TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER - 1

INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER - 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

CHAPTER - 3

PRACTICAL STUDY

CHAPTER 4

CONCLUSION

CHAPTER 5

BIBILOGRAPHY

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Civil Engineers construct many types of structures to serve various Infrastructural requirements and these include infrastructural buildings, dams, bridges, roads, railway lines and related structures, ports etc., all of the structures above the ground are therefore visible. They are often called superstructures. Civil engineers also construct the structures that are located below the ground such as pipe lines, tunnel, shelters, basements etc. All structures are designed to transmit the load to the soil on which they rest. To enable the stress to be transferred safely to the soil, these superstructures and soil are linked. The sub-structure is usually called foundation. The size and shape of these sub-structures determines the stress that is finally transferred to the soil underneath. Once the size and shape is determined, the sub-structure or the foundation itself has to be structurally designed to withstand the load of the superstructure on one side and the reaction from the soil on the outer side. Loads are transmitted from the superstructure to the sub-structure by columns or walls. The sub-structure distributes the load to soil in the manner that the soil is able to withstand.

1.1 INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS:

These comprise buildings or structures in which products or materials of all kinds properties are fabricated assembled, manufacture or processed. Industrial buildings are further sub divided into 3 types; they are as follows: they are as follows:

1.1.1 BUILDINGS USED FOR LOW HAZARD INDUSTRIES:

These include the buildings in which the contents are low combustibility. The industrial operations are of such a nature that there are no possibilities for any self propagating fire to occur. The only consequence danger to life an properly may arise from panic, fumes or fire from some external sources.

1.1.2 BULDINGS USED FOR MODERATE HAZARD INDUSTRIES:

These include the buildings in which the contents or industrial process of operations conducted are liable to give rise to fire. This may burn with moderate rapidity and produce considerable volume of smoke. But the smoke will not contain either toxic fumes or explosions which are to be feared in events of fire.

Industrial buildings or heavy structures are huge infrastructural facilities

like factories, ware houses, conveyor building etc., they are characterized by heavy loads, running in to several hundreds of tones including heavy mechanical vibrations suddenly applied loads and impact loads. Hence certain factors need to be considered for the design, analysis and construction of industrial structures, including site conditions.

1.2 SCOPE:
The expansion work in Rolling Mills(Construction)zone of RINL,VSP was chosen for the study. The substructures of various units of mills were observed and the study conducted.

CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1 FOUNDATION:
Foundation is derived from the Latin word foundare, meaning to set or ground on something solid. A foundation is an artificially laid base on which a structure is set or built up.It is part of a structure which transmits the load of the structure to the ground. All structures constructed are supported on foundations A foundation is therefore, a connecting link between the structure proper and the ground which supports it. A foundation is required for distributing the loads of superstructure to a large area.

A foundation should be designed such that; the soil below doesnt fail in shear and the settlement in which the soil can safely withstand is known as allowable bearing pressure.

They are two types foundations; 1 Shallow foundations 2 Deep foundations

2.1.1 SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS:

Shallow foundations are the most common type of foundations and can be laid using open earth excavation by allowing natural slopes on all sides. As such shallow foundations are also called Open foundation. Shallow foundations are for depths 2 to 3 meters and are normally convenient foundations, provided for structures of moderate height built on soils having satisfactory amount of bearing capacity

2.1.2 DEEP FOUNDATION

When the foundations have to carry heavy structural loads through a weak compressible soil, the foundations are called as deep foundations. Under deep foundations they are two types: Pile foundations well foundations

PILE FOUNDATIONS
When the foundations have to carry heavy structural loads through weak compressible soils, the foundations are taken to deeper depths until a hard stratum is reached. Such foundations are called deep foundations. Pile foundations and well foundations which come under foundations are described indetail in this volume.

Pile Foundations: A pile may be defined as a long vertical load transferring

element composed of timber, steel, concrete or a combination of them. The main function of pile is to carry load of the structure which cannot be sufficiently supported at a certain level due to its poor bearing capacity to a depth at which good bearing capacity is available.

TYPES OF PILES: In general, there are two types of piles. Bearing piles Friction piles

Bearing piles: When a pile passes through poor material but its tip (bottom end) penetrates a small length into a stratum of good bearing capacity, then it is called bearing pile.The hard stratum or bed rock must be at a reasonable depth and there should be no too soft stratum below the hard stratum. Bearing piles transfer their load to the hard stratum.

Friction piles: When piles extend through deep strata of limited bearing capacity and develop their carrying capacity by friction on the sides of the pile (circumference of the pile), then they are called friction piles. The function pile derives its support mainly from the surrounding soil through the development of friction between the soil and the periphery of pile.

A very small percentage of the load is carried by the soil near the

lower tip of the pile. Friction piles are used when hard stratum of bed rock is at a large depth. The lengthof friction pile depends upon the type of soil, amount of load and the size of pile. Other piles: Besides these two main types of piles, there are a number of piles which are used for specific purposes. They are Compaction piles, Anchor piles, Dolphin and Batter piles. Compaction piles are used to compact loose granular soils thereby increasing the bearing capacity. When friction piles are driven in coarse grained soil; the process of driving such piles close to each other in groups greatly reduces the porosity and compressibility of the soil within and around the group. Thus they compact the soil. Compaction piles do not carry any load themselves. Tension piles anchor down the structures which are subjected to uplift due to hydrostatic pressure of due to overturning moment. Anchor piles provide anchorage against horizontal pull from sheet piles or other such forces. Dolphins are used to project water front structures which are subjected to impact of ships etc. Batter piles are used to resist large inclined forces.

Situations which demand pile foundations:

 The live load and dead load coming from the structure is considerably large. The construction of grillage or rat foundation is not economical. The seasonal variation of ground water table is considerable. When the loads from soil of poor bearing capacity is to be transferred to a suitable stratum having higher bearing capacity. When the loads are to be taken to depth in a weak soil, by virtue of skin friction developed along the length of pile. When sandy soils are to be compacted to increase the bearing capacity by means of compaction piles. When the foundations are to be protected from the danger of erosion in case the foundations are taken below depth of scour. When anchorage against horizontal pull is to be provided. When the structures are to be protected against uplift pressure or overturning moment. In case, where large inclined forces are to be resisted.

Load Bearing Piles: The piles which transfer the load from structure to the soil

bed are known as load bearing piles. Generally, piles are driven vertical but sometime they are driven with certain inclination to take up the inclined loads. In such case they are known as batter piles. The load bearing piles may transfer the load, directly to hard strata below certain depth, which are known as bearing piles. When the loads are transferred through the skin friction between piles surface and soil surrounding it, the pile is known as friction piles. Friction piles are used when hard strata is not available at reasonable depth and in soils of non cohesive nature.

For the construction of load bearing piles, the following materials are commonly used:

Cast iron Cement concrete sand Timber steel Wrought iron Composite

Cement concrete pile: Cement concrete piles may be mainly classified into two types.

(a)Cast-in-situ piles: These are cast with cement concrete at the positions which they have to occupy ultimately.

(b)Precast piles: These are cast at a convenient place, cured and brought to the site and then are driven into the ground by hammer blows by conventional method.

