PROCEEDINGS, Kenya Geothermal Conference 2011 Kenya International conference Centre, Nairobi, November 21-23, 2011

RESISTIVITY STRUCTURE OF SILALI GEOTHERMAL PROSPECT IN KENYA

Deflorah Kangogo, Joseph Gichira, Anthony Wamalwa ,Cleophas Simiyu& Yusuf Noor Geothermal Development Company Ltd, P. O. Box 17700- 20100 Nakuru,Kenya dkangogo@gdc.co.ke; jgichira@gdc.co.ke ;munikatony@yahoo.com;& csimiyu@gdc.co.ke;ynoor@gdc.co.ke ABSTRACT Electrical resistivity methods are widely applied in geothermal exploration and are the cheapest means of acquiring geophysical data. Further detailed surveys like exploration drilling which is cost intensive in an area under study is always based on accurate surface exploration results. This study focuses mainly on application of electromagnetic methods namely Transient Electromagnetic (TEM) and Magnetotelluric (MT) carried out in Silali geothermal prospect situated in the Northern Kenya rift aimed at mapping out the subsurface resistivity, which is then interpreted so as to provide information such as fluid filled fractures, the reservoir and the heat source. Resistivity results obtained revealed three main resistivity zones; 1) A shallow high resistivity zone (> 100 m) to about 300 m below the surface which is as a result of unaltered rocks, 2) An intermediate low resistivity zone (10 m) to depths of about 1 km which is as a result of hydrothermal alteration minerals indicating the top of the geothermal reservoir, and 3) A deeper high resistivity (> 50 m), up to 3 -4 km depth indicating high temperature minerals occurring at depth and also defining the top of the heat sources. Keywords: Kenyan north rift, Resistivity structure, Electrical resistivity, Reservoir, Heat source. INTRODUCTION Electrical resistivity methods have proven to be useful tools in geothermal exploration for a long time now. This is because they relate directly to the properties that characterize geothermal systems such as permeability, porosity, salinity, temperature and degree of hydrothermal alteration of the rocks (Hersir and Bjrnsson, 1991). Geoelectrical measurements provide information on the distribution of the subsurface electrical resistivity. In high temperature geothermal systems, electrical resistivity variations are often predominantly caused by hydrothermal alteration zones (rnason, et. al, 2000). The hot fluids of a geothermal system lead to the formation of a sequence of hydrothermal alteration minerals depending on the temperature. Resistivity methods are used to determine variations in electrical conductivity of the sub-surface both laterally and with depth. Among the methods used are the natural-source methods (magneto telluric) and controlled-source induction methods. EM methods are more sensitive to conductive (low-resistivity)

structures compared to direct current (DC) techniques. Several resistivity methods have been applied in geothermal resource assessment for several decades, In DC resistivity sounding an electrical current is injected into the ground and the potential voltage generated by the current distribution in the earth is measured at the surface. DC method is more sensitive to resistive structures hence it has been used to identify and delineate high-temperature systems. In the central-loop Transient Electro-Magnetic soundings, current is induced by a time varying magnetic field generated by a current in a loop and the decaying induced magnetic field is monitored at the surface. For MT method the current in the ground is induced by the natural time varying electromagnetic field. MT soundings have the greatest penetration depth of all the electrical techniques. This paper concentrates on the resistivity work that has been carried out in the Silali Geothermal prospect.

