeto havepermittedthe formation of simple the black unit showclear evidencethat wideningor cylindrical tubes.However,eachunit contains, at least reopening of fractures tookplacewhilemineralization locally, a smallnumberof vertically oriented linear progressed (Fig. 19B). The bandsare separated by structures. Theseirregular, blade-shaped seams com- thin layersof carbonaceous materialtorn from the monlycontaincarbonaceous flakesanddust,andsul- wall rockat eachstageof fracturedevelopment. fide grains. They occuronly in the groundmass of the The sulfide-bearing veinsand stringers appearto rocks;in no instancedo they cut across pebblesor be restricted verticallyto the mantoof disseminated cobbles (e.g.,Fig. 7B).A few short,sulfide-rich pipes, ore.Theydefinitely donotextend downward for more more or less circular in crosssection, have been ob- thana meterintothe ignimbritesheet. Their upward servedin the more even-grained sandyor silty beds extent is not so well known because,owing to their of the black breccia. erraticdistribution, they havegenerally beenignored The black shale contains no rodlike structures oriasa source of copperand are left in the roof of the entednormalto bedding.The absence of suchstruc- mine.At a few localities, however,both stringers and tures, however, does not deny the possibilitythat veinsare seento pinch out at the top of the black fluidspassed throughthe shale.In the uncompacted shaleor are truncatedby carbonatestringers which state,the matted plant debriswould probablyhave lie along(sheared?) beddingplanesin the shale.No been sufficiently porous to allowa more diffuseper- mineralized veins occur in the sedimentarybeds colationof fluid, and any vapor channels formed in abovethe ore-bearing veinsof the mine on the east the organicmuck would probablyhave been totally flankof the Jardlnvalley. obscured by compaction. The majorityof the veinsand stringers in the deSomeaspects of pipe genesis remainproblematic, posithavethe same orientation asa prominent setof including the relativeconsistency in their dimensions fractures in the Hornitosconglomerate on the north(1-8 mm):persistent fluid flowthroughthe sediments westsideof the Jardlnvalley. Thesetensional strucmight be expectedto have been channelledprefer- tures are apparentlyrelated to bedding plane, dipentially,leadingto the enlargement of somepipesat slipfaultingabovethe ignimbriteat the mine andto the expense of others,or to sheafiike clusters of con- faulting along the baseof the ignimbrite northof the tiguous pipes(cf. Larter et al., 1981). Moreover,sys- river valley. However, because the fracturescontain temsof gregarious, but separate, fluid escape pipes carbonate, hematitic alteration, and malachite, the with a morphology comparable to that at Jardlnhave faultsare interpretedto be youngerthan the sulfidenot, to the authors'knowledge, been recordedelse- bearingveinlets. The development of tension fracwhere. tures,andthe deposition of sulfides, quartz, andcalVeinsand stringers: In additionto numerous bed- cite therein, apparentlytook place during the early of strain. As carbonatedepositionpersisted, ding-parallel, dip-slip faults of postmineralization age, stages the Jardln workings expose a largenumber of discon- faultingoccurred.
tinuous, mneralized and barren veins which "cut"
The black shale in the mine contains numerous

the disseminated mineralization (Fig. 19A andB). The barrenveins,dominated by carbonate minerals, have variableorientations and are developedin all lithologicalunitsin the mine, aswell asin youngerHor-

stringers of carbonate andsulfides alongits bedding

planes.The carbonatestringers are 1.0 to 1.5 mm in

thickness andupto i to 2 m in length. Sulfide stringers are lessthan 0.5 mm thick and rarely more than 10 nitos Formation strata. cm in length.Sulfideseams sensibly parallelto bedThe ore-bearingveins may be subdividedinto: ding are commonlyassociated with sulfidepipes in quartz-carbonate and carbonateveins with subordi- the buffandgreensiltstones of Zulema.Thesestringnate coppersulfides; and sulfidestringers with little ers are less than i mm thick and no more than 3 or 4 or no gangue.The former are 0.2 to 5.0 mm wide cm in length (Fig. 19C and D).

