Electric power transmission grid has been the backbone of the energy infrastructure for many years and

has been closely monitored via advanced supervisory control and data acquisition systems (SCADA) managed by the regional and local control centers !n the other hand" distribution systems" which are generally defined as those systems operating at #e see two issues related to the above development$ %) &odeling ') &onitoring and control Modelling % (oads$ Single" double and three phase loads coulde)ist at any bus *hree types of loads can be specifiedand any combination of them may e)ist at each bus$ % a Constant +ower$ ,eal and reactive power in-ections at the bus are specified for each phase % b Constant Current$ Current magnitude and itspower factor are specified for individual phases at the bus At each iteration" these valuesare converted into equivalent real and reactivepower in-ections using the most recentlycalculated value of the bus voltage .pon convergence"the specified current and its associatedpower factor will be satisfied % c Constant /mpedance$ *hese types of loads may be connected in delta ()" Star (0) with floating neutral"0 with grounded neutral or 0 with a neutral grounded through an impedance" connection is equivalent to 0with floating neutral and hence treated with in the model of 1igure % Admittances of the phase i load and the neutral2ground connectionbranch are labelled by yi and y0 respectively in the figure % *hey are modelled using a (3)3) admittance matri) Yload" which is added to the block diagonal element of the

1/4.,E % Constant impedance type load where we are having three phases with grounded resistors

*hree phase bus admittance matri) of the system where each upper block represent a phase and lower block is grounded resistor ' 4E5E,A*/!5 ,emote generation at any of the systembuses should be modelled as a controlled voltagesource whose total real power output is specified 4enerator terminal voltage is typically controlledvia the specification of the positive sequencecomponent only *his is accomplished via the useof a three phase synchronous generator model withbalanced e)citation voltage 3 *ransformers$ *ransformers with fi)ed or controllabletaps have to be modelled *hey may be threephase units or may be single phase units connectedin any number of the individual phases dependingon the feeder configuration Assuming that they operatein their linear region and neglecting their e)citation 6 Shunt Capacitors7,eactors Single or three phaseshunt elements directly connected between a bus and the ground should be modelled *hree phase units can be connected in 0 (grounded or with floating neutral) or delta *hey are modelled in the sameway as the constant impedance type loads described 8 Implementation of Constraints

% *ap79oltage (imits$ 9oltage regulators are represented as variable tap transformers with controllable terminal voltages *his requires the ad-ustment of taps during the iterative solution of the power flow equations" so that the specified bus voltages are maintained /n the current implementation" this is accomplished by using the appro)imate sensitivities of the taps to the bus voltages :owever" this feature can be easily modified to maintain any function of the system bus voltages" for instance the difference between the secondary and primary" if needed Details of automatic tap ad-ustments will be presented in the ne)t section ' ;2limits$ ,emote generators are modelled as three phase sources with specified total real power output and positive sequence terminal voltage ,eactive power output ;" of the generator is ad-usted to maintain the specified voltage while respecting the limits on ; At each iteration" these limits are checked and if e)ceeded" the bus type is switched back to +; where the e)ceeded limit is used as the specified ; for this +; bus 6 Solution Adjustments

% 9oltage ,egulators$ *hree phase transformers with variable taps" are used to represent the voltage regulators Either the secondary voltage or any other bus voltage along the feeder can be specified as the controlled bus voltage by the regulating tap *he error feedback method that is successfully utili<ed in single phase power flow solutions is employed for tap ad-ustments = ,emote 4enerator ;2limits$ *he e)perience with the single phase power flow solutions implies that the ;2limit ad-ustments should be attempted after the solution is sufficiently converged :ence" a threshold is used on the power mismatches so that premature ;2limit and bus type ad-ustments can be avoided !nce the violated limits on ; generation are detected" then the corresponding bus type is converted to +; and the in-ected ; is fi)ed at the limit value Similarly inverse procedure is used to backup previously converted buses whose voltages get corrected during subsequent iterations > +!#E, D/S*,/?.*/!5 In an AC power system, it is well known that reactive power flows impact the voltage of the system buses.Thus, by controlling reactive power it is possible to also provide voltage control, which is extremely important to ensure voltage stability of the system. Reactive power control can be achieved by controlling the excitation of certain generators in the system, by switching in and out banks of capacitors connected to certain buses of the grid, or by changing the impedance of certain transmission lines using ACT! devices "n the distribution side of a power system, it has been acknowledged that there exist many distributed energy resources #$%Rs& that can be potentially used to provide reactive power control. include power electronics'interfaced solar installations in residential and commercial building roofs, and motor drives.

