Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 49 (2005) 93 96 www.elsevier.

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Editorial

An introduction to artificial intelligence applications in petroleum exploration and production

1. Artificial intelligence During the last two decades, the petroleum industry all over the world has experienced a rapid increase in the number of artificial intelligence (AI) applications. This upsurge in the number of applications of AI is due to the greater availability of human experts and publication of a larger number of case studies. Artificial Intelligence (AI) is the science and engineering of making intelligent machines. AI is devoted to designing ways to make computers perform tasks that were previously thought to require human intelligence. AI studies are divided into two main categories; studies that try to mimic the operations of human brains and studies that understand and apply thinking methodologies. The first is the Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) and the second is the classical Artificial Intelligence. Since AI techniques became aligned with conventional computer hardware architecture in the middle 1980s, their applications to petroleum exploration and production have become available. Artificial neural networks, fuzzy logic systems, and expert systems are three AI technologies having a major impact in the petroleum industry. Artificial neural networks (Fig. 1), a biologically inspired computing methodology, have the ability to learn by imitating the learning method used in human brain. It is an interconnected assembly of simple processing elements, units, or neurons, whose functionality is loosely based on the brain neuron. The processing ability of the network is stored in the interunit connection strengths, or weights, obtained by a process of adaptation to, or learning from, a set of training patterns. Neural networks are well suited to complex problems. They generally have large degrees of freedom, thus they can capture the non-linearity of
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the process being studied better than conventional regression methods. ANNs are relatively insensitive to data noise, as they have the ability to determine the underlying relationship between model inputs and outputs, resulting in good generalization ability. A neural network model can be subjected to additional training in order to adapt itself to new situations at which its inputoutput performance is inadequate. Fuzzy logic (Fig. 2), invented in 1964, is an approach to reasoning where the rules of inference are approximate rather than exact. It is useful for manipulating information that is incomplete, imprecise, or unreliable. Traditional set theory defines set membership as a Boolean predicate (e.g. btallQ means being greater than some specific height, and either you are tall or you are not). bFuzzyQ set theory represents set membership as a possibility distribution (the greater the numeric value assigned to your height, the more likely you are to be tall). Once set membership has been redefined in this way, you can define a reasoning system based on techniques for combining distributions. Fuzzy logic has applications in control theory. When you are programming things to function in a

Fig. 1. A typical neural network.

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complex environment, fuzzy rules may be easier to derive and faster to use than explicit formulae. Since fuzzy logic is used mainly for efficiency, some people think that it is doomed by the emergence of massively parallel computing. Expert systems (Fig. 3), also known as KnowledgeBased Systems (KBS), are programs that contains a knowledge base and a set of algorithms or rules that infer new facts from knowledge and from incoming data. An expert system uses the knowledge base of human expertise to provide expert advice and aid in solving problems. The degree of problem solving is based on the quality of the data and rules obtained from the human expert. Expert systems allow the human expertise to be accumulated and stored in a computer. Once stored, the expertise can be retrieved at any time and used to solve problems in a specialized area. Expert systems, once successfully developed, provide a permanent knowledge base. This base can be easily transferred in a concise and economical way. Expert systems can also be used to ameliorate the performance of individuals because of incorporation of knowledge from other experts in the field. An expert system program contains three parts: a knowledge-base; an inference engine and user interface. The knowledge base is the first part of an expert system which contains all the knowledge or expertise in the form of rules and facts. This step requires the acquisition, or gathering of available knowledge, and then storage of this knowledge using a knowledge representation language in a form recognizable by a computer. The expert system develops answers by running the knowledge base through an inference engine (a software program that interacts with the user and processes the results from the rules and data in the knowledge base). Thus, the inference engine provides the path that directs one toward the solution. The user interface is the part that establishes the communication between the user and the expert program. It requests input from the user and presents the results obtained from the expert system to the user. Some expert systems require running large external programs, which is the

Fig. 3. General structure of an expert system.

