No8 Eng

ISSN 1582 - 3024
Volume 1, No.8, 2004
"Matei - Teiu Botez"
Academic Society
Composite Structures
Iasi, Romania
Editorial Team
http://www.ce.tuiasi.ro/intersections
Emanuela DECHER
Department of Civil and Industrial Engineering Faculty of Civil Engineering Gh. Asachi Technical University of Iai, Romnia decher@ce.tuiasi.ro
Ioana ENUC
Department of Civil and Industrial Engineering Faculty of Civil Engineering Gh. Asachi Technical University of Iai, Romnia entuc@ce.tuiasi.ro
Dorina ISOPESCU
Department of Civil and Industrial Engineering Faculty of Civil Engineering Gh. Asachi Technical University of Iai, Romnia isopescu@ce.tuiasi.ro
Gabriel OPRIAN Secretary
Department of Civil and Industrial Engineering Faculty of Civil Engineering Gh. Asachi Technical University of Iai, Romnia oprisan@ce.tuiasi.ro
Alexandru SECU
Department of Civil and Industrial Engineering Faculty of Civil Engineering Gh. Asachi Technical University of Iai, Romnia secu@ce.tuiasi.ro
Nicolae RANU Team Leader
Department of Civil and Industrial Engineering Faculty of Civil Engineering Gh. Asachi Technical University of Iai, Romnia taranu@ce.tuiasi.ro
Intersections/Intersecii, Vol.1, No.8, 2004
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Content
composites in civil engineering
T Essential characteristics and applications of polymer
by Nicolae Taranu, Kypros Pilakoutas, Mihaela Anca Ciupala, Dorina Isopescu and Gabriel Oprisan
roof claddings
T Analysis and behaviour of a composite sandwich panel for
by Nicolae ranu, Dorina Isopescu, Ioana Entuc, Gabriel Oprisan
facings and rigid polyurethane foam core
T Structural behaviour of sandwich panels with profiled metallic
by Mihai Budescu, Nicolae ranu, Ioan Ciongradi, Dorina Isopescu, Cristina Vladoiu
Intersections/Intersecii, Vol.1, No8, 2004
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Essential characteristics and applications of polymer composites in civil engineering

Nicolae Taranu1, Kypros Pilakoutas2, Mihaela Anca Ciupala3, Dorina Isopescu4 and Gabriel Oprisan5
1. Professor of Civil and Structural Engineering, Technical University of Iasi, Romania 2. Professor of Construction Innovation, University of Sheffield, UK 3. Senior Lecturer, University of East London, UK 4. Professor of Civil Engineering, Technical University of Iasi, Romania 5. Lecturer, Technical University of Iasi, Romania
Summary
Advances in construction materials enable civil and structural engineers to obtain important achievements in the functionality, safety and economy of construction. Polymeric composites are materials that contain a continuous polymeric matrix binding together and providing form to arrays of stronger and stiffer reinforcing constituents. Composite materials developed for structural applications provide attractive performance in other functional areas. These materials have higher specific strength and higher specific stiffness than traditional materials and can be tailored to meet specific demands, they exhibit good resistance to fatigue, have excellent corrosion resistance, dimensional stability and convenient electrical properties. Composite elements and structures can be fabricated efficiently and they are cost-competitive in life-cycle assessments. A realistic approach of the use of polymeric composites in civil engineering applications requires also a critical evaluation of the material drawbacks, therefore paper deals with some constrains that may prevent or limit the use these materials in construction. Some frequent applications of fibre reinforced polymeric composites are also presented and discussed.
KEY WORDS: fibre reinforced, polymeric composites, advantages, constraints, applications .
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Article no.24, Intersections/Intersecii, Vol.1, 2004, Nr.8, Composite Structures
N. Taranu, K. Pilakoutas, M.A. Ciupal, D. Isopescu, G. Oprisan
1. INTRODUCTION
Advances in construction materials enable civil and structural engineers to obtain important achievements in the functionality, safety and economy of construction. Polymeric composites are materials that contain a continuous polymeric matrix binding together and providing form to arrays of stronger and stiffer reinforcing constituents. Composite materials developed for structural applications provide attractive performance in other functional areas. These materials have higher specific strength and higher specific stiffness than traditional materials and can be tailored to meet specific demands, they exhibit good resistance to fatigue, have excellent corrosion resistance, dimensional stability and convenient electrical properties. Composite elements and structures can be fabricated efficiently and they are cost-competitive in life-cycle assessments. An efficient use of polymeric composites in civil engineering applications requires a good understanding of their properties, advantages and constraints. Some of these features relating to fibre reinforced polymeric (FRP) composites are briefly presented and analysed in this paper.
2. ADVANTAGES OF POLYMERIC COMPOSITES IN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY

