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Basic Level
Objectives:
− a brief review of the fundamental terms and laws governing metal forming at
room temperature as well as at high temperatures. This lecture is a necessary
prerequisite to understand the more specific treatment of metal forming
subjects such as forging, impact extrusion and sheet metal forming in the
subsequent TALAT Lectures 3400 to 3800.
Prerequisites:
− General background in production engineering, machine tools
Table of Contents
TALAT 3300 2
3301 Introduction
The general description given in Figure 3301.01.01 defines metal forming by plastic
deformation and distinguishes it from other forming and shaping processes like casting
and machining.
Definition of Forming
- the form,
- the material properties and/or
- the surface properties,
K.Siegert
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TALAT 3300 3
3302 Terms for Classifying Forming Processes
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Classifying the Forming Process by State of Stress 3302.01.01
Training in Aluminium Application Technologies
Bulk Forming
Raw parts are three-dimensional.
TALAT 3300 4
3302.03 Classification by Forming Temperature
(Figure 3302.03.01)
Cold Forming
Process in which the work-piece is not heated before forming,
but instead formed at room temperature.
ϑ = ϑRoom (ca. 20° C )
Warm Forming
Process in which the work-piece is heated to an elevated temperature
higher than room temperature before forming.
ϑ > ϑ Room (ca. 20° C )
Forming Zone
Bending Zone
K. Siegert F
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Training in Aluminium Application Technologies Methods of Applying Force 3302.04.01
TALAT 3300 5
3303 Characteristic Values and Basic Laws of Metal Forming
• Flow Stress
• Plastic Strain, Rate and Acceleration
• Plastic Flow under Combined Stresses
• Law of Plastic Flow
• Flow Curves
• Average Flow Stress
• Energy Considerations
F
Flow stress kf =
(true stress) A l0
By comparison F l
σ=
(technical stress) A0
Conversion:
ε = (l − l0 ) / l0
with
one obtains k f = σ (ε l + 1)
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Definition of Flow Stress 3303.01.01
Training in Aluminium Application Technologies
TALAT 3300 6
3303.02 Plastic Strain, Rate and Acceleration
dl
2
l
l1
dl l
ϕl = ∫ = ln l1 − ln l0 = ln 1 .
l0
l l0
A0
dl
As opposed to this, elongation dε = A
l0
(relative deformation)
l1
l0
l
A1
dl l − l l
l1
ε = ∫ = 1 0 = 1 − 1.
l
l0 0
l0 l0
Conversion: l1
with = (ε + 1)
l0
dl
2
F
one obtains ϕ l = ln(ε + 1)
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h1
ϕ h = ln
h0
Cuboid
b
ϕ b = ln 1
h0
h1
b0
l
b0
l0 l1 ϕ l = ln 1
b1 l0
r0
r1
h1
Circular ϕ h = ln
h0
h0
h1
Cylinder
r
ϕ r = ln 1 = ϕ t
r0
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Logarithmic Strain in Upsetting 3303.02.02
Training in Aluminium Application Technologies
TALAT 3300 7
Law of Volume Constancy
(Figure 3303.02.03)
h0
h1
l1
l0
b0 b1
so that: h1 b1 l 1
⋅ ⋅ = 1
h 0 b0 l 0
Taking the logarithms h b l
of both sides: ln 1 + ln 1 + ln 1 = 0
h0 b0 l0
or: ϕh +ϕh +ϕh = 0 or ∑ϕ = 0
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TALAT 3300 8
Plastic Strain Acceleration
(Figure 3303.02.05)
""
dϕ&
ϕ&
&=
dt
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σv = kf
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Criteria for Plastic Flow 3303.03.01
Training in Aluminium Application Technologies
TALAT 3300 9
Maximum Shear Stress Hypothesis
(Figure 3303.03.02, Figure 3303.03.03, Figure 3303.03.04)
τmax = k .
1 τmax
τmax = ( σ1 − σ3 ) = k
2 (=k)
σ2 σ
σ3 σ1 = σmax
1
( σmax − σmin ) = k = σmin
τmax =
2
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Shear Stress Hypothesis (1) 3303.03.02
Training in Aluminium Application Technologies
σ2 = σ3 = 0 σ1 σ
σ1 = kf .