564

R. B. LORTIE AND A. H. CLARK

50mm

,, I

'

"

'

20mm

2omm

20mm

FIG.19. Sulfide-bearing veins andbedding planestringers. A. Black shale cutby banded carbonatequartz veinlet and parallelsulfidestringer.B. Complexcarbonate-quartz-sulfide vein cuttingblack breccia.Zonesof earbonaeeous materialin vein demonstrate multipleopeningof the fracture.C. Sulfidepipesandbedding planestringers in buff siltstone (bedding facesright). D. Chaleocite-rich pipesandbeddingplanestringers in buff siltstone (bedding faces right).

sulfosalt disseminations andthepipesdeveloped during and/or shortly after deposition of the immediate The texturalrelationships described aboveare informedsubterpretedasevidence that:the widespread sulfide and hostrocks;and the veinsand stringers sequent to lithifieation of the sediments. It should be emphasized that the texturalevidence relatingsulfide emplaeement to the periodof sediment accumulation is stronger for pyrite thanfor the Cu-As-Ag minerals. Those sulfides andsulfosalts formed,in general, later thanthe pyrite andcould,therefore, be strictly postsedimentary with respect to the overallsuccession of lacustrine strata.It is probablethat the mineralized veinswere relatedto later faultingalongor immediatelyabove the ignimbrite-sediment contact andto folding in evaporitie beds400 to 500 m higherin the HornitosFormationsection. The proposed late-stage hydrothermal activitymayhavebeencoeval with the emplaeement of the BuenosAires rhyolite domes (Fig. 2).
Implications of orefabrics

Fluid inclusion thermometry

FIG. 20. Swarmof thin, tennantite-rich vertical stringers, Candelaria mine section (scale,3 em long);lookingupwardat roofof working. Palebandabovescale is a carbonate vein, parallelingthe stringers.

Aspartof theeffortto characterize theJardln copper deposit and to determine its origin,we haveattemptedto establish the temperatureof deposition

JARDfN CU-AG DEPOSIT: N. CHILE

565

of the ores.Because subsolidus phase relations in the relevantregions of the Cu-Fe-S,Cu-As-S, Cu-Ag-S, and Cu-Bi-Ssystems have little application as temperature indicators(see, e.g., Skinner, 1966), fluid inclusion thermometry appeared to offerthebestopportunityto determine ore formation temperatures. Fluidinclusion studies of the pipes areunfortunately precluded by the absence of gangue minerals. Finegrained secondary quartz associated with disseminatedsulfides in the tuffcontains sporadic liquid-gas inclusions, but their exceedingly smallsize makes them unsuitable for opticalstudy. A very smallnumberof two-phase (liquid+ gas) aqueous inclusions were detectedin quartzcrystals

in sulfide-bearing veins. These inclusions yielded homogenizationtemperaturesclustering around 140

I

+ lkm

+_ 20C,but in a few cases attaining 200 to 250C.

Thesetemperatures, andthe lackof evidence for fluid

FC.21. The inferred environment ofmineralization atJardln.

Approximatehorizontalscaleasindicated;considerable vertical exaggeration.Sketch showsthe areal distribution of sulfide and
sulfate facies within the mineralized horizon beneath the floor of

boiling, aretentatively interpreted asrecording the

approximate conditions underwhich,following burial

Aires rhyoliticcenter,the disseminated and pipe mineralization underwent localre-solution and precipitation in fractures.

saline pond, theencroachment ofplants onto thestill-steaming oftheoredeposit andtheemplacement oftheBuenos the surface of theignimbrite, andanearlystage in thedevelopment
of the fanglomerate wedge.

Geologic Settingand GeneticModel

In the absence of direct evidence of the conditions

the eastby a majorescarpment fromwhicha large

volumeof coarse debris wasshed,astalus,debrisflows andwater-transported detritus, to forma thickalluvial