Fibre reinforced polymeric composites became an important construction material in 1950s when glass-fibre plastics (GFRP) were put in broader use and provided significant improvements in structural response and corrosion response. Over the past four decades substantial investments from private and public funds were made toward research, development, testing, fabrication and demonstration projects, [5, 12], figure 1.
a.
b.
Figure 1. Structures made of glass-fibre reinforced polyesters: a. exhibition hall in Moscow, 1959; b. curved shell roof in Iasi, 1975
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Essential characteristics and application of polymer composites in civil engineering
This was also a period of great innovation in manufacturing, assembly and repair method development. The construction industry has also become a major end user of FRP composites due to certain advantages that will be briefly discussed below. One of the most important features of FRP composites is that they usually exhibit the best qualities of their constituents and often some qualities that neither constituent possesses [7]. High specific strength is the most often mentioned advantage of FRP composites. This characteristic leads all composite light weight structures made of pultruded sections, figures 2 and 3, with improved performance and reduced energy consumption, both vitally important in the design of almost all engineering structures. The same advantage have enabled development of efficient strengthening solutions of civil engineering structures, figures 4, 5, 6 and 7, with little additional permanent loading, [13]. Table 1 gives typical densities of the most common fibre reinforced polymeric composites with common fibre volume fractions (Vf) used in civil engineering applications, [2].
Table 1. Typical densities of reinforcing bars for Vf=0.5 to 0.7 (kg/m3)
FRP Matrix Polyester Epoxy Vinyl ester
CFRP 1430-1650 1440-1670 1440-1630
AFRP 1310-1430 1320-1450 1300-1410
GFRP 1750-2170 1760-2180 1730-2150
Steel 7900
Figure 2. FRP Pultruded sections (www.strongwell.com)
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Figure 3. Light weight bridge made of FRP sections (www.fiberline.com)
Figure 4. Strengthening of a masonry wall with FRP composites[www.sika.com]
Figure 5. Masonry strengthening solutions with FRP composites[14]
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Figure 6. Strengthening of RC beams with prefabricated FRP plates and FRP wraps [CCC University of Sheffield]
Figure 7. Confinement of concrete columns with FRP composite jackets [CCC University of Sheffield]
Tailored design enables FRP composites to be designed and manufactured to meet the specific requirements of a particular application. Available design variables include: the choice of constituents (fibre and polymeric matrix), the volume fractions of fibre and matrix, the manufacturing process, fibre and layer orientation
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Figs. 8 and 9, number of layers in a specified direction, thickness of individual layers, type of layer (unidirectional or fabric) and layers stacking sequence. This vast array of design variables enables FRP composites to be designed for desired properties in specified directions without over-designing in other directions.
Figure 8. Types of fibre reinforcement for composites [15].
Figure 9. Lamina stacking [15].
Fatigue resistance of FRP composites is superior to that of most metals and metallic alloys. Their improved fatigue behaviour is explained by the complex deterioration mechanisms, Fig.10, under cyclic loading [16].
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Figure 10. Fatigue resistance of FRP composites [16]: a. Typical S-N curves for unidirectional composite b. Damaging of GFRP under repeated loading
Dimensional stability is important in structural applications in which thermal stresses can be critical. Therefore controlling the values of thermal expansion coefficients (CTE) through proper design enable composites to match these characteristics so that resulting thermal stresses can be minimized. Typical values of CTEs for the most common FRPs used in civil engineering (AFRP = aramid fibre reinforced polymers; CFRP = carbon fibre reinforced polymers, GFRP = glass fibre reinforced polymers) are given in Table 2, [9].
Table 2. Typical coefficients of thermal expansion for FRP materials (Vf=0.5-0.7) Coefficient of Thermal Expansion (x 10-6/C) Direction Steel GFRP CFRP AFRP Longitudinal,L 11.7 6.0 to 10.0 -1,0 to 0 -2.0 to -6.0 Transverse,T 21.0 to 22.0 to 60.0 to 11.7 23.0 50.0 80.0
Corrosion resistance to various chemicals is one of the most significant advantages of FRP composites. Polymeric composites can often be made essentially maintenance free as compared to traditional engineering materials. This feature makes FRPs excellent choice for structures working in corrosive environments, [4, 6, 11], figure 11.
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Figure 11. Composite stairways in chemical processing environments (left) and operating platform in corrosive environment (right) [11].
Electrical non-conductivity of some FRPs, especially glass-fibre reinforced polyesters, is an essential feature that enables the replacement of steel and aluminum elements, [11], to reduce the possibility of electrocution, figure 12.
Figure 12. Electrically non-conducting elements [11].
Electromagnetic transparency is an essential characteristic for microwave related applications Electromagnetic non-interference is required for electronic testing facilities and for radar equipment shelters, figure 13.
Figure 13. Test facilities for electronic components (left), [11], radom for radar equipment protection (right), [5].
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Formability enables FRP polymeric composites to be formed into complex, desired shapes. This makes possible efficient forms such as curved shells, folded plates, ribs and corrugations, variations in thickness and sandwiches, figure 14, enabling efficient stress distribution, appropriate stiffness and other functions.
Figure 14. Folded plate skylight (left), [12] and double curved sandwich structure, (right), [5].
Light transmission and translucency. Thin structural FRP composites can transmit a high percentage of incident light thus providing structure, enclosure and illumination, a combination unique among structural materials. These are essential features for skylights, atriums and waste water treatment facilities. Cost-effective fabrication and repair. FRP composite structures can be fabricated efficiently through the use of automated methods, with little material waste. This is in contrast to the use of metals where it is often necessary to remove large portions of the material to arrive at final configuration. Composite structures can be manufactured for simple assembly, minimum painting requirements and moderate tooling cost. FRP composite parts can often be repaired and registered and restored on-site with minimum disruption of operations. Overall cost considerations. A FRP composite element or structure can be cost competitive only if the total life time is assessed. On a per kilogram basis FRP composites are more expensive than traditional construction materials. For a realistic cost comparison other factors should be included [7]. less material is required because of higher specific strength; many times fabrication costs are lower; transportation and erection costs are generally lower for structures made of FRP composites;
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in most cases life of the composite structures will be longer than that made of traditional materials and will require less maintenance during its life span.
disadvantages OF FRP COMPOSITES IN construction industry

