The steps in crop production are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Selection of crops Land preparation Propagation of crops Care and maintenance Harvesting and marketing

In selection of crops, the following factors must be considered: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Climate Soiltype Labour and capital Transportation and marketing facilities Socio-economic conditions

Climate is the most important limiting factor in the production of crops. Climate is the average of rainfall and temperature found in a particular place for a long time, usually a year or more. In the Caribbean, the amount and distribution of rainfall is of tremendous significance e.g. One area may get over 70-80 percent of total rainfall for the year in 3 months and for the rest of the year it is dry. The farmer must then select the types of crops that will mature within the short period where there is moisture. Long duration crops like sugar-cane cannot be grown there unless it is supplemented by irrigation water during dry spells. If irrigation cannot be provided, drought-tolerant crops like cotton can be grown. Temperature is not a critical factor in the Caribbean as it is in the tropics and sub-tropics. In mountainous areas, there is a lowering of temperature as one goes upwards. At upper elevations, crops such as potatoes, lettuce, carrot, cabbage and some varieties of pulses can be grown. On the coastland, at lower elevations, warm weather crops such as corn, cotton, sorghum, rice, sugar-cane and peanuts can be grown. Temperature and rainfall also influence the quality of the fruit e.g. Under low rainfall and high temperatures, fruits like pineapples, mangoes and citrus fruits are much sweeter.

Soil requirements vary for different types of crops: Capacity to hold water- Crops like rice and sugar-cane require a clayey type of soil which could retain moisture for plant growth, while crops like peanuts, cassava and potatoes prefer a loose, friable type of soil for: o Easier penetration of pegs in peanuts o Better development of tubers and peanut pods o Easy harvesting of tubers and peanut pods pH range- Most crops prefer a pH range of 4.5 to 6. Sugar-cane can tolerate very acid soils if drainage is good. Crops like coconut and beet can tolerate very alkaline soils.

Labour and capital influences cultivation of crops which need: Intensive care- e.g. potatoes, pepper, onions, tomatoes which need more inputs like finer land preparation, fertilisers, pesticides, irrigation water and more labour to care the plants. Extensive care- e.g. cotton, cassava, mango, citrus which do not need as much care and inputs as the intensive crops.

Transport and marketing facilities- If there is no market in the vicinity and transportation to outlet centres is difficult and expensive, the farmer should select crops which are not easily perishable but can withstand storage well and are high-priced to offset the high transportation cost. Selection of crops is also influenced by socio-economic factors such as: Consumer preference Market demand for produce Financial resources available for capital Recurrent expenditure

Land preparation is very important because it provides the properties of the soil required for crop production. Crops need fertile soils to produce maximum yield. Fertile soils have physical and chemical properties which allow root systems to develop fully so that they can carry out their functions properly. Land preparation involves: 1. Land clearing 2. Laying out 3. Ploughing 4. Harrowing 5. Mulching 6. Construction of beds and drains or ridges and furrows 7. Mixing in limestone 8. Mixing in manures 9. Applying pesticides

Land clearing is done to remove: unwanted vegetation objects such as: o large rocks o branches o scrap metal

The method used for land clearing depends on: the area of land the crop to be grown the type of existing vegetation the slope of the land the tools and equipment available to the farmer

These factors also affect the amount of land clearing that can be done. The two types of land clearing are: manual land clearing mechanical land clearing

In manual land clearing, on forested lands, full clearing is not usually done. The tools used are: The cutlass and hook-stick- slash shrubs and other undergrowth just above ground level. They are used on smaller fields which might have been cultivated before. Clearing is done at ground level. Hoe- is used on smaller fields which might have been cultivated before. Clearing is done at ground level. The axe and wedge- chop trees at a convenient height above ground level. The pitch fork and rake- heap up debris for rotting or for compost.

Tree stumps are removed especially when ploughing has to be done. Dried debris is usually burnt but burning destroys valuable organic matter as well as the soil structure and bare soil particles on sloping land are exposed to erosion. Debris should be heaped up and allowed to rot as this increases the soil organic matter content which is needed for maintaining good soil structure. In mechanical land clearing, tools used are: The bulldozer- performs well on savannahs and lightly forested land. It is capable of removing most of the vegetation. Bulldozers, if used to heap up debris, would scrape off too much valuable topsoil which is vital to healthy crop growth and development.

