Reprinted from

& Galanes, G. J. (2012). Small Group Communication (8th ed) Boston McGra Hill
Compames, Inc. w-
J GLOSSARY J
I
! Thinking
Encouraging use of
hunch, intuition,
insight, and fan-
tasy to promote
creativity
What Is Creative Thinking?
Typically, when we think about the dynamics of problem solving in groups, we focus only
on work that is rational, logical, and critical to the process and neglect creativity. In Chap-
ter 5 we showed that creativity is an important component of working with diversity. We
saw it as members converged symbolically on central, unifying fantasy themes and as a
necessary part of mindful communication. Members have to be open to the innovative
possibilities difference can bring to a group. A group can overcome an impasse by coming
up with an unusual or novel solution to any number of task or social issues in the group.
Creativity "involves the generation, application, combination, and extension of new ideas."
1
Creative thinking is fostered in small groups when members use imagination, intuition,
hunches, insight, and fantasy to devise unusual or innovative solutions that probably would
not emerge from ordinary group discussion. Contrary to the popular myth of the solitary
genius working alone, groups produce many of today's creative ideas and innovations.
2
American business and industry, in particular, recognize how important creativity and
innovation are to their success and have focused on how to enhance creative processes.
An investigation of more than 2,000 senior managers from around the world found four
factors related to an organization's ability to innovate: how much support there is for
risk taking, how much tolerance there is for making mistakes, how effectively members
can work together as a team, and how quickly decisions can be implemented.
3
A team's
climate is especially important, particularly support for innovation and task orientation,
or the ability to get things done.
1
Creative thinking in groups helps us invent better, less
expensive products or services that improve our lives. How to enhance that creativity is
important for you to understand.
Group creativity involves both divergent and convergent thinking, each requiring slightly
differe1;1t communication behaviors to succeed.
5
During divergent thinking, ideas should
vary-members must think as differently as possible from one another so the team will have
a wide array of options from which to choose. Quantity of ideas and breadth of thinking are
important. A climate of safety is essential for divergent thinking because members must feel
safe in the team to be willing to share new and perhaps crazy ideas. Being overly critical at this
point stifles creativity. For example, in one study of an electronic problem-solving group, the
group's leader gave members feedback privately via computer; even this feedback, designed
to motivate, was interpreted as critical and choked group creativity.
6
However, at some point
members must select the best ideas or converge them in ways that will actually work. Dur-
ing this phase "constructive debate" among members helps them identify the best ideas and
eliminate the less useful ones.
7
Too much emphasis on harmony prevents the group from
weeding out unworkable ideas.
For a group to be creative, both individual and group creativity are needed. Creative in-
dividuals tolerate ambiguity, have low levels of communication apprehension, and aren't
afraid to violate societal norms and rules (think of the student whose hair is dyed purple).
8
They don't fear rejection by others, are open to new ideas, and like to play and have fun.
As important as individual creativity is, however, group creativity is just as important.
Creative and Critical Thinking in the Small Group
That is why a friend of ours structures her group meetings so that they will feel like
parties-she reasons that people are more creative when they are relaxed and having a
good time. She makes sure food is served, people are introduced, and no one feels left out.
Ironically, she works hard to help others have fun so that members' potential for creativity
isn't derailed by the group's own norms and processes.
Bernard Nijstad and Paul Paulus synthesized considerable research on group creativity
and grouped tfie factors influencing group creativity into four areas.
9
First, creative groups
are diverse. Members bring a variety of skills, knowledge, problem-solving approaches, and
perspectives to the table. Group diversity doesn't guarantee creative thinking-some groups
cannot overcome the challenges that diversity brings (we discuss some of these in Chap-
ter 5). In general "though" heterogeneous groups produce more diverse ideas. Second,
creative groups structure their discussions to enhance not lose their creative potential. Be
mindful, however, because both individuals and groups prefer closure, or completing discus-
sion, because they fear being judged, grow tired during and after intense discussions, or feel
pushed to make a decision.
10
Stay alert to premature closure tendencies by avoiding early
"Never, ever, think outside the box. "
Despite any hesitations we may have about being creative in groups, creative thinking is
essential. The New Yorker Collection; 1998 Leo Cullum from cartoonbank.com. All Rights
Reserved.
159
160 CHAPTER 6
consensus and refraining from pressuring others to conform. We saw in Chapter 5 that in
heterogeneous groups it takes time for members to understand and appreciate one another's
special contributions. Alert, mindful groups must do two things: encourage diverse ideas
and help each orher mutually understand what connects all these diverse ideas. A multi-
tude of different ideas is worthless to a group unless members can help each other see rhe
similarities connecting those ideas.