The use of FRP polymeric composites in construction may be sometimes obstructed due to some particularities of their behaviour, properties or due to misconceptions about the material. Lack of ductility. In many cases the yield and ultimate strengths are almost the same and they can be considered to be identical. Due to the absence of plastic flow at yield, figure 15, FRP composites are incapable of relieving stress concentrations, [3].
Stress [MPa] 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 1 2 Mild Steel 3 4 5 Strain [%] CFRP AFRP GFRP High Strength Steel
Figure 15. Stress-strain curves of FRP and steel
Different values of strength and modulus in tension and compression. Experimental work [8] has proved that compressive strengths of FRPs are lower than the tensile strengths. Compressive strengths are higher for bars with higher tensile strengths, except for AFRP bars where fibres have a nonlinear behaviour in compression even at low levels of stress. The compressive modulus of elasticity of FRP reinforcing bars is also smaller than its tensile modulus of elasticity. The compressive modulus of elasticity is about 80 % for GFRP, 85 % for CFRP and 100 % of the same products made of AFRP, [1].
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FRP composites exhibit anisotropic behaviour. Fibre reinforced polymeric composites are orthotropic when are reinforced with unidirectional fibres, woven roving and cloth. Special attention should be given to transverse properties which are mainly determined by the polymeric matrices. The mechanical properties can be affected by the rate of straining, temperature and duration of loading. In civil engineering practice it is difficult to define the rate at which loading is imposed on the structure. The effects of time and high temperature, figure 16, on the behaviour of polymeric matrix are similar, in the sense that the creep strain can be accumulated over time. High fibre volume fractions reduce these effects and decrease the creep rate. Long term high temperature exposure may cause degradation due to thermal effects. In FRP composites, low temperatures lead to matrix shrinkage and because of the relatively stiffer fibres residual stresses may arise. Except for very cold environments the induced stresses are insignificant. z
y Vf=01 =0 x (1) L
Figure 16. Variation of coefficients of thermal expansion with fibre orientation and fibre volume fraction [12]
The properties of FRP composites can be affected by environmental conditions. Some polymeric resins although may be attacked by chemical solvents or alkalis. In particular bare glass fibres can be degraded by the alkaline solutions. However suitable polymeric resins can protect the fibre and slow the diffusion process. In particular vinyl esters provide a protective barrier and FRP composites can perform well in alkaline environments [10].
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The fire effects. Fire may ignite the composite materials with organic matrices and the results of this ignition are the spread of flame on the composite surface, release of heat and generation of smoke (potentially toxic). When the polymeric resin in the outermost layer of a FRP element burns, heat-induced gasification occurs. This has an insulating effect, slowing the heat penetration in the depth of composite. The first effect of fire is to heat up the composite surface. Over the core of the composite element heated at temperatures beyond glass transition temperature, the elastic modulus of composite decreases. This loss in modulus is reversible below the temperature of chemical degradation. Effects of UV radiation. Polymeric resins are significantly affected by action of UV radiation. A long exposure to UV radiation may determine the matrix to harden and change in colour. These effects are, however, felt only on a thin surface layer and research work carried out on this topic showed that the UV effects on structural properties is minimal. Application of UV resistant coatings to the surface of FRP composite elements has a good protective influence.
3. CONCLUSIONS
The use of FRP in civil engineering applications enables engineers to obtain significant achievements in the functionality, safety and economy of construction. These materials have high ratio of strength ro density, can be tailored to posses certain mechanical characteristics, have excellent corrosion behaviour, convenient electrical, magnetic and thermal properties. On the other hand FRP composites are brittle, exhibit anisotropic behaviour and their mechanical properties may be affected by the rate of loading, temperature and environmental conditions. Therefore an efficient use of polymeric composites in construction requires a careful evaluation of all aspects involved.
References
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. ACI 440.1R.: Guide for the Design and Construction of Concrete Reinforced with FRP Bars, Reported by ACI Committee 440, 41pp, American Concrete Institute, 2001. ACI 440.2R. :Guide for the Design and Construction of Externally Bonded FRP Systems for Strengthening Concrete Structures. Reported by ACI Committee 440,45pp. American Concrete Institute, 2002 Benjamin, B.S.: Structural Design with Plastics 2nd ed. Van Nostrand, Reinhold, New York, 1981. Creative Pultrusions Pultex design manual, <www.creativepultrusions.com>, 2001. Dietz, A. G. H., Plastics for Architects and Builders, The MIT Press, Massachusetts, 1969. Fiberline: Fiberline Design Manual.<www.fiberline.de.> 1995 Herakovich, C. T.: Mechanics of Fibrous Composites. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1998
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Essential characteristics and application of polymer composites in civil engineering 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. Mallick, P. K.: Fiber Reinforced Composites, Materials, Manufacturing and Design Marcel Dekker Inc., New York, 1988 Rizkalla, S., and Mufti, A.: Reinforcing Concrete with Fibre Reinforced Polymers, ISIS Design Manual No 3, ISIS Canada, Manitoba, 2001 Sheard, P.:Composites in Construction. Frequently Encountered Misconceptions Lecture notes. University of Sheffield, 2003. Strongwell.:EXTREN fibreglass structural shapes-Design manual, Bristol, Va., <www.strongwell.com>, 1999 Taranu, N., Isopescu, D., Structures Made of Composite Materials, Vesper, Iasi, 1996. Taljsten, B., 2003, FRP Strengthening of Existing Structures. Design Guideline. Lulea University Printing Office, Lulea. Oprisan G., Taranu N., Entuc I., Strengthening of unreinforced masonry walls with composite materials, Bul. IP Iasi, Fasc.1-2, Constr. si Arhitectura, 2004, 11pp. Gurdal Z., Haftka R., Hajela P., Design and oprtimization of laminated composite materials, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1999. Hollaway L.- Polymer composites for civil and structural engineering. Chapman and Hall, Glasgow, 1993.
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ANALYSIS AND BEHAVIOUR OF A COMPOSITE SANDWICH PANEL FOR ROOF CLADDINGS