Motorised chain-saws- fell large trees. The tree dozer and stumper- fell trees and remove large stumps of trees. The fore-mounted rake on the tree dozer heaps up dried debris . The tractor and harrow- chop up plants before ploughing is done.

Laying-out is done so that: Fields are designed so that: o Other farm activities can be done orderly and with much ease o The field can be managed efficiently There are good drainage and irrigation systems Plants have enough space for growth so as to make maximum use of land The yield per hector can be determined

The laying-out process involves: Finding out the slope of the field Fixing the boundary lines around the field Setting up a baseline from which other measurements would be taken Dividing the field into blocks of regular shapes (rectangles or squares)- pathways should separate each block Measuring off areas for drainage and irrigation channels (on sloping land channels should flow across the slope) Measuring off areas for dams Dividing blocks into plots Dividing plots into beds and drains or ridges and furrows

Ploughing breaks up the surface soil and turns the topsoil to a desirable depth. The benefits of ploughing include: The subsoil (which is more compact than the topsoil) is exposed to sunlight and other atmospheric conditions. This causes the soil to weather and become friable. Loosing up soil particles allows free movement of water, air and plant roots among soil particles. Surface water can now move over soil clods to the spaces between them and into field drains, reducing water logged conditions. Aerated soils also encourage the activities of soil micro-organisms which speed up the rotting of soil organic matter to humus. Oxygen is available for the respiration of root hairs.

The control of crop pests such as weeds and soil insects- Weeds are buried with the topsoil while organisms in the sub-soil are exposed to direct sunlight and are killed. This causes an increase in the soil organic matter content which later decomposes to form humus. Humus helps to: o Maintain small, friable soil clods o Release plant nutrients to the soil o Keep soil particles moistened

Ploughing must be deep enough on clayey soils to allow proper root growth. Ploughing on sloping land must be done across the slopes. Ploughing along the slopes encourages: Gully formation Serious erosion problems

Tools and equipment used for ploughing: Manual ploughing o Large digging forks- on heavy soils o Hoe- light soils (sandy soils) Mechanical ploughing o Tractor with a plough attached

Harrowing or chipping is done to break up large soil clods into smaller ones. This prepares a soil structure of a suitable tilth. Tiny seeds need to be sown on seed beds with a fine soil tilth so that seeds can be in close contact with soil particles from which they obtain moisture from germination. Benefits of harrowing: Soils with small friable soil clods can keep more water around soil particles since there is an abundance of small pore spaces. These soils are also better aerated. They allow tiny roots and root-hairs of seedlings to grow freely.

Harrowing is essential on clayey soils. On sandy soils, it may not be necessary because the rotovator may produce the required soil tilth.

Tools and equipment: Manual o Cutlass on clayey soils o During ploughing, large furrow slices are shattered with the back of the hoe on sandy soils. o Rake is used for levelling and chipping. Mechanical o The tractor and the harrow

In wet-lands soil preparation such as in rice farming, harrowing is done on a flooded clay field with the tractor and harrow. Soil clods are destroyed and puddle conditions result. Disadvantages of a fine soil tilth: Compaction of lower layers of soil Blocking of soil pores thus causing surface crusting during wet conditions Loss of soil moisture when fresh soil is repeatedly turned over and exposed to air in dry conditions.

Successful harrowing can be obtained in suitable weather conditions and on soils with high levels of humus. The formation of beds and drains or ridges and furrows allows the removal of excess soil water from the root zone of plants. When excess soil water moves from the soil to field drains and out into drainage canals, the water table of the soil is lowered. Benefits of construction of beds and drains or ridges and furrows: Plant roots can grow deeper into the soil o Deeper root penetration helps roots to reach more roots in solution during dry conditions o Deeper root penetration anchors plants firmly in the soil There are well balanced soil particles have an abundance of small pore spaces with a good balance of air and water

When planting on low lying lands, the farmer needs to construct raised beds on which to grow crops. Beds should be raised about 20cm above ground level to: Facilitate the free draining of excess water Provide more room for root development

Beds are usually 120cm wide with drains 30cm wide around each bed.