(T, P, andfluid composition) of ore deposition, our fan. Othersedimentary material deposited directly preferred modelfor the originof the disseminated,onthe ignimbrite surface wasderived mainly by restrata-bound, Jardln Cu-Ag deposit isbased essentially working of theash-flow tuffduring itscooling. Asthe on inferenceand analogy.However, we consider fanglomerate deposit spread across the ashflow,tuffmuchof the mineralization to be the productof an aceous detrituswasmovedabouton the ignimbrite environment, both local and, probably,ephemeral, surface' by intermittent runoffand minorstreams. directlyrelatedto the cooling of the basalHornitos Stream incision into the ash flow would have been ash-flow tuff. The restriction of the sulfide mineralminimal because itssurface remained thetopographic izationto the uppermost part of the ignimbrite sheet low. However,shallow ponds developed locallyin and to the immediately superjacent reducedlacus- closed depressions onthissurface, soon becoming salt trine sediments aswell asthe texturalrelationships lakes and evaporite(gypsum)fiats. With the enof the oreandthe host rocks areregarded ascritical croachmentof vegetationonto the ash-flowsheet, features. Themineralization isstrictly epigenetic, but plantdetritus began to accumulate along the edge of in considering thekeyaspects oftheore-forming pro- at least one of these salt lakes and was carried into cess, the contemporaneity of initial sulfide emplace- the pondby periodic runoff,along with fine clastic mentandtheaccumulation of sediment upon the still- material of localderivation. The resulting organichotflowisassumed. We inferthathydrothermal fluid rich mulchsupported colonies of anaerobic bacteria. temperatures were low, probablybelow 100C. Gypsum wasdirectlyprecipitated in lacustrine muds farther out in the pond, in more oxygenated areas. Geologic environment

The geologic setting in whichthe Jardlndeposit formed can bereconstructed in some detail (Fig.21). The absence of marked relief on the pre-Hornitos unconformity in theJardln areaindicates thatthebasal ignimbrite, at anunknown butprobably notgreat(15 km?)distance from its source, wasdeposited on a broad plainwithgentle slopes andonlymoderate to-

Source of metals

The copper, silver,arsenic, andzincin the Jardln oresmayhavebeenderivedin part fromthe ignimbrite sheetitself, with or without the involvementof

subaerialfumarolic encrustations (see Oftedahl,

1958), but a source in the CerrillosFormationis more

probable. This predominantly andesitic succession, pographic highs,developed by erosion of deformed whichprobably underlay subdued highlands immestrata of the Cerrillos Formation. Climatic conditions diatelyto the westof the Jardlnarea at the time of were semi-arid. The plain,probably notfar above sea mineralization, contains oxidized volcaniclastic and level(Mortimer, 1973),wasapparently bordered on clastic horizons and hosts numerous small- and me-

566

R. B. LORTIE AND A. H. CLARK

dium-sizedcopper-richveins and mantos,some of which are Ag andAs bearing(Rulz et al., 1965). Surficial oxidation of both the andesites and associated

creasein temperature,but relatively reducingconditions wouldalso be expected in the essentially fresh

volcanic rock.

ore deposits, immediately preceding deposition of the unconformably overlying Hornitos Formation, would presumablyhave releasedconsiderable amountsof Cu and Ag into the ground-water system which, we infer, includedan elementof downslope flow toward the developing Jardlnbasin. Metal transport Although juvenilewatersmayhavecontributed to the ore-formingprocess, it is probablethat ground waters,includingsurface runofffrom the hill slopes surroundingthe local basin and water from the ephemeralpond, constituted the dominantagentof metal transport.Some direct sulfide precipitation couldhavetakenplacewhere streams carryingmetals enteredareasof the pond underlainby reduced,organic-rich sediments,but the major processwas probably the shallow subsurface convection of ground watersthroughthe cooling ignimbrite.The discharge of the hydrothermal fluidswould havebeen focused by permeablezonesin the unweldedupper part of the ashflow and in the overlyingsediments. The fluidswere probablyin equilibriumwith hematite, quartz, calcite,and illite and/or kaolinite:a