Nicolae ranu1, Dorina Isopescu2, Ioana Entuc3, Gabriel Oprisan4
1 2
Professor of Civil Engineering, Technical University of Iasi,Romania Professor of Civil Engineering, Technical University of Iasi,Romania 3 Lecturer of Civil Engineering, Technical University of Iasi,Romania 4 Lecturer of Civil Engineering, Technical University of Iasi,Romania
Summary
Sandwich panels are layered constructions consisting of dissimilar materials assembled so as to utilize the properties of each to attain functional and structural efficiency for the assembly. An experimental prototype sandwich panel made of bitumen impregnated glass mat as upper facing, polyurethane foam core and a bottom facing made of a galvanized cold formed steel sheet has been manufactured and tested at the Department of Civil Engineering of the Technical University of Iasi. The test specimen, a composite sandwich panel 6000mm long and 630mm wide, has been tested under gravity uniformly distributed transverse loads to check its suitability as roof cladding. An appropriate bending stiffness formula has been selected by the authors to determine the values of theoretical deflections and the measured deflections are in good agreement with the theoretical ones. KEYWORDS: Load-deflection curve, local buckling, flexural rigidity
1. INTRODUCTION
There is an increasing interest nowadays in the use of sandwich panels with facings made of metallic and composite materials separated by a polyurethane foam core. Sandwich panels consisting of upper composite facings and bottom steel sheet facings are presently utilized in industrial, commercial and agricultural constructions as building enclosures; therefore these elements appear to have gained a recognized use. Among their main advantages the following can be mentioned: high structural efficiency, very good thermal insulation properties, good surface finish and resistance to local deformations, ease of mass production, transportability, durability and reusability. The sandwich elements used for roof cladding should have, among other qualities, good mechanical behaviour under transverse loads from self weight and snow loading. A particular type of layered panel has been designed and manufactured in a joint research and development project carried out by the Technical University of
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Article no.36, Intersections/Intersecii, Vol.1, 2004, No.8, Composite Structures
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Analysis and behaviour of a composite sandwich panel for roof cladding
Iasi and The Research Institute for Buildings and Building Materials (ICPMC) Bucuresti in order to promote light-weight cladding elements in building industry. The panel has been tested under transverse loading on two spans. Deflection readings have been taken and compared to those determined theoretically showing a good agreement between these two sets of values.
2. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SANDWICH PANEL

The composite sandwich panel (Figure 1) has been conceived to satisfy the main functional and structural requirements for roof claddings: strength and stability, resistance to weather, durability and freedom from maintenance, fire safety, and resistance to the passage of heat and sound. The bottom facing of the panel is a 1.00mm thick galvanized profiled steel sheeting that can be fixed across purlins. It provides adequate corrosion protection and is an acceptable finish to the underside of the decking. Also the steel decking provides support for rigid polyurethane core which gives the required thermal insulation. To provide the required resistance to heat transfer a rigid polyurethane foam core 40 mm thick has been selected. A weathering membrane consisting of bitumen impregnated glass fibre mat bonded to the foam core is provided at the upper side of the panel.
Figure 1 - Sandwich panel of cold-formed galvanized steel facing and urethane foam core a bitumen impregnated mat face b urethane foam c cold-formed steel face
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N. Taranu, D. Isopescu, I. Entuc, G. Oprisan
3. THEORY. STRESSES AND DEFLECTIONS

The assumptions on which the analysis is based are the following: the Youngs modulus of the galvanized facing is much larger than that of the core, therefore this layer withstands the entire flexural stresses, and the core carries no longitudinal stresses; between the core and the steel face an adequate adhesion exists and the sandwich elements acts as an unit, being effective about a common neutral axis; the upper bitumen impregnated glass mat facing does not contribute to the flexural rigidity and may consequently be neglected; the shear stresses are mostly carried by the steel plate corrugations (unlike the sandwich panels with two flat facings);