Top soil removed during drain construction is used to heighten beds. Cambered beds are beds with curved tops which slope gently towards the two long sides. Ridges are built higher and steeper than beds. There is a line along the centre where the two steeply sloping sides meet. Ridges: Allow free water movement Provide more room for root development

Excess soil water collects in the furrows and flows out of the field to the main drainage system. Deep drains and furrows lower the water table so that more soil is drained. Drains and furrows can be used as irrigation channels during dry weather conditions. Farmers must ensure that drainage outlets are closed when they are irrigating fields. Tools and equipment for construction of drains: Manual o Garden fork o Shovel o Spade o Garden line o Pegs Mechanical o Hymac drain digger

Tools and equipment for construction of furrows: Manual o Hoe o Garden line o Pegs Mechanical o Tractor and ridger

Many crops cannot tolerate high levels of acidity as it causes some nutrients to become insoluble and remain in the soil and therefore, none can be dissolved in the water which root hairs absorb, resulting in the poor growth and the production of little or nothing.

The level of soil acidity can be found out by sending a good soil sample from the field to the soil laboratory. From the results, the amount of limestone needed to correct the acidity can be determined. Limestone: Helps to make the soil less acidic Facilitates desirable chemical reactions Supplies calcium, one of the essential plant nutrients

Applications of limestone should be made atleast 10 days before organic manures because limestone destroys the nitrogen in these manures. The limestone must be mixed in with the topsoil particles. Manures are all substances added to the soil to increase the supply of plant nutrients. The two types of manures are: Organic e.g. animal dung and urine mixture, compost, green manure Inorganic manures- are concentrated substances which are also called fertilisers e.g. urea, triple super phosphate, muriate of potash.

A laboratory test should be done on a soil sample from the field to find out the quantity of each nutrient present. By comparing those figures with the amount of nutrients the crop needs, the quantity of manure to be applied to the soil can be calculated. Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are nutrients which root hairs need plentifully in the soil and should be replaced before the next crop is planted. Organic manures are usually broadcast over the field and mixed into the topsoil. Inorganic manures can also be broadcast over the soil in the final stages of land preparation. Tools and equipment: Tractor and disc harrow

Pesticides are applied to the soil to control crop pests which live there. Crop pests include: Nematodes- block transport vessels in plant roots. Nematicide is the chemical substance used to control these pests. Soil fungi- cause damping-off and root rot. Fungicide is the chemical substance used to control these pests. Soil insects- destroy roots as they feed. Insecticide is the chemical substance used to control these pests.

Furadan 5G or Vydate L can be applied to the soil to control nematodes and insect pests. Rizolex 50 W.P. or Banrot can be applied to the soil to control fungi. Diazinon 60 E.C. or Diazinon 40 W.P. can be applied to the soil to control insect pests. Care should be taken to follow the manufacturers instructions for the use of these pesticides. Nematodes can be controlled by fumigating the soil with nematicide e.g. Nemagon which is a liquid fumigant injected into the soil so that it becomes a lethal gas which kills the nematode.

PLANT MORPHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY

REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
Reproduction is the production of new individuals of a species. All the species of plants reproduce naturally as the means of ensuring their survival.

TYPES OF REPRODUCTION
There are two types of reproduction, namely: Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Asexual reproduction is the production of new individuals by the use of any vegetative part of the plant. It does not involve the flower or the fusion of male and female sex cells. Plants may be grown from cuttings or grafts; this can be natural or artificial. PARTS USED FOR VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION Some examples of vegetative parts or organs that can be used for vegetative propagation are: suckers, bulbs, corms, runners, rhizomes, tubers, buds, stems, roots and tissues. 1. Suckers- are new seedlings that shoot from the base of the mother plant e.g. banana. They are formed from the axillary buds which are under the surface of the soil and grow upwards at an angle.

2. Bulbs- are short stems with fleshy leaves e.g. onion. Buds develop in the axils of the leaves that make up the bulb. The new plants feed on the fleshy leaves of the bulb. As the buds enlarge, they become separated from the parent plant growing new roots from the base. 3. Corms- are thickened underground stems which occur when a bud develops on the side of the parent corm e.g. cocoyam. A new individual plant is formed and food supplies in the old corm feed the new plant. 4. Root tubers- are swollen lateral or adventitious roots propagated by cuttings e.g. sweet potato. 5. Stem tubers- are swollen tips of underground stems e.g. Irish potato. Axillary shoots are formed underground and grow out horizontally or downwards, the tip of each shoot swells with stored food, forming a tuber. If left in the ground until the next season, then the tuber produces new leafy shoots from buds in the axils of scale leaves. They are propagated by cutting the tuber with developed buds (eyes) into sections. 6. Runners (Stolons)- are stems which grow along the ground and from which roots and shoots develop at intervals while the stem continues growing in different directions e.g. Couch grass (Cynodon dactylon). The new plant develops at the nodes. The new plant ultimately becomes separated from the parent plant by breakage or decay of the internodes of the stem. 7. Rhizomes- are thick underground stems growing horizontally e.g. ginger. New shoots develop at intervals from buds on the rhizome. Methods of Vegetative Propagation (Artificial) Various methods of vegetative propagation are: Budding Grafting Layering/Air layering Cutting