(a) Cast-in-situ piles: A hole is made by excavating with auger or by driving a casing. The hole is filled up with cement concrete. Since the pile is not subjected to handling and driving stresses, it is not necessary to reinforce, when the pile is subjected to only vertical pressure. When the lateral forces are also acting on the piles, the piles are essentially provided with the reinforcement. The casing may be withdrawn after the hole is made or it may be left in position. The former is known as uncased cast-in-situ concrete piles whereas the latter is known as cased cast-in-situ concrete piles. Uncased cast-in-situ concrete piles: These piles do not use casing, and hence are cheaper. However, great skill is required in their construction. These piles are used only where it is certain that neither soil nor water will fall into the hole, or squeeze into and reduce the size of the hole left after withdrawing a driven mandrel or shell before concreting, and also where adjacent pile will not damage the green concrete. It is essential to have close installation inspection, since no inspection is possible after they are installed.

These piles have the advantage that They need no storage space, They do not require cutting off excess lengths or building up short lengths, They do not require special handing equipment The concrete is not liable to damage from driving. Following are the examples of these types of piles. (i) Simplex pile (ii) Franki pile (iii) Pedestal pile (iv) Vibro pile

Simplex pile :
Simplex pile can be driven through soft or hard soils. In this pile, a steel tube fitted with a cast iron shoe is driven into the ground up to the required depth, (a). Reinforcement, if necessary, is put inside the tube. Concrete is then poured into the tube, and the tube is slowly withdrawn, without concrete being tamped, leaving behind the cast iron shoe. The soil must be sufficiently firm to form a good mould for green concrete after the casing is withdrawn, or else an inner casing of slightly smaller diameter than the shell must be inserted before pouring the concrete. This pile is known as simplex standard pile. If, however tamping of concrete is done at regular interval as the tube is withdrawn, we get the simplex tamped pile.

FRANKI PILE:
This pile has an enlarged base of mush-room shape, which gives the effect of a spread footing. This pile is more useful where a bearing stratum of limited thickness can be reached at reasonable depth. Also, this type of pile is best suited to granular soil. Shows various stages of forming the pile. In the first stage a heavy removable pipe shell is set vertically on the ground with the help of leads and a charge of dry concrete or gravel is formed. In the second stage, a diesel operated drop hammer of 20 to 30 kN weight is driven on the concrete. This results in the formation of a dense pulg that penetrates the ground and drags the tube with it on account of friction developed between the tube and the concrete plug in the third when the tube has reached the desired depth, the tube is held in position by cables (leads) and the hammer is applied to the concrete, forcing it down and outward. This result in the enlargement of the base into the mushroom shape. If required, a fresh charge of semi-dry concrete is put to enlarge the bulb. In the fourth stage, the shaft is formed by introducing successive charges of concrete, ramming each in turn, and withdrawing gradually (about 300 mm at a time) the casing shows the finally formed pile which has corrugations all along is height. Reinforcement cage can be installed, if desired, after the enarged base has been formed in that case, the hammer goes inside the cage of reinforcement. The pipe diameters in Franki piles vary from 50 cm to 60 cm, while the enlarged base may have a diameter of about 90 cm, or more. The pile has a carring capacity of 60 t (600 kN) to 90 t (900 kN).

Although the Franki pile is generally installed by bottom driving, highly special techniques such as open-ended coring, rock socketting, and composite shaft construction are used in particular situations to overcome unique site problems.It can safely withstand very high compressive and tensile forces and substantial horizontal loads.The installation process of each Franki pile takes account of the soil conditions at each pile location. Quality control checks on the driving and basing resistance of every pile result in optimum pile performance.The pile is always sealed during construction. Ground water or collapsing ground present no problems.Noise and vibration levels are minimised as a result of Frankis unique bottom driving technique.Because the impact occurs at the bottom of the tube, the Franki pile is the quietest of the driven cast-inplace systems and is suitable where high noise levels would cause environmental problems.Vibration levels are monitored regularly and in most ground conditions can be kept below the strictest international standards.These features have helped make the Franki pile the most popular castin-place pile in Australia for more than 50 years.The action of forming an enlarged base improves and strengthens many soil types. Also the pile base can be enlarged up to three times the shaft diameter resulting in a shorter more economical pile which has superior settlement performance when compared to a straight shaft pile.Where high tension loads are required, the reinforcement can be anchored into a tension base giving significantly increased tension resistance.The load capacity and settlement analyses of Franki piles are calculated using displacement pile

parameters with design methods based onmany years of research and thousands of test pile results in a wide range of ground conditions. Theoretical expectations are confirmed during construction by monitoring the dynamic resistance of the piling tube and the energy requirements for forming the enlarged base. The pile type can be constructed in practically all soil conditions.

FRANKI PILE

Vibro pile: A vibro-pile is a closed off casing that is vibrated into the ground displacing and "densifying" all the material in its path. The casing is then filled with concrete and reinforcement and then extracted (or filled with concrete as it is extracted and the reinforcement is installed later.) Vibro-pile is used as an alternative to pre-cast piles or drilled cast-in-situ piles in soft grounds especially when vibrating a can/probe is faster than drilling and casing or when vertical tie downs are necessary. These piles are used where the ground is soft, thus offering little frictional resistance to the flow of concrete. Both standard and expanded piles are formed by the vibro process. Vibro piles are formed by driving a steel tube and shoe, filling with concrete, and extracting the tube, using upward extracting and downward tamping blows alternatively. Vibro-expanded piles are used where the desired driving resistance is not obtained at reason able depth due to low bearing capacity of soil. Its bearing capacity is increased by enlarging its diameter at the bottom. Uses of vibro piles Vibro piles are used in small and large construction works. They are also highly usable in applications where the piles are exposed to great compression and tension forces. Vibro piles, together with prefabricated

concrete piles, offer the most economical solution when noise and vibration are not an impediment. In large quantities, vibro piles are often more economical than prefabricated concrete piles. We installed 250 vibro piles for a quay wall in Rotterdam (the Brammen Terminal) - an excellent choice in terms of quality and cost. The piles were 36 metres long and 609 millimetres in diameter.

VIBRO PILE PEDESTAL: This pile is used where thin bearing stratum is reached with reasonable depth. The pedestal of the pile gives the effect of spread footing on this comparatively thin bearing. The pile uses a steel tube casing and a steel core, the lower end of the core being flush with the bottom of the casing and the end made flat. A patented pile formed by driving a steel shell into the ground to the required depth, putting in small quantities of concrete, and hammering them down so as to force the concrete into the earth beyond the point of the shell; thus

enlarging the end and greatly increasing the bearing area. The shell is afterward withdrawn gradually, as the hole that it made is filled with concrete. If the shell were left in, the method would be far more satisfactory; as the shaft of the pile is liable to be seriously imperfect. Sometimes dubbed a club footed pile.

PEDESTAL PILE

BORED PILES:
Bored piles are those which are formed by forming a bore hole in the ground and then concreting it, either with the help of a casing tube or without a casing tube. There procedure of construction is thus different than the cast-in-situ driven piles where a heavy pile driving equipment is required. Evidently, these piles have advantage over the driven piles, in those locations and those situations where the vibrations and noise caused by driving of piles are to be avoided or the

strata of adequate bearing capacity is s deep that they are difficult to reach by driven piles. Bores piles are of three types 1. Pressure piles 2. Under reamed piles 3. Bored compaction piles. Pressure piles: They are formed with the help of a casing tube, boring auger and
compressed air equipment. These piles are especially suitable for those congested sites where heavy vibrations and noise are not permissible, and also where heavy piles driving machinery cannot move in.