The role of early formedpyrite (andmarcasite) in the reducedsedimentary rocksin the nucleation and precipitation of the Cu-Agminerals is uncertain. Pyrite is considerably subordinate to the ore minerals andthere is apparently no pyritic fringeoverlying or adjacentto the orebody.Althoughthere is extensive microscopic evidencefor the replacement of pyrite by the associated tennantiteandchalcocite, the iron sulfideappearsto representan integral component of the ore assemblage. The generalized paragenetic sequence,pyritetennantite-chalcocite-bornite, in the ores may be broadlymodeledupon the thermodynamic calculationsof Knight(1977), who examined aspects of the phaserelationships of tennantite,enargite,bornite, chalcocite, chalcopyrite, andthe iron sulfides at low temperatures. His figure 7, depictingthe stability fields of these mineralsat 100C in terms of log

a(cu+)/a(H+) andloga(Fe+)/am, isprobably applicable

to the Jardlnassemblages (Fig. 22). Only minor increases in the two log-ratio parameters, suchaswould be prompted by reduction and neutralization of the fluid duringreaction with reduced,andprobablySrich, sediments, would be required to causethe sucneutral to weaklyalkaline pH andanfo higher than cessive precipitation of pyrite, tennantite,and chalthat of the magnetite-hematite buffer are indicated. Relativelyhigh chloridecontents (ca. 0.5 M NaCI?) would be expectedin the groundwatersin view of the extensive evidence for sulfate-rich evaporite fori
i i

mation in the area at the time of initial mineralization

and would have permitted the low-temperature transportof copper as cuprouschloride complexes (Rickard,1974; Rose,1976). Silvertransport, alsoas chloridecomplexes, hasbeen shown(Rose,1976) to be feasible in suchsolutions. Arsenicmayhavebeen transportedas either arsenite or arsenateaqueous species underthe inferredconditions of low temperature, relatively high fo, and near-neutralpH (Knight,1977). The fluids were probably poorin both iron and reducedsulfurspecies.
Ore deposition

CHALCOPYRITE

PYRRHOTITE
TENNANTITE

CHALCOCITE

Within the sedimentary units(II to VI, andlocally, VII), Cu and Ag deposition is inferred to havetaken placein response to a decrease in temperatureasthe fluidsroseabovethe ignimbrite,and probablymore critically, to reductionand neutralizationon contact with concentrations of decomposing plant debris(although nodirectreplacement of organic material took place).The restrictionof abundant sphalerite to lithologies (especially in unit V) unusually rich in organic materialisin conformity with the highersolubility of zinc relative to Cu and Ag (e.g., Rose, 1976). In the upper,brecciated part of the ignimbrite,Cu andAg deposition may havebeen in part the resultof a de-

1000
-2

log o_._ (H2S)=

ENARGITE

-3

-4

-6

-14

-12

-10

log o__ (H+). o__ (As(OH -12 I

-;, -2
+)/ a__(H+)

log a(Cu

FIG. 22. Phaserelationships in a portion of the FeO-CuOHS-SOs-AsO3-HO-HC1 systemat 100C (after Knight, 1977, fig. 7). Conditions areinferredto be broadly comparable to those prevailing duringinitialmineralization in Jardln,andthe indicated path to be that followedby the ore-forming fluids.

JARDI CU-AG DEPOSIT: N. CHILE

567

cocite-bornite. The moderate degreeof argillicalteration associated with mineralization, particularlyin unitsI, II, and III, would be in conformity with a limited neutralizationof the ore-formingfluid. The variableparagenetic positionof chalcopyrite in the veinsimpliesthat, at leastin the later stages of mineralization,the fluid followeda chemical path close to the boundary betweenthe chalcopyrite and tennantiteequilibrium fields,periodically enteringthat
of the former. The bornite field is inferred to have

ignimbrites havebeenshown to continue for at least seven years(Valleyof Ten Thousand Smokes; Sheridan, 1970) andmaypersist for up to 25 to 50 years (Riehle, 1973). If we assume a hydrothermal circulationperiodof 40 years, anaverage rateof sedimentationof 5 cm/annum wouldbe requiredto generate the Jardlnsuccession. Ferguson andLambert (1972)
have documented a rate of tuffaceous sedimentation

beenintersected in proximity to the chalcocite saturationline, because thesetwo mineralsgenerally displaytexturessuggestive of simultaneous deposition. The aboveore mineral depositional sequence
could have occurredunder isothermalconditions, but

a decrease in temperaturewould alsohave favored

the transition fromFe to Cu sulfides (Knight,1977).