The sandwich panel can be considered a wide composite beam and its flexural rigidity about the centroidal axis of the entire cross-section (Figure 2) is given by:
2 D = I f ,0 E f + A f 2 f E f + I s ,0 Es + As s Es
(1)
where: D If,0 Is,0 Ef, Es Af, As - flexural rigidity of the sandwich panel; - moment of inertia of the foam core about its own centroidal axis; - moment of inertia of cold formed steel facing about its centroidal axis; - elastic modulus of foam core and steel facing respectively; - cross sectional areas of foam core and cold formed steel plate; - distance from the neutral axis of panel to centroidal axis of core; -distance from neutral axis of panel to centroidal axis of the steel facing.
f s
The geometrical and mechanical characteristics introduced in the above equation were: Ef =7 N/mm2, Es =210000 N/mm2, Af =24000 mm2, As =1000 mm2, Is,0 =468000 mm4. Using formula (1) the computed flexural rigidity, D = 9828 x 107 Nmm2, the first and the second terms amount less than 0.3% of the next terms and may be neglected, because the error introduced by neglecting the foam contribution is not significant.
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s f
40 mm
if
f NA ( )
s st
foam steel
+
1 = 40,27 mm 2 = 80 mm s = 0,03 mm f = 39,7 mm 5 = 19,7 mm
60 mm
i st
Figure 2 - Notation for equation (1); (f=foam, s=steel)
The stress in the foam core and the steel face may be determined using the ordinary bending theory for the composite cross-section of the sandwich panel [1]. Assuming that the sections remain plane and perpendicular to the longitudinal axis, the strain, , at a distance from the centroidal axis (Figure 2) is:
M D
(2)
The direct stress at any level (Figure 2) may then be computed multiplying this strain by the appropriate modulus of elasticity, i.e.: a) in the steel facing under the neutral axis:
si =
M Es , when 0 < G ; D
M Es , D when 0 5 ;
(3a)
b) in steel facing above the neutral axis:
ss =
c) in the foam core:
(3b)
f =
M Ef , D
when 5 5 + 4 0mm;
(3c)
When subjected to transverse loads the two spans panel deflects in a cylindrical manner. Since the cold formed steel plate provides almost the entire flexural rigidity and the stresses are below the elastic limit, the moment curvature
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relationship can be assumed as linear. Then, moment M(x) is related to deflection y by:
M (x ) = D
d2y dx 2
(4)
in which x is the distance from the left support where the deflection y is calculated. Taking the span 2-3 (Figure 3), the bending moment at a distance x from the left support can be determined with:
5ql ql 2 qx 2 M (x ) = x 8 8 2
where q is the uniform load, and l is the span length.
(5)
By integrating equation (5) two times and using the boundary conditions, the deflections at any point at a distance x from the left support is given by:
y=
q (2 x 4 5 lx 3 + 3l 2 x 2 ) 48 D
(6)
The theoretical deflection reaches a maximum at x=0.577l, from the left support.
1
l L
ql 8
2
q x
3
3ql/8 T 3l/8
3 3l/8 8 l
3 ql 3ql/8 8
ql 2 8
Figure 3 - The scheme of testing the complete panel under a uniformly distributed load
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4. TEST PROCEDURE
Testing methodology was chosen in such a way that the behaviour of the individual panels used as roof elements under snow load could be studied. The supports were made of I or [ steel sections normally used for purlins [2]. Load increase has been selected at 200 N/m2 (Table 1). Theoretical computations have been performed to determine the direct stresses (Table 1) and deflection values (Table 2). Experimental work was performed under laboratory temperature and humidity conditions. Table 1
On the interior support Nr. Load [N/m2] Stresses, [KPa] Section with maximum positive bending moment (x=0.577 l) Stresses, [KPa]
i st
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 -11600 -23300 -34900 -46500 -58100 -69800 -81400
s st
5700 11400 17000 22700 28400 34100 39800
if
0.19 0.38 0.57 0.76 0.95 1.14 1.33
s f
0.57 1.15 1.72 2.29 2.87 3.44 4.02
i st
6500 13000 19500 26000 32600 39100 45600
s st
-3200 -6400 -9500 -12700 -15900 -19100 -22300
if
-0.11 -0.21 -0.32 -0.42 -0.53 -0.63 -0.74
s f
-0.32 -0.64 -0.96 -1.29 -1.61 -1.93 -2.25
Table 2
Nr. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Load q [N/m2] 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 Span length [mm]
l/4 [mm] 0.24 0.48 0.72 0.96 1.21 1.45 1.69
3000
Deflection at l/2 3l/4 [mm] [mm] 0.52 0.43 1.03 0.87 1.55 1.30 2.06 1.74 2.58 2.17 3.09 2.61 3.61 3.04
x=0.577 l [mm] 0.54 1.07 1.61 2.14 2.68 3.21 3.75
5. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS. CONCLUSIONS