Under-reamed pile : In back cotton soils and other expansive type of soils, buildings often crack due to relative ground movement. This is caused by alternate swelling and shrinkage of the soil due to changes in its moister content. In order to safe guard this movement effectively, the best remedy is to anchor the structure at a depth where the volumetric change of soil due to seasonal variations is negligible. This has been economically obtained in shallow

as well as deep layers of expansive soil by using under- reamed piles. This was first designed at Central Building Research Institute(C.B.R.I) Roorkee. They have been found useful for machine foundations, factory buildings transmission line towers and other all structures also. A Pile having only one bulb near its bottom, is known as single underreamed piles. When two bulbs are provided, the pile is named as double underreamed pile. If more than two bulbs are provided, it is known as multi underreamed pile. Bearing capacity of under-reamed pile can be increased by the following methods. (a) Increasing the number of bulbs. (b) Increasing diameter of the pile. (c) Increasing diameter of the pile.

Under-reamed piles are quite simple to construct. A vertical bore hole is prepared with an auger to the required depth. An under-reaming tool is used for enlarging to get a bulb. The tool consists of two sets of collapsible blades and a bucket at the bottom for collecting the soil. It is fixed to the extension rods and lowered down into the bore hole. As the tool is pressed down and rotated, blades try to widen out and cut the soil from the sides. The rotation is kept. Very slow with a steady downward pressure . When the collecting bucket is full, the under-reamer is withdrawn and the soil is removed by opening the bottom lid of the bucket. The tool is again lowered and

the process is repeated.

For single under-reamed piles, the bore is taken down to the full depth by the auger and the base is enlarged by the under-reaming tool. In double and multi-under-reamed piles , boring is first completed to the depth required for the first under ream only ; and after completing under-reaming, boring is extended further for the second under-ream and this process is repeated till completion . The reinforcement cage is lowered into the bore hole if required and the concreting is done in the usual fashion.

Situations where under-reamed piles can de specially used : 1. In black cotton soils and other expansive soils where alternate swelling and shrinkage of soil take place due to changes in moisture content. 2. When heavy lateral loads are to be transferred under-reamed piles can be constructed at a batter. 3. Under-reamed piles have very high resistance against uplift and as such they are useful for structures like transmission towers, overhead tanks and bridge abutments. 4. Under-reamed piles also provide good anchorage and hence they are quite suitable for heavy industrial building generally subjected to large moments due to movement of heavy cranes.

Cased cast-in-situ concrete piles: Cased cast-in-situ piles are suitable in practically all ground conditions. The shell is driven into intimate contact with the surrounding soil and remains in place to maintain driving resistance and protect the concrete filling during the placing of other adjacent piles and during the critical setting period. Cased piles can be easily cut or extended to meet variations in shell length. One of the main advantages is that it is subject to internal inspection after it is driven. When casing is left into the ground, it is easier to examine its verticality but the cost of the pile increases considerably. The following are example of such pile

(i) Raymond pile (ii) Monotube pile (iii) Mac-Arthur pile (iv) Button-bottom pile (v) Cobi pneumatic mandrel pile (vi) BSP base-driven pile (vii) Sewage pile

(i) Raymond piles: A.A. Raymond patented the raymond pile system and
was first to develop a practical, economical way of placing cast-in-situ concrete piles.Two types of raymond piles are in use (a) Raymond standard concrete pile (b) Raymond step-taper concrete pile.

(a) Raymond standard concrete pile: The raymond pile is used primarily as a friction pile since its uniform heavy taper of 1 in 30 usually results in shorter piles for equal driving resistance or higher driving resistance for equal lengths, than piles of lesser or no taper. The lengths of piles vary from 6 to 12m. the diameter of piles vary from 40 to 60 cm at the top and 20 to 30 cm at the bottom. The steel shell is reinforced with spirally wound hard drawn wire on 8cm pitch. The shell is closed at the bottom with a steel boot. The shell is driven into the ground with a collapsible steel mandrel or core in it having the same taper. when the pile is driven to the desired depth, the mandrel is mechanically collapsed and withdrawn, leaving the shell inside the ground. The shell is inspected internally by using the light from a mirror of flash light or drop

light. The shell is gradually filled with concrete up to the top. (b) Raymond step-taper concrete pile: This type of mandrel-driven pile is used either as an end bearing or friction pile, and can be driven in any type of soil. The pile uses shell section driven in different lengths. The bottom most sections of shell is made of heavier gauge, and is closed by flat steel plate welded to the boot ring. The joints between sections of shell are screw-connected. The shells are drivrn with a rigid internal steel mandrel or core which is stepped to conform with the shell section used.the heavy rugged core provides a high degree of penetration and efficiently transmits hammer energy to the bearing strata. The pile diameter increases in steps at the rate of 2.5cm for each successive shell section. These can be drawn upto a maximum depth of about 36 m, using 20cm tip. The method of forming the pile is the same as that for the standard pile. The pile has the advantages of on-the-job length flexibility internal inspection after being driven and a steel shell left in place to maintain driving resistance, and protect a fresh concrete filling.

(2) McArthur cased pile: Mc arthur cased pile is a pile of uniform diameter, using the corrugated steel shell which remains in place, as in raymond piles. However,the driving of the pile uses an additional steel casing of heavy gauge. The heavy steel casing with a central with a central core is driven into the ground as shown in figure. After reaching the desired depth, the central core is withdrawn, and a corrugated shell is placed in the casing. Finally concrete is placed in the shell by gradually compacting it, and withdrawing the steel casing. The completed pile contains concrete core and the outer corrugated shell. (3) Union metal monotube pile: Monotube piles use tapered fluted steel shell without mandrel, and are suitable for a wide variety of soil condition, form end-bearing to frictionload-carrying soils. The shells provide rigidity, and are watertight. The pile shells are driven to therequired depth,and they are inspected after driving. The stiffness of the shell against crushing from adjacent piles is very good. Shells may be driven with hammer of comparable size to those used for wood piles. The shell, after inspection is filled with concrete, and the excess length of the shell, if any, is cut. (4) Swage piles : Sewage piles are used with advantage in some soils where the driving is very hard, or where it is designed to leave watertight shell for some time

before filling the concrete.In the first stage a thin steel pipe(known as shell) is placed on a precast concrete plug and a steel core, which is not long enough to reach the plug is inserted in the shell. In the second stage as the pipe is driven over the plug until the core reaches the plug, the pipe is swaged out by the taper of the plug, thus forming a watertight joint. In the third stage the pipe is driven to a specified depth. The driving force is practically all exerted by the core on the plug and the pipe is pulled down rather than driven. In the fourth stage after the pipe has reached the desired depth, the core is removed and the pipe left open until it is desired to fill it. In the final stage the pipe is filled with concrete. (5) Western button bottom pile: These piles are used in locations where increase in the end bearing area is desired. The pile uses a concrete plug, of the shape of a button. This button forms an enlarged hole in the soil during driving. Due to this, the side friction is reduced temporarily. These piles have been used upto lengths of about 23m and for loads upto 500 Kn. In the first stage a steel pipe, with 12mm thick walls and reinforced base of cast steel, is set over the concrete button. The concrete button has a diameter about 25mm larger than the pipe. In the second stage the pipe and button are driven to a specified depth. In the third stage corrugated steel shell is inserted in the pipe, resting on the button. A steel plate with a bolt hole in it is welded on the bottom of the shell, before lowering it, so that the hole may fit over the

central bolt in button bottom. The nut may be tightened with the help of a long socket wrench. In the fourth stage the casing is withdrawn, leaving the button in place, and the shell is filled with concrete. Reinforcement may be used if necessary.