(hile the primary function of these power electronics'based systems is to control active power flow, when properly controlled, they can also be used to provide reactive power support for voltage control in the grid they are connected to. In this regard, a sensitivity' based method is proposed in to identify buses in a power network that can be employed to ad)ust the voltage profile of the network by controlling the reactive power in)ection in those buses. *owever, it does not address the control strategy needed to coordinate the $%Rs connected to a particular bus so as to obtain the reactive power in)ection that is re+uired at that bus. This research addresses this problem by developing control and coordination strategies that can be used by $%Rs to determine the specific amount of reactive power they need to provide. , !tructure and how it works

A solution to the above problem can be achieved through a centrali-ed control strategy where each $%R in the distribution network #connected to a certain bus of the power system& is commanded from a central controller located, for example, at the substation that interconnects the distribution network and the transmission.subtransmission network. This central controller issues a command to each $%R so that collectively the resources account for the necessary amount of reactive power demanded by the central controller, providing reactive power support to the sub'transmission.transmission grid, much like a bank of capacitors would provide. *owever, to achieve this goal in this centrali-ed fashion, it is necessary to overlay a communication network connecting the central controller with each $%R. An alternative approach to provide reactive power support, utili-ing distributed control.coordination strategies, which offer several advantages, including the following/ i& distributed control and coordination strategies are more economical because they do not re+uire communication between a centrali-ed controller and the various devices. ii& ii& they do not re+uire complete knowledge of the $%Rs available. iii& iii& they can be more resilient to faults and.or unpredictablebehavioral patterns by the $%Rs. The proposed approaches rely on a distributed control strategy whereeach $%R can exchange information with a number of other 0close'by1 resources, and make a local control decision based on this available information. Collectively, local control decisions made by the resources should have the same effect as the centrali-ed control strategy. !uch a solution could rely on inexpensive and simple communication protocols, e.g., 2ig3ee technology that would provide the re+uired local exchange of information for the distributed control approach to work. In the setup, the $%Rs can be thought of as nodes in a network, where each node can exchange information with neighboring nodes such that, through an iterative process, each $%R in the network is able to compute the amount of reactive power that it

needs to provide, such that the resources collectively account for the predetermined #re+uested& amount of reactive power. (e will investigate algorithms that solve this coordination.cooperation problem and experimentally demonstrate their feasibility by implementing them in a hardware platform using 2ig3ee technology and the Arduino prototyping platform. 45 Advantages

(e believe that the proposed distributed control strategies for utili-ation of reactive power resources address two features identified as key to achieving the !mart 6rid vision 4.They enable the active participation of consumers via demand response. In this regard, consumers have the choice to enable resources, such as solar installations in buildings and 7*%8s, to provide reactive #and active& power support, for which they can be paid for by the corresponding utility. 9. It allows asset optimi-ation and efficient operation. In this regard, even when banks of switched capacitors or other existing means that provide reactive power control cannot be completely replaced by $%Rs, it is possible to reduce their si-e. :.3y generating reactive power closer to the points where it is consumed, the losses in the transmission and distribution systems can be reduced. 44 ,isk Assessment for *ransformer (oading

/n recent times due to competiton the electric energy market environment" the incentive to heavily load power transformers is being driven by the need to achieve increased profits and the related reluctance to invest in new facilities :ence" there is considerable interest in identifying decision2making criteria so that they can be fully" but safely utili<ed % *he issue is addresed by describing a method for computing risk as a function of transformer loading *he computed risk can be used to identify individual transformer loading limits /t can also be used" together with risk calculation for transmission line A !verload" ? 9oltage collapse C 9oltage out2of2limit D *ransient instability to obtain a composite risk as a function of operating conditions *he condition that limits the transformer loading capabilities is % *emperature of the winding ' *he insulation *his condition is characteri<ed by the winding hottest2spot temperature (:S*) %' #hat is :S* @

*he winding :S* in the top or in the center of the high or low voltage winding is the worst (highest) temperature for which the transformer insulation system is sub-ected %3 :S* Depends on what @