The deflection readings were taken by means of dial indicators, having a reading precision of 0.001 mm, located as mentioned in Table 2. Load versus deflection is plotted in Figure 4, for a load step of 200 N/m2 up to 1400 N/m2. Theoretical and experimental results are also shown in Figure 4. As it can be seen there is quite a good agreement between theoretical and experimental results. Therefore, Equations (1) and (2) can be successfully used for flexural rigidity and deflection computation.
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Experimental tests under progress at the time being will bring new information on long term flexural behaviour of panels analyzed in this paper under short term uniform transverse load. q (N/m2) 3l/4 1200
Load
q (N/m2) l/4
1200
Load
800 400
800 400 0 1
y(mm)
0 1 3 2 Deflection 4
y(mm)
3 2 Deflection 4
1200
Load
q (N/m2) 0.577l
1200
Load
q (N/m2) l/2
800 400 0 2 1 Deflection
800 400 0 1 2
y(mm)
3 4
y(mm)
3 4
Deflection
Figure 4 Load versus deflection for the sandwich panel under uniformly distributed load; ( experimental, theoretical)
Local buckling of the steel sheeting has been prevented due to the support provided by the rigid foam and the beneficial effect of small longitudinal ribs formed at midway two consecutive ridge corners.
AKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research has been partly supported by a Marie Curie Fellowship of the European Community program Human Potential under contract number HPMFCT-2002-01553
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REFERENCES
[1]. ALLEN, H.G., Analysis and Design of Structural Sandwich Panels. Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1969. [2]. TARANU, N. and BUDESCU, M. Studiul comportarii unor panouri sandvis din tabla cutata si spuma poliuretanica rigida. Contract UTIasi- ICPMC Bucuresti.
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STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOUR OF SANDWICH PANELS WITH PROFILED METALLIC FACINGS AND RIGID POLYURETHANE FOAM CORE
Mihai Budescu 1, Nicolae ranu 2, Ioan Ciongradi 3, Dorina Isopescu4, Cristina Vladoiu5
Professor of Structural Engineering, Technical University of Iasi, Romania 2 Professor of Civil Engineering, Technical University of Iasi,Romania 3 Professor of Structural Engineering, Technical University of Iasi,Romania 4 Professor of Civil and Structural Engineering, Technical University of Iasi,Romania 4 Assistant lecturer of Civil Engineering, Technical University of Iasi,Romania
1
Summary
Sandwich elements obtained by combining different facing and core materials are currently utilised in roof and wall claddings as well as internal partitions. In many civil engineering applications the sandwich panels are made of flat or profiled metal facings acting compositely with a light weight core having appropriate insulating and stiffening properties. Adequate bonding between adjacent layers may be achieved by using the bonding capabilities of some rigid plastic foams or by use of adhesives at the interface facing/core. Mechanical testing has an important role in both the design and quality control of sandwich panels. Tests can be made on materials or on a complete panel. For material tests, small sandwich specimens are used, whereas loading tests are usually performed on fully-sized panel. The first part of the paper presents some comments on the experimental results of sandwich samples, cut from full size panels, loaded in tension, shear and bending. For a complete characterization of these panels, their structural behaviour must be known and, therefore, mechanical tests on full scale elements have been carried out. The paper also presents the most important results of an experimental programme carried out to prove the structural efficiency of full scale roof sandwich panels made of profiled steel facings and polyurethane core. KEYWORDS: sandwich panels, profiled metallic facings, load-deflection diagram, bending stiffness
1. INTRODUCTION
Sandwich panels with thin steel facings and polyurethane core combine the loadbearing and insulation properties of individual layers to give structurally and
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Structural behaviour of sandwich panels with profiled metallic facings and rigid polyurethane foam core
functionally efficient products. The core material must have enough strength and stiffness to contribute to the composite action and to enable the structural sandwich to carry the design loads [1]. The adhesive bond between the facings and the core must carry a shear stress equal to the shear stress in the core. Prevention of the relative slipping of facings requires a core with a sufficiently high shear modulus as well as adequate shear strength. Another important function of the core material and its adhesive bond is to prevent wrinkling and the wrinkling stress depends mainly on the stiffness properties of core. Regarding the face/core interface the following requirements must be fulfilled: the face/core interface must be able to transfer shear stresses between faces and core, to stabilize the facings against local buckling away from the core and to carry loads applied normal to the panel surface [2]. In many civil engineering applications the sandwich roof panels have a strongly profiled outer face, because the profiled facings provide significant additional loadbearing capacity to the roof units, compared to the case of flat facings. The panels studied in this experimental programme are sandwich elements with deep profiles for roof cladding. If flat theory is used for strongly profiled panels, large errors are introduced by this approximation and these errors are more important for stresses than for deflections [3]. The analysis of sandwich panels for roof cladding with deep profiles has been carried out according to the main design norms in Europe [1], but for the practical use the need of tests according to our national requirements has been considered. Therefore the load values and the loading schemes within this experimental programme have been selected according to the Romanian Standards on Actions in Construction.
2. MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SANDWICH SAMPLES

Experimental tests have been performed to determine the main mechanical properties of foam core, interface facings/core and sandwich samples made of metallic exterior layers and intermediate polyurethane foam core. These experiments have been carried out according to ASTM Standards [4,5,6] and the main conclusions are: The foaming procedure provides good adherence between steel facings and polyurethane core. All mechanical characteristics in tension, shear and bending have values that exceed those normally determined in full sized panels under working loads. Linear diagrams stress-strain for tensile and shear loading as well as load deflection curve for flexural loading, Figure 1, have been obtained in the working regime,
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M. Budescu, N. ranu , I. Ciongradi , D. Isopescu, C. Vladoiu
therefore the analysis and design formulas existing in the literature [1,2,3] can be successfully applied.
40 mm Linear (40 mm) 40 mm Linear (40 mm)
stress [N/mm2]
0.16 0.14 0.12 0.1 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.02 00 0.4
stress [N/mm2]
0.16 0.14 0.12 0.1 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.02 00
0.8
1.2
1.6
0.5
1.5
2.5
strain [%]
strain [%]
a.
force, P, [N]
600 500 400 300 200 100 0
b.
40 mm Linear (40 mm)
deflection [mm]
c. Figure 1 Characteristic diagrams of sandwich samples with polyurethane core stressstrain curve for tensile load a) shear stress-shear strain curve for shear load b) load deflection diagram for flexural bending
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3. MECHANICAL TESTING OF ROOF PANEL

This test has been performed on four roof panels 40mm thick, Figure 2, to check the overall behaviour of the roof cladding elements and has been organised in two alternatives: two span panel with symmetrical load on both spans; two span panel with load applied on one span only (this test has been carried out to determine the ultimate load bearing capacity of the panel).
Figure 2 Roof sandwich panel with metal facings and polyurethane core
4. THE EXPERIMENTAL SET UP