Several (5) tennantite + chalcociteconcentrates

fromthe oresyield fi34S compositions of-20.61 to

-31.92 per mil (M. L. Jensen, pers.commun., 1970). No data are available for strictlycoexisting sulfate tion of Parlcutin,Mexico, the conehadbeen colonized minerals, but unweathered gypsum (Mina de Yeso) by at least 14 vascularplant species. Thus, plant in an evaporitichorizon higher than that of Jardln growthcouldhave begunat an early stageon the gave fi34S = 7.44 permil, andbaritefroma veinletin debris-covered, steaming surfaceof the ignimbrite brecciated ignimbrite attheElisa deBordos mine(Fig. closeto the pond. 2) hasthe composition fi34S = 6.79 per mil. If these The major episode of sulfidedeposition of Jardln sulfide andsulfate datareflectequilibrium, the very may have terminatedwhen the area was blanketed large A values(ca. 33-34%) would indicatelow to by the thick wedge of oxidizedfanglomerate (unit
very low temperatures. In the more probablecaseof VIII). However,ore formation couldhavebeenreac-

of 1.2 cm/annum over 35 yearsat Matupi Harbor, Papua New Guinea, an environmentbroadly comparableto that at Jardlnbut one more extensive areallyandmorevegetated. It is our opinionthat the observed thickness of sedimentary stratahosting the Jardln orebody couldindeed haveaccumulated during the cooling historyof the underlying ashflow. The occurrence of fragments of vascular plants in the carbonaceous sediments at Jardlnwouldnot necessarily be in conflictwith suchrigoroustime constraints.Beaman(1960; and see Segerstrom, 1961) hasrecorded that only sixyearsafter the 1952 erup-

nonequilibrium reduction of sulfate by bacteria tivatedduringa laterperiodof faulting associated with (Ohmoto andRye,1979),thedata would bein general the emplacement of theBuenos Airesrhyolitic center. agreement with conditions intermediate betweenthe The problematic, relativelyhigh, temperatures reSO2-open andSO2-closed models of Schwarz and cordedfrom the late veinsmay reflect a pervasive Burnie(1973); i.e., the rate of supply of sulfate from heating of the entire area at this time. The overall the pondwater may have been approximately bal- mineralogy and chemistry of the veinsare similarto anced by that of sulfate reduction, resulting in frac- thoseof the early ores.Thesesimilarities andthe retionations of 4Sin the range50 x 20 per mil. striction of the veinsto the original mantoof dissemHowever,the apparent absence of sulfide fi34S values inated and veinlet ore are interpreted as evidence in the range-20 to +6 per mil mayimplythat con- that localresolution andprecipitation of ore minerals ditions weremorecomparable to the SO2-open case, occurredduring renewedcirculationof groundwain which sulfateis continuously suppliedfrom the ters, in response to modestheating abovethe temoverlyingwater, but reductionwithin the sediment peratures ofinitialdeposition. Less stringent temporal is slowerand/orepisodic. In generalterms,the few constraints on the disseminated copper-silvermindataare in permissive agreement with a bacterial re- eralization would, clearly,obtainif only the pyrite ductionsystem, implyingthat temperatures did not crystallized duringsedimentation and early diagenexceed ca.50C(Ohmoto andRye, 1979). Numerous esis, andsubsequently controlled the precipitation of studies (e.g.,White, 1968;Ferguson et al., 1974)have the oreminerals. Thismodelcannot be adequately shown thatbacteria maythrivein the vicinityof sub- evaluated. aerialhot springs. Analogs of theJardfndeposit Time constraints The Jardln deposit, although limitedin sizeandof Our preferred genetic modelis thatthe majorpe- onlymodest grade, isintriguing in thatit exhibits feariodof oreformation occurred: during the fumarolic tures characteristic of severalwell-knowntypes of stageof a thick (ca. 75 m) ash-flow tuff sheet,and mineralization: the red-bed,sedimentogenic, volcaduring theaccumulation ofupto 2 m ofvolcaniclastic nogenic,and epithermalclans. and clastic lacustrine sediments. We admit that the Although part of the orebody occurs in a volcanic latterconstraint appears, atfirstsight, tobeunlikely. unit,the similarities with red-bed copper deposits are Fumarolic processes associated with large subaerial perhapsmost striking,particularlywith regard to