:S* /s a function of A Ambient temperature ? (oad shape C *ransformer characteristics %6 Cause and effects %) :igher winding :S* causes degradation in the strength of the winding insulation material ') :igh temperatures decrease the mechanical strength and increase the brittleness of fibrous insulation" increasing the potential for transformer failure 3) &ost of these studies focus on improving :S* calculation models or developing methods for assessing the influence of transformer thermal delays on short term high loading Hottest-Spot Temperature Model

%8

*ransformer insulation deteriorates as a function of time and temperature Since the temperature distribution in most transformers is not uniform" the most common practice is to consider the aging effects produced by the winding hottest2spot temperature %A Uncertainties in Hottest-Spot Temperature Model

#hen using the preceding model to calculate the transformer :S*" there is typically some uncertainty regarding loading and ambient temperature /n the following" we provide probabilistic models to describe these uncertainties B Probabilistic Transformer Loading Profiles: *ransformer daily load patterns in the future can be obtained by load forecasting" but load forecasting always has errors" and this error can be significant in todayCs deregulated environment #e assume that this uncertainty can be described by a normal distribution with the forecasted value as its &ean B Distribution of Ambient Temperature: Similarly" for temperature uncertainty caused by weather forecasting error" we assume that it can also be described by a normal distribution with the forecasted value as its mean B Correlation bet een Loading Profiles and Ambient TemperatureProfiles *he loading profiles are correlated with ambient temperature profiles (ike 1or e)ample during winter peak loads usually occur on the coldest days of the year on the other hand

in summer peak loads occur on the hottest days of the year So in winter the correlation between load and temperature should be negativeD in summer it should be positive %= / // %> !is" Calculation ,isk has been defined as the product of probability and impact *he total impact of transformer thermal overload includes both the impact of loss of life and failure /t is baased on conditional proability *,A5S1!,&E, ,E1E,E5CE ,/SE (E9E(S

+ower system load is typically cyclic in nature with both daily and annual cycles 1or the daily cycle" it is usually assumed that transformers operate on a load cycle that repeats every '6 hours *he load cycle changes with seasons /t is usually appropriate to assume that the duration of the same load cycle e)tends over FG days %F !eference Loading Le#els

B 5ormal (ife E)pectancy (oading 5ormal life e)pectancy loading (5(E() is defined as (oading for which the winding :S* and ma)imum top oil temperatures as permitted in /EEE C8= %' GG2%F>= are not e)ceeded" although the loading may e)ceed nameplate rating *his loading can be continued indefinitelyD it is considered to be risk2free to remain in 5(E( *o remain in 5(E(" it is suggested that the winding should be :S* be kept in the range of %%G CH%'G C B +lanned (oading ?eyond 5ameplate ,ating +lanned loading beyond nameplate rating (+(?5,) is is defined as (oading for which the winding :S* or top oil temperature e)ceeds the levels suggested for 5(E( /t is accepted by the user as an anticipated" normal" reoccurring loading *his loading is allowed with all components in service" yet some risk is associated with *o remain in +(?5," it is suggested that operation not e)ceed 6 hours per day when the winding :S* is in the range of %'G CH%3G C B (ong2*ime Emergency (oading (ong2time emergency loading ((*E() is is defined as (oading for which the winding :S* or top oil temperature e)ceeds those permitted for rated load operation /t is usually allowed only under conditions of prolonged outage of some system elements *o remain in (*E(" it is suggested one '62hour period contains no more than si) hours operation when the winding :S* is in the range of %3G CH%6G C" together with no more than four hours operation when the winding :S* is in the range of %'G CH%3G C

B Short2*ime Emergency (oading Short2time emergency loading (S*E() is defined as (oading for which the winding :S* or top oil temperature e)ceeds the limits given for +(?5, /t is an unusually severe condition typically acceptable only after the occurrence of one or more unlikely events that seriously disturb normal system loading

'G

CONCLUSION

#e provide a risk2based assessment method of transformer thermal loading capability Compared with the traditional deterministic methods has the following advantages B /t determines a realistic estimate of transformer thermal loading capability by using probabilistic characteri<ation of uncertainty rather than using conservative deterministic values B /t provides a quantitative risk inde) that can be used to detect high risk situations B /t can also be used" together with risk calculation / *ransmission // (ines overload /// 9oltage collapse /9 9oltage out2of limit 9 *ransient instability to obtain a composite risk as a function of operating conditions *he risk calculation method is helpful in making decisions related to balancing risk against the economic benefits that may result from a transformer loading level