The experimental set up shown in Figure 3 has been utilised for the panel tests. It consists of three reinforced concrete rigid supports, located at an inter-axis distance equal to 1500mm and fixed at the bottom side with a steel angle section. A cold formed steel shape section has been mounted on each concrete support to provide fixing conditions for the tested panel similar to the one provided by roof purlins. A special support system for transducers has been designed and manufactured to avoid the errors caused by the distortion of the shape profile. The sandwich panels have been fastened to each of the three profiles with two self-drilling screws placed on the lateral folds of the central profile. LVDTs arranged as shown in Figure 3 and in the scheme included in Figure 4 have been utilised to measure the transverse deflections. The rods of the LVDTs have been fixed by means of steel wires to the studs adhesively bonded to the bottom side of the panels.
5. TESTING PROCEDURES
The test load has been achieved by ballasting successive layers of gravel filled sacks of 50N weight each. The ballasting sacks have been placed longitudinally between panel profiles in the first stage and transversely in the second stage. Each ballasting layer consists of 24 sacks placed on the two spans (equivalent to a total load equal to 1200 N or a
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distributed load of 400 N/m2). A complete record of the vertical deflections has been performed in all 12 measuring points for each loading/unloading step equal to 400 N/m2.
LVTD Panel
Purlin
Reinforced concrete support
Positioning system for LVTDs
Figure 3 - The experimental stand with a sandwich roof panel supported on purlins
Figure 4 - Testing scheme of the panels and the LVDTs positioning
6. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
The first panel has been mainly tested to characterise the overall behaviour of the structural system and the experimental work has been developed in two stages: under uniformly distributed load on both spans (experiment P1-A), Figure 5; under uniformly distributed load on one span, only (experiment P1-B), Figure 6.
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Figure 5 - The maximum ballasting load in the test P1-A
Figure 6 - The maximum ballasting load in the test P1-B
The load-maximum deflection diagrams for each span are illustrated in Figure 7 (the average values of 3, 4, 5 and 9, 10, 11 LVDTs respectively). The panel has been ballasted under a total weight equal to 6000N/m2. An identical behaviour of the panel in both spans has been noticed up to a uniform transverse load equal to 3000 N/m2; in case of loads exceeding 5500 N/m2 a decrease of the panel stiffness has been identified.
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In Figure 8 the plots of load-average deflection, for span 1 are illustrated (the average values of 3, 4, 5 and 0, 1, 2 and 6, 7, 8 LVDTs respectively). By analysing the structural response in can be pointed out that the panel behaves like a multispan beam. The deflection from the central support (right) is less than the deflection from the free end on the whole range of the testing load. When the uniformly transverse load was applied on span 1 only (experiment P1-B) the test was carried out until the panel failure. In Figure 9 the relation load-deflection in the central zone is presented whilst in Figure 10 the load-deflection relations in the lateral sides of the mid-span are illustrated (the average values recorded by LVDTs 0, 1, 2 and 6, 7, 8 respectively).
q [N/m2]
7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 0 2 4 6 8 Span 2 Span 1
w [mm]
Figure 7- The load-deflection relation with average values at mid-span (P1-A)

7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000
q [N/m2]
Span 1 Span 1 - left Span 1 - right

0 2 4 6 8 w [mm]
Figure 8 - The load-deflection relations with average values at mid-span and laterally left and right respectively (P1-A)
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14000 12000 10000 8000 6000 4000
q [N/m2]
Tm(3,4,5) 2000
w [mm]
0 0 5 10 15 20
Figure 9 - Load-deflection relation for the average values at mid span 1 (P1-B)
From the analysis of the two structural responses on the sides of the central zone an insignificant difference between the measured deflections has been found out and the ensemble could be considered as a simple supported system on the internal support. This assumption is currently accepted when the ultimate load capacity of the panel is evaluated. Such a behaviour can be explained from the previous loading step in the experiment P1-A. The panel failure has been initiated by the buckling of the compressed (upper) profiled facing when the uniform load exceeded 1100 N/m2.
14000 12000 10000 8000 6000 4000 2000 0 0 5 10 15 20
q [N/m2]
Tm(3, 4, 5) Tm(0, 1, 2) Tm(6, 7, 8)
w [mm]
Figure 10 - Load-deflection relation for the average values at mid-span and lateral strips left, right (P1-B)
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The load-average deflection relation at the middle of each span, for the experiment P1-A together with the linear function defined by experimental values is presented in Figure 11.
6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 W average 1000 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 Linear (w average)
q [N/m2]
y = 1017.6x
w [mm]
6
Figure 11 - Relation load-average deflection for the two spans (P1-A)
7. COMMENTARY ON THE EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS ON FULL SCALE PANELS

The mechanical tests on roof panels have been performed on 40 mm thick elements with two spans of 1.50 m and loading applied in two different modes. These experiments have lead to the following main results and commnents: Up to a certain load, the panel behaves similarly to a continuous beam on three supports. When that load value is exceeded the panel stiffness decreases, the relation transverse loading deflection becomes curvilinear and the panel can be considered simple supported on the internal supports. This assumption is frequently utilised to calculate sandwich panels at the ultimate limit state [1, 3]. The panel failure is caused by the local buckling of the upper profiled metal facing; failure occurs at a load value twice the load causing a deflection equal to the allowable one, namely L/250. It must also be mentioned that the allowable deflection varies from L/250 and L/100 depending on the loading type and the location of the sandwich panel on the roof surface. The test under successive loading-unloading cycles up to the allowable deflection have proven that the change in stiffness is insignificant, there are no irreversible deformations (they have no plastic behaviour) and, in general, the permanent deformations vanish within 30 minutes after unloading.
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8. CONCLUSIONS
The laboratory tests on sandwich samples are mainly used for quality assurance of sandwich elements. They characterise, in principal, the core properties and the facing/core interface bonding. A slight variation in the values of mechanical properties of core with respect to foam density and depth of panels has been noticed. The stress-strain curves in all loading cases are almost linear in the range of working stresses. The experimental tests performed in laboratory conditions and on full size panels under service load conditions have revealed that: The panels loaded up to the intensity which causes the most severe allowable deflections (L/250) have a good behaviour, namely a linear load-deflection, a constant bending stiffness and no permanent deformations. The design hypotheses have been verified, namely simple supported panel for the analysis at the ultimate limit state and continuous panel for the analysis at the serviceability limit state.
AKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research has been partly supported by a Marie Curie Fellowship of the European Community program Human Potential under contract number HPMFCT-2002-01553.
References
1. European Recommendations for Sandwich Panels. Part I: Design. CIB ReportPublication 257, International Council for Research and Innovation in Building and Construction, Rotterdam, 2000 2. Taranu, N., and Isopescu, D., Structures made of composite materials. Vesper, Iasi,1996. 3. Davies J.M. Ed Lightweight sandwich construction. Blackwell Science, Oxford, 2001 4. ASTM C 297 1999 - Standard method for flatwise tensile strength of sandwich constructions. 5. ASTM C 273 2000 - Standard test method for shear properties of sandwich core materials. 6. ASTM C 393 2000 - Standard test method for flexural properties of sandwich constructions.
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ISSN 1582 - 3024