11
Third, the importance of a group's climate cannot be
overemphasized. Human communication, we learned in Chapter 3, is about both content
and relationship messages. Both in what they do and how rhey do it, members can facilitate
a climate of openness to new ideas, high levels of trust, and a willingness to disagree with
respect. However, balance is important, because developing extreme levels of cohesiveness
increases rhe potential for groupthink, introduced in Chapter 4. During periods of diver-
gent rhinking is the best time uncritically to encourage unusual ideas; during convergent
thinking, members should encourage constructive debate. Finally, a group's creativity is
affected by the environment in which it operates. If a group's parent organization doesn't
value creativity or won't allow the group to operate with some autonomy, group creativity
will be hurt. Table 6.1 summarizes the individual, group, and environmental characteristics
that promote both individual and group creativity.
I
TABLE 6.1
MEMBERS
Individual, Group, and Environmental Factors
That Promote Creative Thinking
Are willing to communicate
Are willing to be unconventional and violate societal norms
Tolerate ambiguity
Are not afraid of rejection
Are open to new ideas
Are playful and like to have fun
GROUPS
Have diverse knowledge, skills, perspectives, approaches
Work to overcome norms that interfere with creativity (premature consensus,
pressures to conform, groupthink) and promote norms that foster creativity
(take time to learn each other's unique contributions, encourage sharing of
diverse ideas)
Develop an appropriate group climate (foster trust, encourage constructive
debate)
ENVIRONMENT
Place high value on creativity
Give the group autonomy and room to breathe
Creative and Critical Thinking in the Small Group
Creative thinking is always appropriate, yet it is especially useful at the beginning of
a group's problem-solving process. An ideal time to use creativity-enhancing procedures
is after members have learned something about a problem but before they delve into the
details. Members can create a number of innovative ideas that they later can examine
carefully and critically. Creative processes can take time, so reserve this kind of thinking
for important
Enhancing Group Creativity
At some point groups will be faced with the task of discovering a creative solution to a
problem-an idea for a new product, an eye-catching print advertising campaign, a way to
bridge two very different perspectives on the problem, a novel group presentation that will
earn an A, or an innovative way to build a safe greenway across a busy expressway. The group
may need to be shocked out of its habitual ways of thinking to find a creative idea. You can
use brainstorming, synectics, or mind mapping to help a group tap its creative potential.
Creative Fund-Raising for the College
Several years ago, members of the Advisory Council of the College of Arts
and letters where one of us works met to discuss creative fund-raising
ideas to enhance the college's endowment for student scholarships. One
council member mentioned a combination lecture/dinner fund-raiser a
museum in New York City had initiated, which had become a highly
successful event. Members began to talk about ways that event could be
modified to work in Springfield, Missouri. They decided to have faculty
give presentations or performances based on their expertise, combined
with a dinner at one of the council member's homes. For instance, a
film professor followed his lecture about a particular film director with a
special showing of one of the director's lesser-known films, followed by
dinner. Another professor gave a brief piano concert followed by an elab-
orate dessert. These events, known as the A La Carte Series, have become
so successful that the college has a long list of volunteers wanting to host
one of the dinners. In addition, the events sell out quickly, sometimes the
first day that tickets become available. This is an example of how a group
can modify an existing idea to arrive at something unique. Before you
read further in this chapter, address the followingquestions:
1. What communication behaviors and skills would group members
have to demonstrate to encourage the kind of creativity demon-
strated by the advisory council?
2. What member behaviors would interfere with this kind of creativity?
3. What group rules, norms, and procedures would support this
type of creativity?
4. What group norms would interfere?
161
162 CHAPTER 6
FIGURE 6.1 Guidelines for Brainstorming
1 . Group previews
the rules for
brainstorming. -
For more
information on
using the Internet
to brainstorm,
go to the Online
Learning Center at
www.mhhe.com/
adamsgalanes8e
l
I
I A procedure
I designed to top
1 members' creativity
by asking them to
generate as many
ideas as possible
without evaluation
2 .. proop is
with o problerri to

:l .. ;:;;

BRAINSTORMING

any fi'ifkism.
Many groups use brainstorming, a procedure designed especially to release a group's
creativity.
12
Brainstorming is a popular technique used often when groups are generating
ideas. Brainstorming consciously separates idea creation from idea evaluation by notal-
lowing any criticism to occur while the group is generating ideas. Years of research into
the practice has helped us understand how to use it effectively to help groups generate
ideas and avoid group tendencies to dose off discussion prematurely. Two measures help
ensure quantity and quality of ideas: If you have the time, allow members to generate
ideas initially alone and then to the group and follow tested rules for getting the most out
of this technique.
13
Later, the group evaluates the ideas, combines or modifies them, and
selects the best ones. The basic procedure is described below. Figure 6.1 summarizes these
brainstorming guidelines.