Advantage of cast-in-situ concrete piles : 1. There is less wastage of material, as the pile of desired length is only constructed. 2. The stresses of handling and driving are completely eliminated and hence no extra reinforcement is provided. 3. The time spent on curing is saved. 4. The piles are more sound and there is no danger of its breaking as they are not subjected to hammer blows. 5. Transportation cost of piles is saved. 6. Light weight casing shells are used which are easier to handle and to drive into the ground. 7. They can take up heavier loads by improving their cross-sectional profile e.g. by providing pedestal or under-reams etc. Disadvantages:

1. It is difficult to maintain proper compaction during construction. 2. It is not possible to maintain the reinforce in correct position during construction operation. 3. It cannot be constructed under water. 4. The dry soil absorbs water from fresh concrete and thus does not develop full strength. 5. The unreinforced pile may break with a small movement of soil in lateral direction. (b) Precast cement concrete piles: This type piles are cast in yard, cured and then driven into the ground . Generally precast concrete piles are of square section with chamfered corners, octagonal section, or round section. While driving these piles into hard soils ,cast iron or mild steel shoes are provided at the lower end. The concrete mix will be of 1:2 :4 or 1:1 1/2:3. The size of pile may be 250 to 600 mm. and length may be 3 to 30 meters. They are cast without taper with the pointed lower end. If taper is to be provided, it should be never more than 20 mm per metre length of the pile.

Reinforcement is provided in all precast piles to take up the stresses during driving and handling operation. The main vertical reinforcement consists of steel bars 20mm in diameter and6 to 10 mm dia. bars are used as lateral reinforcement provided at the top and bottom of the piles.

These piles are cast in the horizontal or vertical form work. Horizontal forms are more convenient to work. The concrete is compacted by mechanical vibrator. The form are removed after 3 days and piles are kept in its position for week or so. During this period, they are properly cured. Then the piles are removed to the curing tank and they are cured there for three to four weeks before their use.

For convenient handling of piles, some special devices are used. Cast iron bolts fixed into plates, are cast in the piles at the points of lifting. The lifting points in the pile are very carefully calculated such that minimum stresses are produced in the pile during its handling. Sometimes, a small diameter pipe is cast with the concrete pile in the centre for insertion of a jet pipe for injection water at time of driving pile into the ground.

Advantages of precast concrete piles: 1. The reinforcement is maintained in the correct position. 2. The best quality of concrete can be produced for the casting of piles with little care. 3. Proper curing is done, hence concrete attains its full strength before its use. 4. Driving of such piles is easier in soft or wet soils. 5. The driving of adjacent piles does not produce any additional stresses in the

pile. 6. These piles can be driven under water also. 7. A number of piles can be cast in advance at a convenient place and a rapid driving progress can be ensured at the site. 8. Defects of casting may be examined and repaired before driving the pile. 9. Precast piles have higher resistance to biological and chemical actions of the ground.

Disadvantages: 1. These piles are very heavy and difficult to transport. 2. The shocks and vibrations make them weaker. 3. Extra reinforcement is essential to take care of handling and driving stresses. 4. A weak joint is formed in case of lapping additional length. On the other hand the material is wasted if a long pile is to be cut to size. 5. Progress of work at site may get delayed due to inadequate supply of piles at short notice. 6. If proper care is not taken, the piles may be damaged during transportation and driving. To protect the heads of piles may be damage due to impact from hammers, various types of protective cushioned helmets are used.

Pile caps:
Piles are not usually used singly but are formed into a group or cluster. The load is distributed over the heads of the piles in the group by means of a reinforced cast-in-situ concrete pile cap.

To provide structural continuity the reinforcement in the piles is bounded into the pile cap. this may necessitate the breaking out of the concrete from the heads of the heads of the piles to expose the reinforcement. The heads of piles also penetrate the base of the pile cap some 100 to 150 mm to ensure continuity of the members. Piles should be spaced at such a distance so that the group is economically formed and at the same time prevent an interaction between adjacent piles. Actual spacing must be selected upon subsoil conditions, but the usual minimum spacing are I. II. Friction piles: 3 pile diameters or 1m , which ever is greater End bearing piles: 2 pile diameters or 750 mm which ever is greater.

The plan shape of the pile cap should be as conservative as possible and this is usually achieved by having an overhang of 150 mm. The main reinforced is two-direction, formed in bands over pile head to spread

the loads. In many piling schemes, pile caps are tied together with reinforced concrete tie beam. The beam can be used to carry loading such as wall to the pile foundations.

Shuttering:
Shuttering or form work is the term used for temporary timber, plywood, metal or other material used to provide support to wet concrete mix till it gets strength for self support. It provides supports to horizontal, vertical and inclined surfaces or also provides support to cast concrete according to required shape and size. The form work also produces desired finish concrete surface.

Shuttering or form work should be strong enough to support the weight of wet

concrete mix and the pressure for placing and compacting concrete inside or on the top of form work/shuttering. It should be rigid to prevent any deflection in surface after laying cement concrete and be also sufficient tight to prevent loss of water and mortar form cement concrete. Shuttering should be easy in handling, erection at site and easy to remove when cement concrete is sufficient hard.

Generally there are three types of shuttering.

Steel Shuttering Wooden Planks Shuttering Temporary Brick Masonry Shuttering

Steel Shuttering Steel shuttering plate is the best type of shuttering because this is water tight shuttering which can bear the load of cement concrete placed on it. This shuttering can be used for horizontal, vertical or any other shape required for the work. It gives leveled surface which has good appearance. This shuttering gives good appearance and pattern work according to architectural drawings. If the plaster is required, the thickness of plaster will be less. Being water tight shuttering, the strength of concrete with steel shuttering is comparatively higher. Wooden Plank Shuttering

Generally wooden planks shuttering is used by contractors because this shuttering is cheap and easily available. But this type of shuttering effects the strength of concrete and have some disadvantages which are given below.
Disadvantages

This is not water tight shuttering as the size and thickness of planks differ and are not of same size. Due to this difference the water and cement flow to the ground from joints and reduce the strength of concrete.

Bottom level of RCC slab is not in straight line and the surface being uneven, the thickness of plaster is more which remains weak.

Due to leakage of cement slurry through joints, earth work below 'Ballies may settle and create problems.

In some cases wooden planks can not bear the weight of concrete. Due to low strength there is bending or deflection in wooden planks. Sometimes the planks may break.