568

R. B. LORTIE AND A. H. CLARK

thosehostedby continentalclasticrocks(e.g., Corocoro, Bolivia: Entwistle and Gouin, 1955; Nacimiento, New Mexico:Woodward et al., 1974). Sub-

nogenicand sedimentogenic basemetal sulfidedeposit clans. In detail,theemplacement ofconsiderable

ore beneath the sediment surface is also matched in

aerialevaporitehorizons mayhaveplayeda key role in suchsettings, asat Jardln.The broadlyconcordant stratiform natureof the Jardlnorebody,aswell asits smaller scale cross stratal extension, isclosely matched by the majorityof red-bedcopper deposits. The disseminated to veinlet form of the sulfide concentra-

suchenvironments. However,absence of significant thicknesses of massive sulfideand of primary sedimentaryfabrics andthe continental anddistalsetting of mineralizationat Jardln are persuasive points of
contrast. In this context it is of interest that, at Cor-

ocoro, Ahlfeld and Schneider-Scherbina (1964, p. mineralization tions,the closeassociation with organicdetritus,the 256) inferred that, whereaschalcocite dominance ofchalcociteandbornitcandcorrespond- (the "vetas") formed below surfacein permeable "ramos"ore lenses may ingpaucity of ironsulfides, andthe localpresence of beds,the nativecopper-rich on the floorsof small sphalerite are all features shared by red-beddeposits havebeen directlyemplaced (see Gustafson and Williams, 1981). Moreover, in- lakes in which gypsumwas being precipitated.A model,involvingprecipitation in terpretationof the Jardlndepositis impededby a "pene-exhalative" aquifer, as advocated by Brown (1981, problemfamiliarto red-bedcopperresearchers: the a subsurface lack of clear evidence of the conditions of mineral1984) for somered-beddeposits, may alsobe appliizationandof fluid compositions. However,we infer cableto Jardln. Finally,in view of the shallow continental setting that the metal-transporting waterswere comparable status as an to thoseconsidered (Rose,1976; Gustafson andWil- of the JardlnCu-Ag deposit,its possible type of epithermalbaseand precious metal liams,1981) to havegivenrise to red-beddeposits: unusual The asi.e., they were of low temperature (probably below deposit(Sillitoe,1977) mustbe considered. of copperandsilveris characteristic of the 100C),neutralto weaklyalkaline,oxygenated, and sociation andCenozoic silverdeposits of this comparatively saline.Nucleation of the coppersul- upperMesozoic Whitehead, fidesby earlier formeddiagenetic pyrite, a possible transectof the Andes(e.g., Chafiarcillo; the morewidespread assoore-forming mechanism at Jardln,would alsobe in 1919), locallyoverriding conformity with prevailing models for red-bedcopper ciation of silver with lead. Moreover, numerousepithermalsilvervein deposits of Paleogene age in this depositgenesis. district display a marked enrichment in arsenic and/ The Jardlndepositis distinctlyenrichedin silver ratios. These include: the SanAn(absolutely, and relative to Cu) when comparedto or lowmetal/sulfur ca. 21 km southeast of Jardln(Steenmost red-bed copper deposits(Gustafson and Wil- toniodeposit, liams, 1981), but occurrences with comparable Cu/ berg, 1938: Lortie and Clark, in prep.), which is bytheassemblage chalcocite-a domeykite, Ag ratiosare known (Rose,1976). The marked en- dominated is spatially associated with the basal richment of arsenicin the ore is, however, a feature andlike Jardln, ignimbrite;andthe Pampa Larga exhibited by few, if any,red-beddeposits: very minor HornitosFormation (Parkeret al., 1963), ca. 18 km northamounts of arsenian minerals occur, for instance, in vein system of Jardln,whichcontains a wide rangeof the Corocoroand Alderley Edge, U.K. (Warrington, northeast arsenic minerals including realgar, "aAsS," 1965), deposits, but it is perhaps of moresignificance hypogene nativearsenic, arsenolamprite, andsmithitc that the White Pine red-bed deposit,Michigan(En- orpiment, with a Paleocene sign et al., 1968), lacks arsenic, although thatelement (e.g.,Clark, 1970) andis associated gabbro stock. The Jardlndeposit wasemis locallyconcentrated in one potentialsource of the hornblende broadlysimilarto thoseof copper, thestratigraphically underlying nativecopper placedunder conditions theseessentially coeval Cu- andAs-bearing silverdedeposits (White, 1968). and couldbe regardedas a comparable epiThe closeassociation, and postulatedgenetic re- posits whichventedinto a lacustrine, rather lationship, with felsicvolcanism at Jardlnis alsoa fea- thermalsystem setting. ture not shared by red-beddeposits in general. How- thana strictlysubaerial, The Paleogene enargite-rich veinsconstitute a miever, Brown (1981, 1984) and other workers have facies of the Potrerillos (March,1935) stressed that basicvolcanism and dike emplacement nor,late-stage (Gustafson andHunt, 1975) porphyry may have been instrumental in the localizationof andE1Salvador somered-bed deposits,in addition to servingas a Cu (-Mo) deposits, on the northernedgeof the Cosourceof metals (see also Ahlfeld and Schneider- piap6miningdistrict;they form a part of the Cerro Scherbina, 1964, p. 253 fir). BlancoCu-Ag-Au-Pb-Znepithermalvein system (SeIn that metaltransport at Jardlnis inferredto have gerstrom, 1959),ca.35 km south-southeast ofJardln. occurred,at least in part, via hydrothermalpipes However,such veinsformedunderoxygen andsulfur penetratingthe sedimentary coverand that someore fugacityconditions much higher than thosewhich deposition tookplaceat or close to the sediment-water prevailedin the deposits under discussion: borniteinterface,parallelsare also evident with the volca- pyrite is a characteristic stableassemblage and he-