case in this study. If this is the case, an expert system can be directly linked to such programs so that their results can be used in the inference process. Expert systems can be developed using either an artificial intelligence language, or an expert system shell. Artificial intelligence languages are more flexible compared to expert system shells, but they require much more programming. These languages are different from the conventional programming languages. Each of the AI languages works on a different paradigm and thus offers different features. The expert system shells contain a built-in inference engine which has a knowledge representation language and pre-specified control strategies. Several commercial expert system shells, each with different features, are available in the market. Expert system shells are more convenient to use than AI languages; however, expert system shells offer limited or no capabilities for modification of the inference engine. One of the early AI applications in the petroleum industry is DIPMETER ADVISOR which was developed to perform well log analysis. Since then, a number of other AI applications were developed in various disciplines of petroleum engineering. Such applications include interpreting logs, diagnosing and prescribing remedies for stuck drill pipe, locating mineral deposits, configuring seismic processing runs, selecting the optimal drilling mud; problem diagnoses, identifying the cause of a chemical spill and recommending action, selection and design of EOR processes, well stimulation, testing and logging, and prediction of fluid properties. 2. About this special issue Given the large number of publications, it was appropriate to showcase the research efforts in one

Fig. 2. Geometry of fuzzy logic.

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special issue of the Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering. Efforts for the special issue started in February 2004. Out of the papers submitted, a total of 11 papers were accepted for publications in this special issue. The included papers in this issue came from different researchers working in various research centers and universities around the world. Titles and authors of abstracts are given below, where corresponding authors are specified by *: 1. bOptimization of formation analysis and evaluation protocols using neuro-simulationQ, T. Ertekin* and N. Silpngarmlers, Pennsylvania State University, USA. 2. bAI applied to evaluate waterflood response, gas behind pipe, and imbibition stimulation treatmentsQ, William bBillQ Weiss*, Jason Weiss, Visveswaran bVishuQ Subramaniam and Xina Xie, Correlation Company, USA. 3. bApplication of artificial intelligence tools to characterize naturally fractured reservoirs in Hassi Messaoud Oil Field, Algeria: a case studyQ, Abdelkader Kouider El Ouahed and Djebbar Tiab*, University of Oklahoma, OK, USA. 4. bA process-knowledge management approach for assessment and mitigation of drilling risksQ W.F. Prassla*, J.M. Peden, and K.W. Wongb, aCurtin University of Technology, Perth Australia, bNanyang Technological University, Singapore. 5. bA web-based expert system for the planning and completion of multilateral wellsQ, Haitham M.S. Lababidi and Ali Garrouch*, Kuwait University, Kuwait. 6. bReservoir properties determination using fuzzy logic and neural networksQ, Jong-Se Lim*, Korea Maritime University, Republic of Korea. 7. bEstimating the fracture gradient of Middle East reservoirs using artificial neural networksQ, Adel Malallah* and Ibrahim Sami Nashawi, Kuwait University, Kuwait. 8. bApplication of artificial neural networks for reservoir characterization with limited dataQ, K. Aminian* and S. Ameri, West Virginia University, USA. 9. bLeak detection in petroleum pipelines using a fuzzy systemQ, Henrique Ventura da Silvaa, Celso Kazuyuki Morookab*, Ivan Rizzo Guilhermec, and Jose Ricardo Pelaquim Mendesb, aPetrobras, b State University of Campinas, cPaulista State University, Brazil. 10. bA new and novel methodology for the identification of best practices in the oil and gas industry,

using intelligent systemsQ, Shahab D. Mohaghegh*, West Virginia University, USA. 11. bApplication of an expert system to optimize reservoir performanceQ, Ridha Gharbi*, Kuwait University, Safat, Kuwait. The 1st paper by Ertekin and Silpngarmlers of Pennsylvania State University proposes neuro-simulation methodology that involves the use of conventional reservoir engineering analysis tools to generate some sound data base and teaching this data base to a neural network which is designed as an expert system for the same class of problems. The data may include laboratory reservoir engineering data, well tests conducted in the field with the relevant analysis protocols followed and any other reservoir engineering analysis studies conducted with the help of numerical and analytical models. Once the model is trained, the network is then used in a predictive mode for new systems. The paper includes examples showing the application of the proposed method. The 2nd paper by Weiss from Correlations Company used artificial intelligence technology to predict (1) the secondary to primary ratio of a water flood candidate using public domain information, (2) the potential gas producing rate of a behind pipe interval given only gamma ray and density logs, and (3) the performance of single well chemical imbibition treatments. A technique based on conventional statistical parameters was developed to numerically describe the patterns observed in log cross-plots. These numerical descriptions were then prioritized and used as neural network inputs to be correlated with known production response. Application of AI in naturally fractured reservoirs is the subject of the 3rd paper by El-Ouahed and Tiab of the University of Oklahoma. In this study, a twodimensional fracture intensity map and fracture network map in a large block from Hassi Messaoud field in Algeria have been developed using Artificial Neural Network and Fuzzy Logic. The paper discusses the methodology used to map the fracture network. In the 4th paper by Prassl et al. of Curtin University of Technology, a Process-Knowledge Management System (P-KMS) was developed. The P-KMS system was designed to investigate drilling in gas hydrate environments, identify potential well risks (well control, borehole stability and/or well integrity), and assess mitigation of them due to alteration of drilling parameters and/or strategies. A web-based fuzzy expert system is presented in the 5th paper by Lababidi and Garrouch of Kuwait University. The expert system was developed in an