Temporary Brick Masonry Shuttering

In some cases labor contractor uses Temporary Brick Masonry in mud for vertical support of sides of beams, fascia etc. This shuttering should be avoided. This type of shuttering reduces the strength of cement concrete by soaking cement slurry.

Also no proper compaction is made as this shuttering does not bear the pressure of vibrator. The surface of cement concrete given by this type of shuttering is uneven and the thickness of plaster is increased.

SHUTTERING

CENTERING

SCAFFOLDING:
Scaffolding is a temporary frame-work of timber or steel elements, having plat forms at different levels, to enable the masons to work at different heights of a building. A mason standing on ground, can work up to a height of about 1.5m. when construction is to be done more than this height, masons and labour require a temporary plat form. Thus a temporary platform provided with necessary supports close to the work to provide a limited space for the workers, building materials, tools etc.., is termed as scaffolding.

TYPES OF SCAFFOLDING:
1. Brick layers scaffolding or single scaffolding 2. Masons scaffolding or double scaffolding 3. Steel scaffolding or ladder scaffolding 4. Needle or cantilever scaffolding 5. Trestle scaffolding 6. Suspended scaffolding

POINTS TO BE KEPT IN MIND WHILE ERECTING SCAFFOLDING:

Standards should be made to rest on hard and firm ground. If surface is not available, standards may be made to rest on timber sole plates. Some times they are burried into the ground to sufficient depth. Scaffolding should not be loaded heavly. Scaffold should be tied to the building at suitable levels. Scaffold can be tied to buidings by providing horizontal or vertical wooden members inside the building. Rakers may be provided to give lateral support to the scaffold.

 Working platforms should be raised by lengthening standards and providing additional ledgers and put logs. Holes left in the walls, after put logs have been with drawn should be filled with masonary work, immediately. Standards should be spaced according to the load they have to carry, and also according to the section of the standards. For structures like domes,towers, chimneys etc.., special patented scaffolds should be used.

FOULING:
Fouling refers to the accumulation of unwanted material on solid surfaces, most often in an aquatic environment. The fouling material can consist of either living organisms (biofouling) or a non-living substance (inorganic or organic). Fouling is usually distinguished from other surface-growth phenomena in that it occurs on a surface of a component, system or plant performing a defined and useful function, and that the fouling process impedes or interferes with this function. Other terms used in the literature to describe fouling include: deposit formation, encrustation, crudding, deposition, scaling, scale formation, slagging, and sludge formation. The last six terms have a more narrow meaning than fouling within the scope of the fouling science and technology, and they also have meanings outside of this scope; therefore, they should be used with caution. Fouling phenomena are common and diverse, ranging from fouling of ship hulls, natural surfaces in the marine environment (marine fouling), fouling of heattransfer components through ingredients contained in the cooling water or gases, and even the development of plaque or calculus on teeth, or deposits on solar

panels on Mars, among other examples.This article is primarily devoted to the fouling of industrial heat exchangers, although the same theory is generally applicable to other varieties of fouling. In the cooling technology and other technical fields, a distinction is made between macro fouling and micro fouling. Of the two, micro fouling is the one which is usually more difficult to prevent and therefore more important. Contents : 1 Components subject to fouling 2 Macro fouling 3 Micro fouling 3.1 Precipitation fouling 3.2 Particulate fouling 3.3 Corrosion fouling 3.4 Chemical reaction fouling 3.5 Solidification fouling 3.6 Biofouling 3.7 Composite fouling 3.8 Fouling on Mars 4 Quantification of fouling 5 Progress of fouling with time 6 Fouling modelling 7 The economic and environmental importance of fouling 8 Fouling control

Components subject to fouling

Following are examples of components that may be subject to fouling and the corresponding effects of fouling: Heat exchanger surfaces - reduces thermal efficiency, decreases heat flux, increases temperature on the hot side, decreases temperature on the cold side, induces under-deposit corrosion, increases use of cooling water; Piping, flow channels - reduces flow, increases pressure drop, increases upstream pressure, increases energy expenditure, may cause flow oscillations, slugging in two-phase flow, cavitation; may increase flow velocity elsewhere, may induce vibrations, may cause flow blockage; Ship hulls - creates additional drag, increases fuel usage, reduces maximum speed; Turbines - reduces efficiency, increases probability of failure; Solar panels - decreases the electrical power generated; Reverse osmosis membranes - increases pressure drop, increases energy expenditure, reduces flux, membrane failure (in severe cases) Electrical heating elements - increases temperature of the element, increases corrosion, reduces lifespan; Nuclear fuel in pressurized water reactors - axial offset anomaly[3], may need to de-rate the power plant; Injection/spray nozzles (e.g., a nozzle spraying a fuel into a furnace) - incorrect amount injected, malformed jet, component inefficiency, component failure; Venturi tubes, orifice plates - inaccurate or incorrect measurement of flow rate; Pitot tubes in airplanes - inaccurate or incorrect indication of airplane speed;

Spark plug electrodes in cars - engine misfiring Production zone of petroleum reservoirs and oil wells - decreased petroleum production with time; plugging; in some cases complete stoppage of flow in a matter of days[5]; Teeth - promotes tooth or gum disease, decreases aesthetics; Living organisms - deposition of excess minerals (e.g., calcium, iron, copper) in tissues is (sometimes controversially) linked to aging/senescence.

Macro fouling

Macro fouling is caused by coarse matter of either biological or inorganic origin, for example industrially produced refuse. Such matter enters into the cooling water circuit through the cooling water pumps from sources like the open sea, rivers or lakes. In closed circuits, like cooling towers, the ingress of macro fouling into the cooling tower basin is possible through open canals or by the wind. Sometimes, parts of the cooling tower internals detach themselves and are carried into the cooling water circuit. Such substances can foul the surfaces of heat exchangers and may cause deterioration of the relevant heat transfer coefficient. They may also create flow blockages, redistribute the flow inside the components, or cause fretting damage. Examples Manmade refuse; Detached internal parts of components; Tools and other "foreign objects" accidentally left after maintenance; Algae; Mussels; Leaves, parts of plants up to entire trunks.

Micro fouling

As to micro fouling, distinctions are made between: Scaling or precipitation fouling, as crystallization of solid salts, oxides and hydroxides from water solutions, for example, calcium carbonate or calcium sulfate; Particulate fouling, i.e., accumulation of particles, typically colloidal particles, on a surface; Corrosion fouling, i.e., in-situ growth of corrosion deposits, for example, magnetite on carbon steel surfaces; Chemical reaction fouling, for example, decomposition or polymerization of organic matter on heating surfaces; Solidification fouling - when components of the flowing fluid with a high-melting point freeze onto a subcooled surface; Biofouling, like settlements of bacteria and algae; Composite fouling, whereby fouling involves more than one foulant or fouling mechanism. Precipitation fouling Limescale buildup inside a pipe Temperature dependence of the solubility of calcium sulfate (3 phases) in pure water. The water is pressurized so that it can be maintained in the liquid state at the elevated temperatures. Scaling or precipitation fouling involves crystallization of solid salts, oxides and hydroxides from solutions. These are most often water solutions, but non-

aqueous precipitation fouling is also known. Precipitation fouling is a very common problem in boilers and heat exchangers operating with hard water and often results in limescale. Through changes in temperature, or solvent evaporation or degasification, the concentration of salts may exceed the saturation, leading to a precipitation of solids (usually crystals). As an example, the equilibrium between the readily soluble calcium bicarbonate always prevailing in natural water - and the poorly soluble calcium carbonate, the following chemical equation may be written:

The calcium carbonate that forms through this reaction precipitates. Due to the temperature dependence of the reaction, and increasing volatility of CO2 with increasing temperature, the scaling is higher at the hotter outlet of the heat exchanger than at the cooler inlet. In general, the dependence of the salt solubility on temperature or presence of evaporation will often be the driving force for precipitation fouling. The important distinction is between salts with "normal" or "retrograde" dependence of solubility on temperature. The salts with the "normal" solubility increase their solubility with increasing temperature and thus will foul the cooling surfaces. The salts with "inverse" or "retrograde" solubility will foul the heating surfaces. An example of the temperature dependence of solubility is shown in the figure. Calcium sulfate is a common precipitation foulant of heating surfaces due to its retrograde solubility. Precipitation fouling can also occur in the absence of heating or vaporization. For example, calcium sulfate decreases it solubility with decreasing pressure. This can lead to precipitation fouling of reservoirs and wells in oil fields, decreasing their productivity with time.Fouling of membranes in reverse osmosis systems can occur due to differential solubility of barium sulfate in solutions of different ionic strength. Similarly, precipitation fouling can occur because of solubility changes

induced by other factors, e.g., liquid flashing, liquid degassing, redox potential changes, or mixing of incompatible fluid streams. The following lists some of the industrially common phases of precipitation fouling deposits observed in practice to form from aqueous solutions: Calcium carbonate (calcite, aragonite usually at t > ~50 C, or rarely vaterite); Calcium sulfate (anhydrite, hemihydrate, gypsum); Calcium oxalate (e.g., beerstone); Barium sulfate (barite); Magnesium hydroxide (brucite); magnesium oxide (periclase); Silicates (serpentine, acmite, gyrolite, gehlenite, amorphous silica, quartz, cristobalite, pectolite, xonotlite); Aluminium oxide hydroxides (boehmite, gibbsite, diaspore, corundum); Aluminosilicates (analcite, cancrinite, noselite); Copper (metallic copper, cuprite, tenorite); Phosphates (hydroxyapatite); Magnetite or nickel ferrite (NiFe2O4) from extremely pure, low-iron water.[8] The deposition rate by precipitation is often described by the following equations: Transport: Surface crystallisation: Overall:

where: m - mass of the material (per unit surface area), kg/m2

t - time, s Cb - concentration of the substance in the bulk of the fluid, kg/m3 Ci - concentration of the substance at the interface, kg/m3 Ce - equilibrium concentration of the substance at the conditions of the interface, kg/m3 n1, n2 - order of reaction for the crystallisation reaction and the overall deposition process, respectively, dimensionless kt, kr, kd - kinetic rate constants for the transport, the surface reaction, and the overall deposition reaction, respectively; with the dimension of m/s (when n1 and n2 = 1) Particulate fouling Fouling by particles suspended in water ("crud") or in gas progresses by a mechanism different than precipitation fouling. This process is usually most important for colloidal particles, i.e., particles smaller than about 1 m in at least one dimension (but which are much larger than atomic dimensions). Particles are transported to the surface by a number of mechanisms and there they can attach themselves, e.g., by flocculation or coagulation. Note that the attachment of colloidal particles typically involves electrical forces and thus the particle behaviour defies the experience from the macroscopic world. The probability of attachment is sometimes referred to as "sticking probability", kd = Pkt where kd and kt are the kinetic rate constants for deposition and transport, respectively. The value of P for colloidal particles is a function of both the surface chemistry, geometry, and the local thermohydraulic conditions.

An alternative to using the sticking probability is to use a kinetic attachment rate constant, assuming the first order reaction:

and then the transport and attachment kinetic coefficients are combined as two processes occurring is series: where: dm/dt is the rate of the deposition by particles, kg m-2 s-1, ka, kt and kd are the kinetic rate constants for deposition, m/s, Ci and Cb are the concentration of the particle foulant at the interface and in the bulk fluid, respectively; kg m3. Being essentially a surface chemistry phenomenon, this fouling mechanism can be very sensitive to factors that affect colloidal stability, e.g., zeta potential. A maximum fouling rate is usually observed when the fouling particles and the substrate exhibit opposite electrical charge, or near the point of zero charge of either of them. Particles larger than those of colloidal dimensions may also foul e.g., by sedimentation ("sedimentation fouling") or straining in small-size openings.

With time, the resulting surface deposit may harden through processes collectively known as "deposit consolidation" or, colloquially, "aging". The common particulate fouling deposits formed from aqueous suspensions include: iron oxides and iron oxyhydroxides (magnetite, hematite, lepidocrocite, maghemite, goethite); Sedimentation fouling by silt and other relatively coarse suspended matter. Fouling by particles from gas aerosols is also of industrial significance. The particles can be either solid or liquid. The common examples can be fouling by flue gases, or fouling of air-cooled components by dust in air. The mechanisms are discussed in article on aerosol deposition. Corrosion fouling Corrosion deposits are created in-situ by the corrosion of the substrate. They are distinguished from fouling deposits, which form from material originating ex-situ. Corrosion deposits should not be confused with fouling deposits formed by exsitu generated corrosion products. Corrosion deposits will normally have composition related to the composition of the substrate. Also, the geometry of the metal-oxide and oxide-fluid interfaces may allow practical distinction between the corrosion and fouling deposits. An example of corrosion fouling can be formation of an iron oxide or oxyhydroxide deposit from corrosion of the carbon steel underneath. Corrosion fouling should not be confused with fouling corrosion, i.e., any of the types of corrosion that may be induced by fouling. Chemical reaction fouling Chemical reactions may occur on contact of the chemical species in the process fluid with heat transfer surfaces. In such cases, the metallic surface sometimes acts as a catalyst. For example, corrosion and polymerization occurs in cooling water for the chemical industry which has a minor content of hydrocarbons. Systems in petroleum processing are prone to polymerization of olefins or

deposition of heavy fractions (asphaltenes, waxes, etc.). High tube wall temperatures may lead to carbonizing of organic matter. Food industry, for example milk processing, also experiences fouling problems by chemical reactions. Fouling through an ionic reaction with an evolution of an inorganic solid is commonly classified as precipitation fouling (not chemical reaction fouling). Solidification fouling Solidification fouling occurs when a component of the flowing fluid "freezes" onto a surface forming a solid fouling deposit. Examples may include solidification of wax (with a high melting point) from a hydrocarbon solution, or of molten ash (carried in a furnace exhaust gas) onto a heat exchanger surface. The surface needs to have a temperature below a certain threshold; therefore, it is said to be subcooled in respect to the solidification point of the foulant.