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Previous Studies The East African Rift System (EARS) in Kenya was initiated in the Miocene and continues to be active today. As part of the rifting, the region experienced crustal thinning, up warping of the asthenosphere, and volcanism (Simiyu and Keller, 1997, 2001; Smith 1994;Smith, 1994; Keller et al., 1994; Hay and Wendlandt, 1995). The northern section of the Kenya rift has experienced more crustal thinning and less uplift than the central rift region (Simiyu and Keller 1997; Mariita and Keller 2007). Several young volcanoes, including Suswa, Longonot, Olkaria, Eburru, Menengai, Silali, and Barrier, are located along the rift valley floor and these volcanic centers are the target of geothermal exploration in Kenya (Simiyu, 2010; Omenda et al.,2000). The Kenya rift has been extensively studied as the basis for understanding the processes of continental plate breakup (e.g Keller et al., 1994; Simiyu and Keller, 1997; Simiyu and Keller, 2001; Khan et al., 1999; Prodehl et al., 1997; Swain 1976; Mariita and Keller, 2007). However, detailed studies that focus on the various volcanic centers along the rift are limited. Studies (Simiyu 1991; Omenda, 1997; Onacha, 2006) of the Olkaria and Eburu volcanic complexes, and the Menengai, and Longonot volcanoes have resulted in the development of a geothermal plant at the Olkaria volcanic field to generate electricity. Due to the rugged terrain that limits accessibility, the Silali volcano had not been studied. However, the growing need for geothermal energy development in Kenya has given incentive to the first detailed geophysical data collection around the caldera region which we present in this paper. Previous studies (Fairhead, 1976; Swain, 1976; Swain et al., 1994; Simiyu and Keller, 1997; Marrita and Keller, 2007) have indicated that the location of the volcanic centers along the rift, including the Silali volcano, coincides with a 50 km wide gravity maxima with an amplitude about 20 mGals which is typical for most geothermal fields around the world (Monstero et al., 2005). This high gravity anomaly was interpreted as the result of a shallow magma chamber and dykes along the rift axis. The gravity data distribution however is sparse (about 5km spacing) and hence could not adequately image detailed structures around the volcano. The ongoing exploration for geothermal resources along the Kenya Rift provides subsurface information

through both the geophysical data interpretation and the subsequent drilling to produce geothermal energy. The interpretation of the geophysical data often is tested only a short time after it is gathered because of the rapid development of geothermal prospects in Kenya at this time. Thus, we anticipate this interpretation of the geophysical data from Silali volcano presented here will be tested by drilling within the nest 2-10 years. Resistivity Survey in Silali Transient Electromagnetics (TEM) TEM soundings were carried out using the Phoenix Geophysics equipment with a 200m x 200m transmitter wire loop and recordings done using frequencies of 25Hz and 5Hz. The stations were done on the same locations as MT for purposes of static shift correction. The raw data was transformed to USFs using phoenix software, Tem Pro. USFs were then exported to the WinGLink program where 1-D inversion is done. These 1-D models were used for correcting the static shift in MT as discussed extensively in Irfan et al (2010).A total of 122 TEM soundings were done (Figure 1). Magnetotellurics (MT) The MT method is based on measuring the time varying magnetic field and the electric field generated in the subsurface simultaneously. MT techniques measure over a frequency range. The lower the frequency, the deeper the depth of investigation possible at a given site. MT techniques acquire data in frequencies ranging from about 4000.0000129 Hz (over a period of about 21.5hrs), and are suitable for deeper investigations. MT soundings were carried out in Silali prospect using a 5-channel MT data acquisition system (MTU5A, from Phoenix Geophysics-Canada). The data was then processed and transformed from raw time series to Fourier transforms using SSMT2000 software and finally to Electronic Data Interchange, EDIs using MT- editor software. These EDIs were then exported to the WinGLink program for further editing and static shift correction after which inversions were done (Lemma, 2007). A total of 300 MT soundings were carried out as shown in Figure.1.

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TEM Soundings

Legend MT Soundings

Cross-section lines

Figure. 1. The areal distribution of MT&TEM resistivity soundings from the Silali prospect area

Results of MT and TEM Survey The data was processed, and produced in apparent resistivity plots in form of contour maps at various elevations and cross-sections across major geological structures. The aim was to locate a possible subsurface resistivity anomaly on the basis of relevant parameters such as apparent resistivity values, shape and size. These approaches are qualitative and of first order interpretations. Resistivity profiles of Silali geothermal prospect are presented by resistivity cross-sections across major geological structures as well as by iso-resistivity maps at different elevations with respect to sea level.