]ARDIN CU-AC DEPO$1T: N. CHILE

569

matitc is locallyabundant. Moreover,ore deposition promptedand facilitatedby the EconomicGeology at Jardlnoccurred in response to reduction of the hy- reviewers.We are, however,solelyresponsible for drothermal fluids rather than the oxidation which the overallinterpretationof thisunusual ore deposit. dominates the late-stage, near-surface regimein porphyry deposits (e.g., Knight, 1977; Gustafson and March 15, 1985; May 2, 1986 REFERENCES Hunt, 1975). Thus,the overallparagenetic sequence in the Jardlnoreis the reverse of that in the enargite- Ahlfeld, F., and Schneider-Scherbina, A., 1964, Los Yacimientos Mineralesy de Hidrocarburos de Bolivia:BoliviaDept. Nac. bearingveins.
From the aboveobservations, it will be evident that

highly unusual conditions were responsible for the development of the Jardlndeposit which,although sharing numerous features with, particularly, red-bed andepithermal deposits, appears to be unique when considered asa whole.Mineralization of thisspecific
type is likely to be both rare and of limited extent, in

thatthe favorable environment wasareallyrestricted -1984, Alternative sources of metals for stratiform copper Precambrian Research, v. 25, p. 61-74. andof limitedpersistence. Evenif theCu-Agminerals deposits: F., 1980, Possible modelo gen6tico paralosyacimientos formedentirelythrough replacement of diagenetic Camus, de cobredel distrito minero Puntadel Cobre:Rev.Geo16gica pyrite,we consider that the conjunction of a cooling Chile, v. 11, p. 51-76.
instrumental in focusing the inferred shallowcircutheCabildo mining district, central Chile: Internat. Geol.Cong., 1960, Rept., pt. 16, p. 17-28. lationof metal-bearing ground waters. The possibility 21st,Copenhagen, V. J., 1960, Salt marshes and saltdesertsof the world: that Skolithus sp.lebensspuren mayhavecontrolled Chapman, London,Hill Ltd., 392 p. sulfide emplacement in partof thedeposit isintrigu- Chen,T. T., andPetruk,W., 1980, Mineralogy andcharacteristics that affect recoveries of metals and trace elements from the ore ing,implyingbroadparallels with the involvement of Canadian Mining Meventworm burrows in hotsprings atoceanic spreading at Heath SteeleMines,New Brunswick:
centers(Haymonet al., 1984), but, as noted above,
tall. Bull., v. 73, no. 823, p. 1-13.