Thus, flow starts when the difference between the largest and
smallest principal normal stresses equals the flow stress.
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Shear Stress Hypothesis (2) 3303.03.03
Training in Aluminium Application Technologies
TALAT 3300 10
Shear Stress Hypothesis (3)
ϕ g = ( ϕ 1 , ϕ 2 , ϕ 3 ) max .
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1
σ v = kf = (σ 1 − σ 2 ) + (σ 2 − σ 3 ) + (σ 3 − σ 1 ) .
2 2 2
2
Using the average stress
1
σm = (σ 1 + σ 2 + σ 3 )
3
one obtains
3
σ v = kf = (σ 1 − σ m )2 + (σ 2 − σ m )2 + (σ 3 − σ m ) .
2
2
Then, according to the distortion energy theory, the comparative deformation strain becomes
ϕv =
3
(ϕ 1 + ϕ 2 2 + ϕ 32 ).
2 2
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TALAT 3300 11
Yield Criteria for Plane Stress (Yield Locus)
(Figure 3303.03.06)
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TALAT 3300 12
3303.05 Flow Curves
Flow Curve
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Flow Curve 3303.05.01
Training in Aluminium Application Technologies
k f = a ·ϕ ng
k f = a ·ϕ ng
(valid for ϕg ≠ 0, i.e. for kf ≥ Rp0.2 respectively
approximation for kf ≥ ReH)
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Flow Curves at Room Temperature (1) 3303.05.02
Training in Aluminium Application Technologies
TALAT 3300 13
Flow Curves at Room Temperature (2)
By taking the logarithm of the equation kf = a·ϕgn
· ϕ g + log
log k f = n log · a
The illustration of a flow curve of the form kf = a· ϕgn
log k f in a coordinate system with axes in a logarithmic
scale is a straight line whose gradient is the
· ϕ g + log
log k f = n log · a coefficient n.
The coefficient n is a measure of the amount by which
∆ log k f
α a material hardens with increasing deformation strain
ϕg and is therefore known as the strain hardening
∆ log ϕ g coefficient.
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TALAT 3300 14
Flow Curves at Elevated Temperature (2)
100
N / mm²
" - With increasing temperature ϑ , the influence
ϕg = 63 s
-1
of the logarithmic principal deformation strain
80 ϕg on the flow stress kf decreases.
Flow Stress kf
"
ϕg = 4 s
-1
60 "
"
- The influence of the deformation strain rate ϕg
ϕg = 0.25 s
-1
on the flow stress kf increases with increasing
40 temperature ϑ. For "a given logarithmic principal
deformation strain ϕg and a given
. forming
20 Material Al 99.5 temperature ϑ, the flow stress kf increases
"
with
Temperature ϑ = 360°C increasing deformation strain rate ϕg.
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Flow Curves at Elevated Temperature (2) 3303.05.05
Training in Aluminium Application Technologies
C ϕg = 1
480°
20 Material Al 99.5 The exponent m is a measure of the hardening
0.25 40 s-1 63 of the material which depends on the
Logarithmic Principal deformation strain rate.
"
Deformation Strain Rate ϕg It increases with increasing temperature.
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TALAT 3300 15
3303.06 Average Flow Stress
(Figure 3303.06.01)
∫k ( ϕ ) dϕ
1
kfm k fm =
kf0 ϕ g1 ϕ g1 f g
∫k ( ϕ ) dϕ
0
f g
0
As an approximation, one can use
kf 0 + kf 1
k fm =
2
0 ϕg1 ϕg kf0 - flow stress at start of process (ϕg = 0)
kf1 - flow stress at end of process (ϕg = ϕg1)
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Average Flow Stress 3303.06.01
Training in Aluminium Application Technologies
Forming Energy
(Figure 3303.07.01)
Forming Energy
Wid = V k fm ϕ g
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TALAT 3300 16
Heat Development during Forming
(Figure 3303.07.02)
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TALAT 3300 17
Literature/References
List of Figures
TALAT 3300 18