1. Any technique used to promote creative thinking does not just happen. You need to
preview the spirit of the procedure before beginning the process in an effort to avoid
both individual and group tendencies toward premature closure. The best way to
do this is to set the scene by calling for alert, conscious participation and reviewing
the stages of brainstorming and the rules members will be expected to follow and
monitor.
2. The group now is ready to turn its focus on a problem to solve. The problem can
range from something specific and concrete ("How can we raise more money for
student scholarships?") to something abstract and intangible ("How can we im-
prove the quality of work life for employees?").
3. Members are encouraged to come up with as many solutions as possible to the
problem. Quantity is the goal here, and several rules must be followed. Most im-
portantly no evaluation is during brainstorming. With judgment tempo-
rarily suspended, members are encouraged to turn their imaginations loose, to let
wild and crazy ideas surface, to build on each other's ideas, to combine ideas, and
to strive for more and more suggestions. Second, do not stop generating ideas too
soon. Often, the best ideas-the ones a group eventually selects-are listed during
the latter part of the brainstorming session.
14
Third, groups must stay focused on
the task of generating ideas. The best brainstorming occurs when the fewest words
are spoken. This means avoid storytelling tangents and explanations of ideas-the
gist of the idea is what you are after. Fourth, during lulls in discussion, keep gener-
ating ideas by encouraging more or reviewing the categories developed earlier in the
Creative and Critical Thinking in the Small Group
discussion. Good brainstorming occurs when members follow its rules in an effort
to stay focused and minimize evaluation.
15
4. All ideas are recorded so that the whole group can see them. Usually, the group's re-
corder will write ideas on a large pad of paper. How the ideas are recorded, on paper
or electronically, is not as important as all group members being able to see the ideas.
Seeing ideas often triggers other ideas and prevents premature closure of the creative
process.iG
5. The ideas are evaluated at another session. Just because brainstorming requires
temporarily suspending critical evaluation does not mean critical thinking is
unimportant. Also, incubation is an important feature of creative thinking allowing
for the diverse ideas to find their connection. After brainstorming has generated a
lot of ideas and the group has had a chance to let the ideas sit for a while, critical
thinking is used to evaluate each idea and to modify or combine ideas into workable
solutions to the problem.
The basic brainstorming technique has several variations. Often groups have one or
two vocal people who are highly creative, share many innovative ideas, and intimidate
others into not participating. In this case it may be more productive for each person to
brainstorm silently rather than openly in a group. In this form of brainstorming, called
brainwriting, each person quietly records as many new and different solutions as possible.
Then each person shares one new idea, round-robin fashion, as the facilitator posts it for
all to see. The sharing continues until all ideas have been posted. Members are encouraged
to add to the list as new ideas occur to them.
Both brainwriting and brainstorming is work, and members can become tired. When
this happens their ideas decrease and they tend to get stuck on similar ideas and idea cat-
egories.17 Hamit Coskun suggests that when your group begins to show signs of fatigue or
premature convergence, take a break from the task and complete a divergent thinking ac-
tivity unrelated to the problem at hand. This can be as simple as throwing out a list of fun
terms and asking members to generate opposite terms. The key is to take a mental break
so members can get back to divergent thinking mode. After the activity is completed,
move back into the brainstorming or brainwriting task.
Electronic brainstorming, another variation, has proven useful in addressing the fac-
tors that can lead face-to-face groups into early convergence or premature closure. The
anonymity can help prevent individuals from censoring themselves. In this variation each
group member sits at an individual computer terminal (all of which may be in the same
room) and types out her or his ideas. The ideas are posted onto a large screen visible to
everyone, so the group can keep track of previous remarks. In addition, members who
may tend to remain quiet in face-to-face group interaction it easier to contribute
online, and members do not have to deal with the fatigue or frustrations that can come
from people talking all at once.
18
Because no one knows who contributed what, electronic
brainstorming, especially with 8- to 1 0-member groups, often generates more and better
ideas than traditional brainstorming.
19
SYNECTICS
Synectics is a technique that stimulates thinking in metaphors and analogies.
20
Why is
that important to creativity? Consider the example of how Velcro was created. One day
163
I
Synectics
A procedure de-
signed to stimulate
creative thinking by
using metaphors
and looking for
similarities in differ-
ent things
164 CHAPTER 6
after a walk, Swiss engineer George de Mestral noticed cockleburs stuck to his jacket.
21
Examining one under a microscope, he observed how the hooks latched onto the fabric,
and saw its potential as a hook-and-loop fastener. It took him eight years to develop and
perfect, but today Velcro turns up everywhere, from shoes to children's clothing to camp-
ing equipment. The cockleburs served as the nature-based analogy, or metaphor, for the
manufactured fastener.
Serendipity helped de Mestral link burrs from the natural world to this new kind of
manufactured fastener. The synectics technique tries to stimulate such chance connec-
tions between apparently unrelated elements. First, the group identifies the essence of
the problem. For instance, "sticking together" could have been the metaphor that led
to Velcro: "How can I create a fastener that sticks together like burrs do to clothing?"
