CONCEPTUAL UFE SCIENCE

Cellular Respiration
Introduction
Cellular respiration is the oxidative, chemical attack on energy-rich molecules to
provide useful energy for the cell. Enzymes catalyze the oxidation reactions. These
reactions are known as catabolic reactions because they break molecules down to release
energy.
Anaerobic respiration
The first part of respiratory pathways in the cell is anaerobic. This term means
that oxygen is not involved. Even cells of organisms that utilize oxygen, such as humans,
have an anaerobic component. The anaerobic component is known as glycolysis and the
Embden-Meyerhof pathway carries it out. This pathway produces ATP and NADli as
energy-storage molecules. NADH is similar to the NADPH produced in photosynthesis.
In anaerobic respiration, this NADH needs to be recycled. The"total anaerobic pathway
iric1uding the recycling process is calledfermentation. We will consider two kinds of
fennentation reactions. The first will be the laclic acidfermentation as it occurs in
muscles. The second will be the alcoholfermentation as it' occurs in yeast.
Glycolysis
Glycolysis is a pathway that the cell uses to oxidize glucose. Some ofthe steps in
this pathway are the reverse of steps found in the dark reactions ofphotosynthesis.
. Glycolysis is part of the fennentation process found in muscle and yeast cells.
It is important to avoid confusion between photosynthesis and cellular respiration.
Photosynthesis is reductive and anabolic. It produces glucose and releases oxygen as a
waste product. In contrast, cellular respiration is .oxidative and catabolic. It uses glucose
and oxidizes it to produce C<h as the waste product.
Fermentation
Fermentation is used by muscle cells to provide quick energy. Yeast cells use it
to produce alcohoJ and C<h. This is why yeast is used for brewing and baking. Lactic
acid bacteria produce lactic acid, which is used to make fermented foods like pickles,
sauerkraut and yogurt.
Fermentation is required under anaerobic conditions because ofthe need to
recycle NADH. The Embden-Meyerhofpathway produces two molecules ofNADH.
These cannot be used to make ATP under anaerobic conditions so they are recycled and
oxidized using the fermentation process. This recycling pennits the Embden-Meyerhof
pathway to continue functioning.
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Glycolysisistheconversionof glucosetopyruvate.
Glucose 7" 2 'GAL 7" 2'GA 21\fnm11a
ZAT' ZAD, Z HAD. Z HADH AD' AT'

1
Figure7-1. Glycolysis. Energyismadeavailableallthetime. TwoATPareusedto
start and the pathway makes 4ATP, so there is a net yield of two ATP. The POAL to
PGA step is the reverse ofasimilar step in the Calvin-Benson cycle. The resulting two
NADHmoleculesmustbe reoxidized(recycled)topermitthepathwaytocontinue
working.
Fermentation is the reduction ofpyruvate (using the NADH) to produce8 reduced
productsuchas lacticacidoralcohol.
Netreactionsofanaerobicrespiration.
A. Lacticacidfermentationin muscle
Glucose+ 2Pi+ 2ADP-+ 2lactate+ 2ATP
B. Alcoholfermentationin yeast
Glucose+ 2Pi+ 2ADP-+ 2ethanol+ 2C<h+ 2ATP
, Eachofthe begins with glucoseandproduces a net yield oftwo ATP.
. This lownumber ofATP results fromthe lack ofaerobic (oxidative)conditioDS. Muscles
use fennentationunderconditionswhenoxygenisloworwhenenergyisneededquickly.
Yeastcellsareusedintheprocessesofbrewinsand baking. Inbrewing,the
,product,suchas wine,containsalcohol. Ii1thecase of'beer,the productcontainsboth" ,'.-
alcoholande<h. Inbaking,theproductofinterestisthee<h. Thecarbondioxidehelps
thebakedproductsrise. ThatiswhyyeastisusedinmakingbJad,cakesandt)ther
baked products.
RecyclingofNADH
TheNADHproducedintheglycolysisreactioDSisin itsreducedfonn. It must
becomeoxidizedagainin orderforthepathwaytofunction. The final fermentation
reactionsare used toregenerateorrecycleNAD+foruse intheEmbden-Meyerhof
pathway. '
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a. ReoyelngofNADHInIDUsoIe
2pyruvate r , 2..c....
2NADH 2NAif
b. RecycUngofNADHinyeIISt
2pyruvate 7'""""\)2ethanol+ 2CO
2
2NADH 2NAD
Figure 7-2. Production ofNAD+ by recycling.
The central reaction ofthe Embden-Meyerhofpathway requires the oxidized fonn
ofNAD+. The pathway converts it to the reduced fonn ofNADH. In order for the
pathway to continue, the NADH must be recycled.
In oxidative conditions, the NADH is not recycled but is sent to the Electron
TransPOrtlChemiosmosis pathway instead. Under oxidative conditions, fennentation
does not take place. The pyruvate resulting from the Embden-Meyerhofpathway is scrit
to the Krebs Citric Acid Cycle, instead.