Biofouling
A fragment of a canal lock in Northern France, covered with zebra mussels Biofouling or biological fouling is the undesirable accumulation of microorganisms, algae and diatoms, plants, and animals on surfaces, for example ships' hulls, or piping and reservoirs with untreated water. This can be accompanied by microbiologically influenced corrosion (MIC). Bacteria can form biofilms or slimes. Thus the organisms can aggregate on surfaces using colloidal hydrogels of water and extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) (polysaccharides, lipids, nucleic acids, etc.). The biofilm structure is usually complex. Bacterial fouling can occur under either aerobic (with oxygen dissolved in water) or anaerobic (no oxygen) conditions. In practice, aerobic bacteria prefer open systems, when both oxygen and nutrients are constantly delivered, often in warm and sunlit environments. Anaerobic fouling more often occurs in closed systems when sufficient nutrients are present. Examples may include sulfate-reducing

bacteria (or sulfur-reducing bacteria), which produce sulfide and often cause corrosion of ferrous metals (and other alloys). Sulfide-oxidizing bacteria (e.g., Acidithiobacillus), on the other hand, can produce sulfuric acid, and can be involved in corrosion of concrete. Zebra mussels serve as an example of larger animals that have caused widespread fouling in North America.

Composite fouling
Composite fouling is involves more than one foulant or more than one fouling mechanism working simultaneously. The multiple foulants or mechanisms may interact with each other resulting in a synergistic fouling .

Quantification of fouling
The most straight-forward way to quantify fairly uniform fouling is by stating the average deposit surface loading, i.e., kg of deposit per m of surface area. The fouling rate will then be expressed in kg/ms, and it is obtained by dividing the deposit surface loading by the effective operating time. The normalized fouling rate (also in kg/ms) will additionally account for the concentration of the foulant in the process fluid (kg/kg) during preceding operations, and is useful for comparison of fouling rates between different systems. It is obtained by dividing the fouling rate by the foulant concentration. The fouling rate constant (m/s) can be obtained by dividing the normalized fouling rate by the mass density of the process fluid (kg/m). Deposit thickness (m) and porosity (%) are also often used for description of fouling amount. The relative reduction of diameter of piping or increase of the surface roughness can be of particular interest when the impact of fouling on pressure drop is of interest. In heat transfer equipment, where the primary concern is often the effect of fouling on heat transfer, fouling can be quantified by the increase of the resistance to the flow of heat (mK/W) due to fouling (termed "fouling resistance"), or by development of heat transfer coefficient (W/mK) with time.

If under-deposit or crevice corrosion is of primary concern, it is important to note non-uniformity of deposit thickness (e.g., deposit waviness), localized fouling, packing of confined regions with deposits, creation of occlusions, "crevices", "deposit tubercles"[13], or sludge piles. Such deposit structures can create environment for underdeposit corrosion of the substrate material, e.g., intergranular attack, pitting, stress corrosion cracking, or localized wastage. Porosity and permeability of the deposits will likely influence the probability of underdeposit corrosion. Deposit composition can also be important - even minor components of the deposits can sometimes cause severe corrosion of the underlying metal (e.g., vanadium in deposits of fired boilers causing hot corrosion). There is no general rule on how much deposit can be tolerated, it depends on the system. In many cases, a deposit even a few micrometers thick can be troublesome. A deposit in a millimeter-range thickness will be of concern in almost any application.

Progress of fouling with time

Deposit on a surface does not always develop steadily with time. The following fouling scenarios can be distinguished, depending on the nature of the system and the local thermohydraulic conditions at the surface: Induction period. Sometimes, a near-nil fouling rate is observed when the surface is new or very clean. This is often observed in biofouling and precipitation fouling. After the "induction period", the fouling rate increases. "Negative" fouling. This can occur when fouling rate is quantified by monitoring heat transfer. Relatively small amounts of deposit can improve heat transfer, relative to clean surface, and give an appearance of "negative" fouling rate and negative total fouling amount. Negative fouling is often observed under nucleateboiling heat-transfer conditions (deposit improves bubble nucleation) or forcedconvection (if the deposit increases the surface roughness and the surface is no

longer "hydraulically smooth"). After the initial period of "surface roughness control", the fouling rate usually becomes strongly positive. Linear fouling. The fouling rate can be steady with time. This is a common case. Falling fouling. Under this scenario, the fouling rate decreases with time, but never drops to zero. The deposit thickness does not achieves a constant value. The progress of fouling can be often described by two numbers: the initial fouling rate (a tangent to the fouling curve at zero deposit loading or zero time) and the fouling rate after a long period of time (an oblique asymptote to the fouling curve). Asymptotic fouling. Here, the fouling rate decreases with time, until it finally reaches zero. At this point, the deposit thickness remains constant with time (a horizontal asymptote). This is often the case for relatively soft or poorly adherent deposits in areas of fast flow. The asymptote is usually interpreted as the deposit loading at which the deposition rate equals the deposit removal rate. Accelerating fouling. Under this scenario, the fouling rate increases with time; the rate of deposit buildup accelerates with time (perhaps until it becomes transport limited). Mechanistically, this scenario can develop when fouling increases the surface roughness, or when the deposit surface exhibits higher chemical propensity to fouling than the pure underlying metal. Seesaw fouling. Here, fouling loading generally increases with time (often assuming a generally linear or falling rate), but, when looked at in more detail, the fouling progress is periodically interrupted and takes the form of sawtooth curve. The periodic sharp variations in the apparent fouling amount often correspond to the moments of system shutdowns, startups or other transients in operation. The periodic variations are often interpreted as periodic removal of some of the deposit (perhaps deposit re-suspension due to pressure pulses, spalling due thermal stresses, or exfoliation due to redox transients). Steam blanketing has been postulated to occur between the partially spalled deposits and the heat transfer surface. However, other reasons are possible, e.g., trapping of air inside

the surface deposits during shutdowns, or inaccuracy of temperature measurements during transients ("temperature streaming").

Fouling modelling
Schematics of the fouling process consisting of simultaneous foulant deposition and deposit removal. Fouling of a system can be modelled as consisting of several steps: Generation or ingress of the species that causes fouling ("foulant sourcing"); Foulant transport with the stream of the process fluid (most often by advection); Foulant transport from the bulk of the process fluid to the fouling surface. This transport is often by molecular or turbulent-eddy diffusion, but may also occur by inertial coasting/impaction, particle interception by the surface (for particles with finite sizes), electrophoresis, thermophoresis, diffusiphoresis, Stefan flow (in condensation and evaporation), sedimentation, Magnus force (acting on rotating particles), thermoelectric effect, and other mechanisms.

Induction period, i.e., a near-nil fouling rate at the initial period of fouling (observed only for some fouling mechanisms); Foulant crystallisation on the surface (or attachment of the colloidal particle, or chemical reaction, or bacterial growth); Sometimes fouling autoretardation, i.e., reduction (or potentially enhancement) of crystallisation/attachment rate due to changes in the surface conditions caused by the fouling deposit; Deposit dissolution (or re-entrainment of loosely attached particles); Deposit consolidation on the surface (e.g., through Oswald ripening or differential solubility in temperature gradient) or cementation, which account for deposit losing its porosity and becoming more tenacious with time; Deposit spalling, erosion wear, or exfoiliation. Deposition consists of transport to the surface and subsequent attachment. Deposit removal is either through deposit dissolution, particle re-entrainment, or deposit spalling, erosive wear, or exfoliation. Fouling results from foulant generation, foulant deposition, deposit removal, and deposit consolidation.