Budding- is the introduction of the scion (bud) into the root stock (stem) of another plant of the same species e.g. citrus trees such as orange trees. It involves the use of a bud as a scion; a scion is top worked on the root stock and is a part that develops to produce fruits.

The root stock forms the root system of the combination after budding or grafting. The scion and the root stock should be pest and disease free and resistant. The process of budding is as follows: 1. Remove a bud from a desired fruit tree. 2. The bud should have the bark with the xylem. 3. A T-shaped cut is made in the bark of the root stock; it should be 10cm from the base of the stem. 4. The bud is inserted inside the T-cut made. 5. The bud is tied with a budding tape to enable the cambium of both the bud and the root stock to unite. 6. After 21 days, the new shoot will appear from the bud. The top part of the rootstock should be cut off. Grafting- is a special type of budding where the bud (scion) is introduced on top of the root stock of another plant but of the same species e.g. citrus trees, tea plants. It involves the union of two different cambium layers. The shoot system and the root stock should be of the same size in thickness so that they match. The process of grafting is as follows: 1. A slant cut is made on both the rootstock and the scion. 2. Insert the shoot system in the slant cut of the rootstock. 3. A protective wax or grafting tape is used to tie the union to protect it from rotting. Layering- is inducing a branch to the ground to develop roots while attached to the mother plant e.g. coffee and cocoa plants. The induced branch is pegged to the ground so that it does not come out and to be in contact with the soil to develop roots at that point. After root development, the branch is cut off from the mother plant and planted as an individual plant. Air Layering e.g. ornamental plants- The process of air layering is as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. A bark is ringed on the branch. Tie the ringed part with plastic containing wet fertile soil. This soil will induce roots to develop. The rooted plant is cut and planted.

Cuttings- are cut stems with buds that are planted or inserted into the ground to develop roots and grow as individual plants e.g. sugar cane, sweet potatoes, cassava, rose, Mulberry, kikuyu. In sugar-cane: 1. The stem is cut into sections of about 45cm long. 2. These are placed horizontally in small trenches in the ground. 3. New growth develops from the nodes on the cutting and new sugar-cane plants are produced. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION Sexual reproduction is the process whereby seeds are used to produce new plants. A seed is: A mature ovule A young plant in the resting or dormant stage The means by which a plant reproduces itself at a later time when conditions are favourable

Parts of a seed The main parts of a seed are: Testa- is the seed coat which gives protection to the cotyledon and embryo in the early stages of growth. Cotyledons- are seed leaves in which food materials are stored for the embryo. Embryo- is made up the young shoot or plumule and the young root or radicle. Plumule or Embryonic Shoot- consists of an embryonic stem extending above the attachment of the cotyledons. Radicle- is an extension from below the cotyledons which develops into a root. Endosperm- is an additional storage of food in some seeds.

Selection of Seeds Healthy plants are grown from good quality seeds that were produced by plants with vigorous growth and high yields.

For a seed to be planted, it should: Be harvested when mature. Be free from excessive moisture. Large seeds should be selected since they store a large amount of food which is essential for early nourishment of the young plant. Not be wrinkled or warped. Be free of any form of infestation. The embryo must be free from damage before germination can take place.

Storage: They should be stored in a dry place. Seeds should not be stored for a prolonged period. Old seeds usually lose their capacity to germinate.

Requirements of Germination Most seeds, especially crop seeds, begin to grow soon after they are planted in a moist, warm soil. Each kind of seed has its own requirement and preference for moisture, temperature, temperature, air and light. Moisture- is the first requirement for germination. Plants such as spinach and cabbage require very little moisture while rice has to be completely submerged. Seeds with water proof seed coats must be scratched so that water is allowed to seep in. Temperature- Plants such as corn and beans germinate in warm temperatures. Plants such as wheat germinate in cold temperatures. Air- The oxygen in air is required for germination. Seeds that are sown too deep, especially in heavy clay soils, do not germinate because they lack oxygen. The smaller the seed, the more shallow it should be sown. Light- is a necessary factor for some seeds. Some seeds, after being buried for months or even years, only grow after being brought to the surface because they are exposed to sunlight.