Volume 1, No.8, 2004

"Matei - Teiu Botez"

Intersections/Intersecii, Vol.1, No.8, 2004

composites in civil engineering

T Essential characteristics and applications of polymer

T Analysis and behaviour of a composite sandwich panel for

by Nicolae ranu, Dorina Isopescu, Ioana Entuc, Gabriel Oprisan

facings and rigid polyurethane foam core

T Structural behaviour of sandwich panels with profiled metallic

Intersections/Intersecii, Vol.1, No8, 2004

Essential characteristics and applications of polymer composites in civil engineering

KEY WORDS: fibre reinforced, polymeric composites, advantages, constraints, applications .

Article no.24, Intersections/Intersecii, Vol.1, 2004, Nr.8, Composite Structures

N. Taranu, K. Pilakoutas, M.A. Ciupal, D. Isopescu, G. Oprisan

2. ADVANTAGES OF POLYMERIC COMPOSITES IN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY

Article no.24, Intersections/Intersecii, Vol.1, 2004, Nr.8, Composite Structures

Essential characteristics and application of polymer composites in civil engineering

FRP Matrix Polyester Epoxy Vinyl ester

CFRP 1430-1650 1440-1670 1440-1630

AFRP 1310-1430 1320-1450 1300-1410

GFRP 1750-2170 1760-2180 1730-2150

Figure 2. FRP Pultruded sections (www.strongwell.com)

Article no.24, Intersections/Intersecii, Vol.1, 2004, Nr.8, Composite Structures

N. Taranu, K. Pilakoutas, M.A. Ciupal, D. Isopescu, G. Oprisan

Figure 3. Light weight bridge made of FRP sections (www.fiberline.com)

Figure 4. Strengthening of a masonry wall with FRP composites[www.sika.com]

Figure 5. Masonry strengthening solutions with FRP composites[14]

Article no.24, Intersections/Intersecii, Vol.1, 2004, Nr.8, Composite Structures

Essential characteristics and application of polymer composites in civil engineering

Article no.24, Intersections/Intersecii, Vol.1, 2004, Nr.8, Composite Structures

N. Taranu, K. Pilakoutas, M.A. Ciupal, D. Isopescu, G. Oprisan

Figure 8. Types of fibre reinforcement for composites [15].

Figure 9. Lamina stacking [15].

Article no.24, Intersections/Intersecii, Vol.1, 2004, Nr.8, Composite Structures

Essential characteristics and application of polymer composites in civil engineering

Article no.24, Intersections/Intersecii, Vol.1, 2004, Nr.8, Composite Structures

N. Taranu, K. Pilakoutas, M.A. Ciupal, D. Isopescu, G. Oprisan

Figure 12. Electrically non-conducting elements [11].

Article no.24, Intersections/Intersecii, Vol.1, 2004, Nr.8, Composite Structures

Essential characteristics and application of polymer composites in civil engineering

Article no.24, Intersections/Intersecii, Vol.1, 2004, Nr.8, Composite Structures

N. Taranu, K. Pilakoutas, M.A. Ciupal, D. Isopescu, G. Oprisan

disadvantages OF FRP COMPOSITES IN construction industry

Figure 15. Stress-strain curves of FRP and steel

Article no.24, Intersections/Intersecii, Vol.1, 2004, Nr.8, Composite Structures

Essential characteristics and application of polymer composites in civil engineering

Article no.24, Intersections/Intersecii, Vol.1, 2004, Nr.8, Composite Structures

N. Taranu, K. Pilakoutas, M.A. Ciupal, D. Isopescu, G. Oprisan

Article no.24, Intersections/Intersecii, Vol.1, 2004, Nr.8, Composite Structures

Article no.24, Intersections/Intersecii, Vol.1, 2004, Nr.8, Composite Structures

ANALYSIS AND BEHAVIOUR OF A COMPOSITE SANDWICH PANEL FOR ROOF CLADDINGS

Article no.36, Intersections/Intersecii, Vol.1, 2004, No.8, Composite Structures

Analysis and behaviour of a composite sandwich panel for roof cladding

2. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SANDWICH PANEL

Article no.36, Intersections/Intersecii, Vol.1, 2004, No.8, Composite Structures

N. Taranu, D. Isopescu, I. Entuc, G. Oprisan

3. THEORY. STRESSES AND DEFLECTIONS

Article no.36, Intersections/Intersecii, Vol.1, 2004, No.8, Composite Structures

Analysis and behaviour of a composite sandwich panel for roof cladding

1 = 40,27 mm 2 = 80 mm s = 0,03 mm f = 39,7 mm 5 = 19,7 mm

Figure 2 - Notation for equation (1); (f=foam, s=steel)