Iso-Resistivity maps Resistivity at 600m.asl This elevation is about 500-600 m below the surface (Figure 2 The map shows a low resistivity anomally of about 3.2 ohm-m in the caldera and on the eastern and western sides of the prospect area. This conductivity as seen above could be related to the hydrothermal products present at this depth. Also seen in the map is a high resistivity anomally of about 56 ohm-m on the Southern side of the survey area trending in the NE-SW direction due to unaltered formations and it is along the major fault line cutting through the caldera in the western portion of the region.

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MT Soundings

Legend Fumaroles

Structures

Figure. 2. Resistivity anomaly map at 600 m above Sea level (masl)

Resistivity at Sea level The map shows relatively high resistivity anomalies of about 56 ohm-m in the central portion of the map and trending in the NW-SE directions, and seems to be extending to the east out of the caldera (Figure 3.). This higher resistivity is probably defining the steam dominated reservoir for this sector of the

prospect . Low resistivities of about 5.6 ohm-m are also evident in the southeast and northeast of the map bounding the high resistivity zone.These low resistivities are probably due to the presence of low temperature alteration minerals.

MT Soundings
Figure. 3. Resistivity anomaly map at sea level

Legend Fumaroles

Structures

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Resistivity at 3000 mbsl At 3000 m below sea level (Figure 4), the deeper conductors are evident from the eastern part of the prospect area and extending towards the central part of the caldera. These conductors could be defining the top of the heat sources for this sector. A linear high resistivity is also evident aligning along the western rim of the caldera which could be a boundary (structure) separating the resource inside the caldera and the one towards Kapedo.

MT Soundings

Legend Fumaroles

Structures

Figure.4. Resistivity anomaly map at 3000 m below sea level

Resistivity at 5000 m. bsl A low resistivity anomaly spreads almost in the entire survey area with more prominence in the eastern part of the prospect area from the centre of the caldera

(Figure.5). This probably is a heat source extending towards the Eastern part of the prospect area. A linear high resistivity described in figure 4. is still evident at this level.

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MT Soundings

Legend Fumaroles

Structures

Figure.5. Resistivity anomaly map at 5000 m below sea level

Cross-sections MT Cross-section NW-SE In the central portion below the Silali prospect a high resistivity anomaly is evident which is probably a major structure on the western part of the prospect at depth (Figure. 6). A low resistivity anomally is evident at about 2 km depth and which seems to be

extending towards the eastern side of the caldera and which is interpreted as the heat source for this geothermal system. It is overlayed by a high resistivity anomaly at around 1km below sea level and extending eastwards and this represents the reservoir level for this geothermal system.

Figure 6: 2D Resistivity cross-section along NW-SE

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MT Cross-section SW-NE The section ( 7) shows two distinct low resistivity anomalies from a depth of 3 km. One is in the central part of the caldera and the other is extending towards the eastern side of the caldera. The

deeper conductors are probably the heat sources for this prospect. The anomaly extends further East outside the caldera towards Akwichatis and Nasoroti areas which is the heat source for this geothermal system.

Figure. 7. 2-D Resistivity cross-section along SW-NE

DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSION The low resistivity anomaly at shallow depth could be as a result of conductive alteration minerals while at the deeper level highly conductive zone is interpreted to be the heat source. A highly resistive base-rock at depth is seen from the cross-sections. The orientation of the anomalies found in this survey area agrees with the major geological feature namely the linearment and the NNW-SSE faluts. The resource area based on the resistivity map at 3000 m bsl is aligned to the eastern half of the Silali prospect defined by the relatively high resistance (> 50 m) due to steam dominated reservoir. The Low resistivity (10m) anomally below the depth of 6000m could be the heat source for this prospect area. However, at shallow depth, the thin conductive layer may mean hydrothermally altered lithology as well as low temperature alteration mineral.

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