For the modern model of fouling involving deposition with simultaneous deposit re-entrainment and consolidation, the fouling process can be represented by the following scheme:

Following the above scheme, the basic fouling equations can be written as follows (for steady-state conditions with flow, when concentration remains constant with time):

where: m is the mass loading of the deposit (consolidated and unconsolidated) on the surface (kg/m2); t is time (s); kd is the deposition rate constant (m/s); is the fluid density (kg/m3); Cm - mass fraction of foulant in the fluid (kg/kg); r is the re-entrainment rate constant (1/s); mr is the mass loading of the removable (i.e., unconsolidated) fraction of the surface deposit (kg/m2); and c is the consolidation rate constant (1/s). This system of equations can be integrated (taking that m = 0 and mr = 0 at t = 0) to the form:

where = r + c.

This model reproduces either linear, falling, or asymptotic fouling, depending on the relative values of k, r, and c. The underlying physical picture for this model is that of a two-layer deposit consisting of consolidated inner layer and loose unconsolidated outer layer. Such a bi-layer deposit is often observed in practice. The above model simplifies readily to the older model of simultaneous deposition and re-entrainment*18+ (which neglects consolidation) when c=0. In the absence of consolidation, the asymptotic fouling is always anticipated by this older model and the fouling progress can be described as:

where m* is the maximum (asymptotic) mass loading of the deposit on the surface (kg/m2). The economic and environmental importance of fouling

Fouling is ubiquitous and generates tremendous operational losses, not unlike corrosion. For example, one estimate puts the losses due to fouling of heat exchangers in industrialized nations to be about 0.25% of their GDP. Another analysis estimated (for 2006) the economical loss due to boiler and turbine fouling in China utilities at 4.68 billion dollars, which is about 0.169% the country GDP . The losses initially result from impaired heat transfer, corrosion damage (in particular under-deposit and crevice corrosion), increased pressure drop, flow blockages, flow redistribution inside components, flow instabilities, induced vibrations (possibly leading to other problems, e.g., fatigue), fretting, premature failure of electrical heating elements, and a large number of other often unanticipated problems. In addition, the ecological costs should be (but typically are not) considered. The ecological costs arise from the use of biocides for the avoidance of biofouling, from the increased fuel input to compensate for the reduced output caused by fouling, and an increased use of cooling water in oncethrough cooling systems.

For example, "normal" fouling at a conventionally fired 500 MW (net electrical power) power station unit accounts for output losses of the steam turbine of 5 MW and more. In a 1,300 MW nuclear power station, typical losses could be 20 MW and up (up to 100% if the station shuts down due to fouling-induced component degradation). In seawater desalination plants, fouling may reduce the gained output ratio by two-digit percentages (the gained output ratio is an equivalent that puts the mass of generated distillate in relation to the steam used in the process). The extra electrical consumption in compressor-operated coolers is also easily in the two-digit area. In addition to the operational costs, also the capital cost increases because the heat exchangers have to be designed in larger sizes to compensate for the heat-transfer loss due to fouling. To the output losses listed above, one needs to add the cost of down-time required to inspect, clean, and repair the components (millions of dollars per day of shutdown in lost revenue in a typical power plant), and the cost of actually doing this maintenance. Finally, fouling is often a root cause of serious degradation problems that may limit the life of components or entire plants.

Fouling control
The most fundamental and usually preferred method of controlling fouling is to prevent the ingress of the fouling species into the cooling water circuit. In steam power stations and other major industrial installations of water technology, macro fouling is avoided by way of pre-filtration and cooling water debris filters. Some plants employ foreign-object exclusion program (to eliminate the possibility of salient introduction of unwanted materials, e.g., forgetting tools during maintenance). Acoustic monitoring is sometimes employed to monitor for fretting by detached parts. In the case of micro fouling, water purification is achieved with extensive methods of water treatment, microfiltration, membrane technology (reverse osmosis, electrodeionization) or ion-exchange resins. The generation of the corrosion products in the water piping systems is often minimized by controlling the pH of the process fluid (typically alkanization with ammonia, morpholine, ethanolamine or sodium phosphate), control of oxygen dissolved in water (for example, by addition of hydrazine), or addition of corrosion inhibitors.

For water systems at relatively low temperatures, the applied biocides may be classified as follows: inorganic chlorine and bromide compounds, chlorine and bromide cleavers, ozone and oxygen cleavers, unoxidizable biocides. One of the most important unoxidizable biocides is a mixture of chloromethylisothiazolinone and methyl-isothiazolinone. Also applied are dibrom nitrilopropionamide and quaternary ammonium compounds. For underwater ship hulls bottom paints are applied. Chemical fouling inhibitors can reduce fouling in many systems, mainly by interfering with the crystallization, attachment, or consolidation steps of the fouling process. Examples for water systems are: chelating agents (for example, EDTA), long-chain aliphatic amines or polyamines (for example, octadecylamine, helamin, and other "film-forming" amines), organic phosphonic acids (for example, etidronic acid), or polyelectrolytes (for example, polyacrylic acid, polymethacrylic acid, usually with a molecular weight lower than 10000). For fired boilers, aluminum or magnesium additives can lower the melting point of ash and promote creation of deposits which are easier to remove. See also process chemicals. Magnetic water treatment has been a subject of controversy as to its effectiveness for fouling control since 1950s. The prevailing opinion is that it simply "does not work". Nevertheless, some studies suggest that it may be effective under some conditions to reduce buildup of calcium carbonate deposits. On the component design level, fouling can often (but not always) be minimized by maintaining a relatively high (for example, 2 m/s) and uniform fluid velocity throughout the component. Stagnant regions need to be eliminated. Components are normally overdesigned to accommodate the fouling anticipated between cleanings. However, a significant overdesign can be a design error because it may lead to increased fouling due to reduced velocities. Periodic on-line pressure pulses or backflow can be effective if the capability is carefully incorporated at the design time. Blowdown capability is always incorporated into steam generators or evaporators to control the accumulation of non-volatile impurities that cause or aggravate fouling. Low-fouling surfaces (for example, very smooth, implanted

with ions, or of low surface energy like Teflon) are an option for some applications. Modern components are typically required to be designed for ease of inspection of internals and periodic cleaning. On-line fouling monitoring systems are designed for some application so that blowing or cleaning can be applied before unpredictable shutdown is necessary or damage occurs. Chemical or mechanical cleaning processes for the removal of deposits and scales are recommended when fouling reaches the point of impacting the system performance or an onset of significant fouling-induced degradation (e.g., by corrosion). These processes comprise pickling with acids and complexing agents, cleaning with high-velocity water jets ("water lancing"), recirculating ("blasting") with metal, sponge or other balls, or propelling offline mechanical "bullet-type" tube cleaners. Whereas chemical cleaning causes environmental problems through the handling, application, storage and disposal of chemicals, the mechanical cleaning by means of circulating cleaning balls or offline "bullet-type" cleaning can be a more environmentally-friendly alternative. In some heattransfer applications, mechanical mitigation with dynamic scraped surface heat exchangers is an option. Also ultrasonic or abrasive cleaning methods are available for many specific applications.