Geol.,Bol. 5,388 p. Beaman, J. M., 1960, Vascularplantson the cinder coneof Paricutinvolcano in 1958: Rhodora, v. 62, p. 175-186. Bracken, B., and Picard, M.D., 1984, Trace fossilsfrom Cretaceous/Tertiary North Horn Formationin centralUtah: Jour. Paleontology, v. 58, p. 477-487. Brown,A. C., 1981, Stratiform copperdeposits and pene-exhalative environments[abs.]:Geol. Soc. America Abstractswith Programs,v. 13, p. 418.

ignimbriteand a district-scale intramontane basinwas Carter,W. D., 1960, Originof "manto-type" copperdeposits of

eralogy,its largelydisseminated fabric,andits close ture, v. 215, p. 723-724. Clark,A. H., Farrar,E., Caelles, J. C., Haynes, S. J., Lortie, spatial association with a subaerial rhyoliticextrusive R. B., McBride, S. L., Quirt, G. S., Robertson, R. C. R., and unit at thebase of the Hornitos Formation, wasprob- Zentilli,M., 1976,Longitudinal variations in the metallogenetic

A. H., 1970, Alpha-arsenic sulfidefrom Mina Alacrftn, our preference remains for an abiotic hydrothermal Clark, PampaLarga,Chile: Am. Mineralogist, v. 55, p. 1338-1344. conduit originfor the sulfide-filled pipes. Clark,A. H., Mayer,A. E. S.,Mortimer,C., Sillitoe,R. H., Cooke, Significantly, thenearby Amolanas copper deposit R. U., andSnelling, N.Y., 1967, Implications of the isotopic agesof ignimbrite flows, southernAtacamadesert, Chile: Na(Fig. 1), broadlycomparable to Jardln in its ore min-

ablynucleated by controls differing fromthose prevailing in the depositunder discussion. Thus, min-

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eralization at Amolanas is contained entirelywithin

a rhyolitic lava flow and is inferred to havebeen em-

S. G., 1984, Ichplacedduringits primarycooling (Lortie andClark, Ekdale,A. A., Bromley,R. G., andPemberton, nology: The useof tracefossils in sedimentology andstratig1976; andin prep.).

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Acknowledgments

Ensign,C. O., Jr., White, W. S., Wright, J. C., Patrick,J. L., Fieldworkin Chilewasfunded by grants to A.H.C. Loene,R. J., Hathaway, D. J., Trammell,J. W., Fritts, J. J., and in the Nonesuch Shale, fromthe National Research Council of Canada (now Wright, T. L., 1968, Copperdeposits in Ridge, J.D., ed.,Ore deposits of the The Natural Sciences and EngineeringResearch WhitePine,Michigan, UnitedStates, 1933-1967 (Graton-Sales vol.):New York,Am. Council). The research wouldnot havebeenpossible Inst. MiningMetall. Petroleum Engineers, p. 460-488. without the full supportof the Institutode Investi- Entwistle,L. B., and Gouin, L. O., 1955, The chalcocite-ore degaciones Geol0gicas de Chile,andparticularly of its posits at Corocoro, Bolivia: ECON. GEOL., v. 50, p. 555-570. S.J., Quirt,G. S.,Conn,H., and thendirector, Carlos RulzFuller.The practical and Farrar,E., Clark,A. H., Haynes, for the post-Paleozoic miconceptual advice of Marcos Zentilliisgreatly appre- Zentilli,M., 1970, K-Ar evidence

ciated. Guy Narbonneand Brian Zaitlin endeavored

grationof graniticintrusivefoci in the Andesof northernChile:

to explainbasicaspects of tracefossils andtheir occurrence. M. L. Jensen very kindly providedseveral

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metalenrichments at Matupi Harbor, New Britain,T.P.N.G.:

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sulfur isotope determinations. Jewel Jeffrey andMichael Watson, and Chris Peck are thanked for their

patient helpin thepreparation ofthetextandfigures, respectively.Revision of the manuscriptwas

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