Aerobic respiration
Aerobic respiration consists ofthree parts.
Glycolysis
Krebs Ci1ric Acid Cycle
Electron TransportIChemiosmosis
Overall reaction ofaerobic respiration
Aerobic respiration is the reverse of photosynthesis. The glucose made by the plant is
oxidized in the cell to produce the waste products, Cen and H20, and energy. Cellular
respiration is the opposite ofphotosynthesis. The energy stored by the plant is released in
our cells for our use.
Glycolysis
Glycolysis produces two pyruvates, two ATP and two NADH. Unlike the
situation in fennentation, the two NADH molecules are not recycled. The process occurs
in the cytoplasm ofthe cell.
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KrebsCitricAcidCycle
The KrebsCitricAcidCycleis a series of eight reactions that goar01mdin a
circle. Itisfoundinmitochondria.Eachpyruvatemoleculeresultingfromglycolysis
entersthecycleandisoxidizedtoProducethreeC02,andthefollowingenergy
molecules:
4NADH, IFADH2and IATP.
ElectronTransportlChemiosmosis
Thisisthefinal pathwayofaerobicrespiration. ItoccurSinthemitochondria.
ThepathwayremoveselectronsandprotonsfromtheNADHandFADH2molecules.
FADisFlavin Adenine Dinucleotide. ItisanelectroncarrierlikeNADH. FADH2isthe
reducedfonnthatcarriestheelectronsandprotons.
. ElectronTransportandChemioSJDosisoccurinthemitochondria The electrons
arepassedthroughtheelectrontransportchain,a seriesof enzymes thattransport
electroDS. Theelectronseventuallyendupon oxygen,whichistheterminalelectron
acceptorofthechain. TheprotODSare pumpedoutofthemitQChondriathroughthe
mitochondrialmembrane. Thepumpingmechanismiscalledchemiosmosis. Energy.
fromchemioSJDOsisProduces3ATPforeachNADH and2ATPforeachFADH2. So,
theresultofallofthesepathwaysistomakeusefulenergyforthecellin thefonnof
ATP.
Final elimination ofelectrons isdonebyaddingelectronsandprotonstoa
moleculeof oxygen. Theresultistheproductionofhydrogenperoxide(H2(h).
.Hydrogenperoxideisatoxicsubstance. The cellhasanenzymecalledcatalase that
destroyshydrogenperoxideproducingoxygenandwater,therebyrenderingin harmless
byremovingit
Figure7-3. Thecatalasereaction.
Virtually all enzymes are proteins. Theirjobistocatalyzebiologicalreactions
and allowthese reactions to occur at room temperature. Catalase is the name of a
SPeCificenzymethatperfonnsthereactionresponsibleforthedestructionofhydrogen
peroxide. Eachenzymeisacatalyst,whichisspecificforitsownsubstrate. The
substrateisthespecificchemical substancereactedonbytheenzyme. Theenzyme
changesthesubstrate ~ o products. Inthecaseof thedestructionofhydrogenperoxide
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bycatalase,thesubstratewashydrogenperoxide(thestartingmaterial)andtheproducts
werewaterandoxygen(theresultingmaterials).
Totalenergyyieldforoneglucosebyaerobicrespiration
a.
Yieldfromglycolysis: 2ATPdirect
6ATPfrom 2NADH
b.
KrebsCycle(perpyruvate): 1ATPdirect
2ATPfromFADH2
12ATPfromNADH
c.
TotalYield: 8ATPfromglycolysis
30ATPfrom2pyruvatesinKrebsCycle
38ATPtotalyield
Note:Normal totalsineukaryoticce]]sare36moleculesof ATP. Thefigmeof38ATP
comesfromprokaryoticcens,whichdonothave,mitochondria.
Studyguideforcellularrespiration
A. Generalconsiderations
1. Respirationisusedtoobtainenergy.
2. The energy is in the fonn ofATP..
3. Theby-productsofrespiratiQnareH20andCCh.
4. Theprocessof respirationisconductedbyaJI livingcells,allofthetime.
, B. AnaerobicrespiratiOI.1(fermentation) .
1. Anaerobic'respirationdoesnotrequiJeairorCh.
2. Theprocessisusedtoobtainenergy.
3. FewATPmolecules(2ATP)areproduced.
4. Theend-productsare:
a. muscle:lacticacid
b.yeast:alcoholandCO2
S. Theprocessoccursinthecytoplasmofthecell.
C. Aerobicrespiration
1. Aerobicrespirationusesanaerobicrespiration(glycolysis)asthetintset
of reactions.
2. Conversion ofpyruvate to CCh and H20 gives much more energy than
anaerobicrespiration.
3. Aerobicrespirationoccursinthemitochondria.
4. ATPisproducedfromNAOHandFADH2.