subcontinent a large landmass that is part of a continent but is considered an independent entity either geographically or politically

monsoons seasonal winds in India

citadel a fortress

Vedas sacred writings of the Indo-Aryans

rajas leaders of ancient cities in India

varnas the four social classes in Vedic society

castes social classes in the ancient Indian class system; see also varnas

Hinduism the largest religion in India; Hindus believe that everything in the world is a power of Brahman, the single great universal being; they also believe in reincarnation and strive to break free from the cycle of rebirth.

reincarnation in Hinduism, the belief that after one dies, the soul is reborn into a different form

karma in Hinduism, the totality of a person's good and bad deeds and the way in which they affect that individual's fate in the afterlife

moksha in Hinduism, the escape from the cycle of rebirth

dharma in Hinduism, the religious and moral duties of an individual

yoga a series of physical and mental exercises that teaches people how to focus their bodies and minds

Jainism a religion of India, founded about the same time as Buddhism (c. 500 BC) and in reaction to some Hindu practices; believers renounce worldly things, embrace self-discipline, and practice nonviolence

ahimsa in Jainism, nonviolence and respect for all living things

Buddhism the religion founded by Siddhartha Gautama, which teaches the Four Noble Truths and following the Eightfold Path

Buddha: (c. 563483 BC) Founder of Buddhism, also known as Siddhartha Gautama; he gave up princely life to search for truth and enlightenment. He established the Buddhist religion based on the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path.

Four Noble Truths in Buddhism, the guidelines that are the essence of the Buddha's teaching: that life is suffering, that desires cause suffering, that the annihilation of desires can relieve suffering, and that the way to relieve suffering is to follow the Eightfold Path

Eightfold Path the Middle Way and part of the Four Noble Truths that the Buddha taught as the means to nirvana or enlightenment

nirvana in Buddhism, the release from the world and the achievement of peace and enlightenment

Middle Way basic Buddhist teachings of the Eightfold Path; it advises people to live in moderation, avoiding the extremes of either comfort or discomfort in the search for nirvana

loess fine yellowish soil blown from the desert regions

court a gathering of nobles around a monarch

oracle bones inscribed animal bones used to predict the future

Mandate of Heaven the Chinese belief that royal authority is the result of divine approval

dynastic cycle the rise and fall of the Chinese dynasties

Confucianism a belief system based on the teachings of Chinese philosopher Confucius (551479 BC) that stressed treating one another humanely and honoring one's family

Daoism a system of ideas and beliefs based on the teachings of Chinese thinker Laozi, who believed that people should live a simple, honest life and not interfere with the course of natural events