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integrated process for planning the style and completion of multilateral wells. The reasoning process in this expert system is based on a systematic planning approach for screening and selecting multilateral well candidates, lateral-section completion types, and the junction levels of complexity. In the 6th paper by Lim of Korea Maritime University, an intelligent technique that uses fuzzy logic and artificial neural network is suggested in order to determine reservoir properties from well logs. Fuzzy curve analysis based on fuzzy logics is used for selecting the best-related well logs with core porosity and permeability data. Artificial neural network is used as a nonlinear regression method to develop transformation between the selected well logs and core analysis data. The technique is validated by a case study from offshore Korea. Estimating the fracture gradient of Middle Eastern reservoirs using artificial neural network is the subject of the 7th paper by Malallah and Nashawi of Kuwait University. The neural network model is able to predict the fracture gradient as a function of pore pressure, depth and rock density. A detailed comparison between the results predicted by this method and those predicted by other techniques are presented. The 8th paper authored by Aminian and Ameri from West Virginia University discusses the application of artificial neural network for reservoir characterization with limited data. The method combines statistical and artificial intelligence techniques to predict the missing information. A systematic and synergistic approach was then employed to integrate and interpret various geological and engineering data that are obtained at different scales to characterize a complex oil reservoir. The 9th paper by da Silva et al. from State University of Campinas discusses a fuzzy system that is developed for detecting leaks in petroleum pipelines. The procedure on how the system was developed, and the evaluation of such system, is presented. A fault detection module evaluates the inletoutlet flow rate deviation in order to detect a leak or an abnormal operation condition. In the 10th paper by Mohaghegh of West Virginia University, a methodology for the identification of best practices in the oil and gas industry using intelligent system is presented. The methodology is named bIntelligent Best Practices AnalysisQ and includes artificial neural networks, genetic algorithms and fuzzy logic. The methodology is applied to a database of stimulation procedures in the Golden Trend fields of Oklahoma to clearly demonstrate its use and benefits.

The 11th paper authored by Ridha Gharbi from Petroleum Engineering Department of Kuwait University presents an optimization methodology combined with an economic model, which is implemented into an expert system to optimize the net present value of full field development with EOR processes. In this paper, the details of the proposed expert system and the effect of several design parameters on the project profitability of the studied EOR processes are reported. Acknowledgements We would like to express our sincere thanks to the authors for their contribution to this special issue. We also would like to express our appreciation to the reviewers of papers submitted to this issue. Despite their heavy schedules, the reviewers have enthusiastically participated in the review process. Their valuable suggestions and criticisms greatly enhanced the quality of this special issue. Our appreciation goes to Julius Langlinais (Louisiana State University), Abdel Zellou (Prism Seismic), Patrick Wong (Veritas Geophysical Corp), Turgay Ertekin (Pennsylvania State University), Tarek Darwich (SIPETROL), Luis Gomez (University of Tulsa), Ali Garrouch (Kuwait University), Adwait Chawathe (ChevronTexaco), Iraj Ershaghi (University of Southern California), Shedid Elgaghah (United Arab Emirates University), Mahmut Sengul (Schlumberger Oilfield Services), Tao Zhu (University of Alaska), Adel Malallah (Kuwait University), Jonathan Kwan (University of Oklahoma), and Tongjun Ruan (New Mexico Tech). We also would like to thank Ms. Tirza van Daalen and Ms. Tonny Smit of Elsevier Science for her help to complete this special issue. Ridha B.C. Gharbi Department of Petroleum Engineering, Kuwait University, PO Box 5969, Safat 13060, Kuwait E-mail address: ridha@kuc01.kuniv.edu.kw. Corresponding author. G. Ali Mansoori Departments of Chemical and Bio Engineering, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60610, USA E-mail address: mansoori@uic.edu. 13 September 2005