Before the seeds are planted, the farmer must carry out a viability test to ensure the germination of eighty percent (80%) of his seed lot. The purpose of a viability test is to avoid waste of seeds and time.

Viability Test: A sample of a hundred seeds is placed in a moist blotting paper on a flat tray. As the seeds germinate, they are counted and taken out. This is done at intervals until what seeds remain fail to germinate. If the germination count is less than 75-80%, then those seeds should not be planted. There are basically two types of seeds: dicotyledonous seeds monocotyledonous seeds

Seeds are germinated by two different methods: Epigeal germination- is the process of germination where the germinated seed leaves are lifted above the ground e.g. bean. Hypogeal germination- is the process of germination where the germinated seed leaves are left below the ground e.g. corn.

Seeds are planted either in a nursery or directly in a garden bed. Some seeds that are very small and have delicate seedlings are planted in a seed box or seed bed in a nursery. The Nursery A nursery is a place where seeds are sown until they germinate and develop into mature seedlings. A typical nursery should be protected against strong winds by wind breaks such as hedges and trees. A tall hedge around the nursery protects the seedlings from strong winds and straying animals. The roof should be covered with clear plastic or fibre glass sheets instead of metal, to protect the plants from excess sun and heat. Seed-boxes Seeds can be sown in wooden seed-boxes, the dimensions of which are normally 35cm x 25cm x 7cm. The bottom of the box has slits for drainage. Plastic boxes should have holes instead of slits. Seed boxes should be thoroughly cleaned.

PREPARATION OF SEED-BOXES FOR SOWING A thin layer of straw is placed at the bottom of the box in order to cover the slits and prevent the soil from passing through. Three centimetres of potting soil is placed in the seed-box. Finely sifted soil is placed on the soil in the box. The soil is pressed down gently to a depth of 1-1.5cm from the top. SOWING SEEDS Seeds are sown in rows or broadcast thinly over the entire surface. This is done by a gentle shaking movement of the packet or spread by the thumb and fore finger. The seeds are covered with a thin layer of sifted soil. The seed box is covered with appropriate material and watered regularly. SEED GERMINATION Some seeds such as egg plant, pepper and celery take about six to eight days to germinate. Other plants such as lettuce and pakchoi take three to four days. When seventy five percent of the seeds have germinated, the covering should be removed and the seedlings exposed to sunlight. Pricking out (thinning out) At the two or three leaf stage, the under developed seedlings are pricked out and replanted. This transfer helps because it gives the seedlings more light. The seedlings have a lot more root room to develop stronger roots. Diseases which may attack the seedlings in the seed boxes are controlled. A leaf is held between the thumb and the index finger. The soil is stirred around the plant which is gently lifted out with a hands spade or shallow spoon. The seedling is then replanted into a new box.

POST GERMINATION CARE In wet seasons, seedlings should be watered when necessary. In dry seasons, they should be watered twice daily. The soil should be stirred up at intervals to: encourage aeration encourage infiltration prevent crusting

Weeds should be handpicked since weeds compete with plants for food, nutrients and sunlight. Pests and diseases are controlled by the application of appropriate chemicals. HARDENING OFF Hardening off is done to prepare seedlings for field conditions. Seedlings are watered less frequently and are exposed to sun and rain. After this process, seedlings are transplanted to the field at specific spacing.

CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF CROPS

Following the establishment of seedlings, a number of maintenance operations are necessary. These vary from crop to crop but practices common to many crops are: irrigation weed control mulching fertiliser application pest and disease control

In the Caribbean, rainfall is not evenly distributed throughout the year. Even areas which receive a high total of annual rainfall have dry seasons when water shortage may occur and cause crop failure. After the plants have been established in the field, if there is insufficient rainfall or if rain is not forthcoming, it is not necessary to apply supplemental water to avoid adverse effects on the normal growth and development of the plant reduction in the yield of crops. Irrigation is the artificial application of water to the soil to ensure an adequate supply of moisture to meet the crops needs. Irrigation is essential for the profitable production of most crops. A rainfall of 140-180cm per year is considered good for crop growth. Irrigation is necessary wherever the annual rainfall is less and in areas where there is a storage even for a short while during the growing period of the crop. The amount and frequency of irrigation depends on: the soil type the kind of crop the stage of growth of the plant the effective rainfall the rate of evaporation from the soil surface the rate of evaporation on transpiration from plants

Fine clayey soil holds moisture longer than sandy soil and can be irrigated at longer intervals. Deep soils hold larger quantities of water than shallow soils.

Organic matter, when incorporated into light soils, increases the water holding ability of such soils. Vegetable crops grown for their foliage require uniform moisture throughout their development, while those frown for fruits and seeds require large amounts during fruit set and development. Environmental factors like high temperature, wind speed and low humidity increase the water needs of plants with the resulting increase in the need for frequent irrigation. The amount and distribution of rainfall during the growing season largely controls the frequency of irrigation. After a rainfall irrigation, when excess water has been drained off by gravitational force, the soil will have maximum quantity of water available for the plant to meet its needs. The soil is referred to, at this stage, a being at field capacity. The continued removal of water by plant roots and evaporation from soil surface leads to a stage where the remaining water in the soil will be held firmly by the soil particles and will not be easily absorbed by plant roots. This stage is called permanent wilting point (pwp). The volume of water held between actual field capacity and permanent wilting point is readily available moisture. The difference between the actual available moisture and maximum available moisture is the amount of water to be applied. Available soil moisture can be determined by the instrument, tension meter. Irrigation should be done when 60% of the maximum water is removed from clayey or medium textured soil or when 40% is removed from sandy soils. Sources of irrigation water: surface water e.g. rivers, streams, lakes, reservoirs ground water e.g. springs, shallow wells, deep bore holes rain water from roofs

A farmer may use one or more sources in obtaining irrigation water. The method of irrigation used depends on: the topography of the area the characteristic of the soil the type of crops to be grown the size of the area to be irrigated

Sprinkling water by means of a hose from pipe lines, or using watering cans on a small vegetable garden to supply the water needs of the crop during a brief dry spell, is one form of irrigation. CHANNEL (FURROW) IRRIGATION- In channel irrigation, canals are built to convey the water from lakes, rivers and wells to furrows or basins, through gravitation. In furrows, only part of the surface area is wetted; in level basins, the whole area is flooded. Basins may vary in size from large paddy fields for rice which are continuously flooded during the growing period of the crop, to very small basins for a few small plants or a single tree which are flooded for a short period. Furrow irrigation is adapted to soils of clayey or medium texture, where intake is medium or low and where the surface soil is deep and uniform and the subsoil does not impede drainage. The topography of the land must be gently sloping and uniform for good water distribution. Large quantities of water should be available, but the area to be irrigated at any one time should be restricted to the number of furrows the irrigator can observe closely enough to adjust flow rates satisfactorily. SPRINKLER IRRIGATION- Sprinkler is more suitable where the land is too steep, topography uneven or soils very permeable. In overhead sprinkler irrigation, water is pumped into distribution pipes from canals or reservoirs and water is applied through fixed or revolving nozzles spread at regular intervals. The portable aluminium pipes (lightweight) are moved at intervals so that water is distributed evenly over the cropped area. Fringe area may not get enough water with sprinkler irrigation, and 40% overlap is needed for equal moisture penetration near the periphery of each circle. The rate of application should not be greater than 75% of the rate of the soils ability to absorb it. In this method, the distribution of water is better than surface irrigation, and there is less wastage of water through seepage. The initial capital cost and maintenance costs are very high. Sprinklers are less efficient at wind speeds above 4 miles per hour., as the distribution of water from the sprinklers is liable to be uneven.

DRIP (TRICKLE) IRRIGATION- This method is very useful where the water is in short supply. Water is supplied through PVC pipe lines to each row of plants and a small nozzle allows water to drip out and maintain a moist zone around the plant roots. By this method, the plant root zone is never dry and never water logged. As water is not spread over the whole surface of the field, weeds are not encouraged between plant roots and losses from evaporation and seepage are reduced to a minimum. Drip irrigation has recently become popular in Australia, Italy and U.S.A.

As crops grow, other plants make their appearances in the field. Weeds are any plants growing in a place where they are not wanted e.