Second, the group is asked to create analogies that capture that essence. For instance,
group members might ask, "Where in everyday life do we find things that stick together?"
Answers could include things like burrs, gooey stuff from plants, white glue, and zippers.
Creating Suggestions for Crossing Kansas Expressway
Ozarks Greenways, Inc., had to come up with a solution to the following
problem. Land had been acquired on either side of busy Kansas Express-
way for a greenway, a bicycle and hiking path to link Springfield with
Wilson's Creek Battlefield. However, there was no traffic light where the
land reached the expressway, and the city had no plans to put a light
there. Your task is to come up with a solution for the greenway that will
keep bikers and hikers moving and that will be safe and inexpensive.
Divide the class into groups of five or six. Appoint a facilitator to re-
cord suggestions and make sure the group follows the "no criticism"
rule. Ask each group to brainstorm a list of suggestions for the greenway
problem. The groups should brainstorm for 1 0 minutes and think of as
many suggestions as possible. At the end of the period, all the sugges-
tions should be posted at the front of the class so that all can see. The
class should then address the following questions:
1. Was it easy or difficult to follow the brainstorming rules? What
was the hardest to do?
2. How did members feel during the process?
3. What do members remember thinking during the process?
4. Did anything stand in the way of being imaginative and hav-
ing fun? If so, how might the process be modified to encourage
more imagination and fun?
As an alternative to this exercise, some groups can brainstorm in the
traditional way while others use brainwriting. If this is done, class mem-
bers can compare the efficacy of each technique. Groups can also use a
facilitator to help members stick to the brainstorming rules.
Creative and Critical Thinking in the Small Group
Finally, group members look for metaphors or analogies that use a different sensory per-
ception than the one being observed. For example, if the analogy relates to touch, such as
the cocklebur example, members might be asked to think of a visual or hearing metaphor.
A visual metaphor could include a fishhook; an auditory metaphor might include the
sound of a zipper closing and opening. A different kind of metaphor could be just the
thing producing the "aha" insight that leads to a solution. Asking the group to consider
the following questions helps trigger such insights.
1. Change your perspective. Sometimes, changing the angle from which you view a
problem gives you a different insight. For example, if you are an Ozarks Greenways
member, imagine that you are Superman and can view the city's streets from above.
2. Look for a direct comparison, something from another field that is similar to your
problem. This is exactly what happened in the Velcro example-the physical at-
tachment of the burrs provided the idea for this new type of fastener.
3. Temporarily suspend reality to use fantasy and imagination. Ignore objective reality
for a moment to learn what you can discover. Imagine that your bicycle has wings
and can fly over Kansas Expressway to solve the greenway problem.
Synectics may seem strange at first because it forces group members to jump out of
their self-imposed conceptual boxes and stimulate rather than reduce ambiguity, but
that's exactly why it works. Some corporations, such as General Electric, deliberately
send groups of employees away from their normal work settings to jolt them out of
possible ruts so they can come up with new ideas.
22
In one such group meeting between
GE middle managers and colonels from the Army War College, GE's long-standing rule
about having to be number one or two in every business it entered or product it pro-
duced was challenged. One of the colonels asked whether that rule caused the company
to miss profitable opportunities. His statement produced an instant "aha" reaction from
the GE managers, who recognized that they dismissed good ideas if those ideas wouldn't
lead to the top market share. The managers were able to persuade CEO Jack Welch (now
retired) to rethink the "GE must be Number 1 or 2" rule. The limitations of this rule
would never have been questioned from the safety of the GE home base-the executives
needed to be in a new setting to see things from a different perspective. This is exactly
what synectics promotes.
MIND MAPPING
Mind mapping is a technique that tries to jolt a group out of linear ways of thinking by
encouraging the radiant thinking produced by free association.
23
Radiant thinking can
lead to insights that linear thinking misses. Developed as a technique to foster individual
creativity, the technique has also been adapted for small groups.
24
In mind mapping a
facilitator places a word or phrase that is the essence of the problem in the center of a large
sheet of paper or a white board for all group members to see. That central concept forms
the nucleus for the spin-offs that group members will add. Sometimes a facilitator adds
the connections as instructed by group members, but often group members themselves
use colored markers to print or draw the phrases, ideas, or concepts they associate with
the central concept. The final mind map looks like colorful multiple branches of a tree
shooting off from the central idea. Because the branches are more like a web than a line,
group members often see connections they might otherwise miss.
165

I Mind Mapping
' A technique encour- 1
aging radiant think- j
ing produced by
free association
166 CHAPTER 6
FIGURE 6.2 Model of Mind Mapping Crossing Kamas Expressway
about
an overpass?"
For instance, assume you belong to the Ozarks Greenways group trying to find a safe
way to cross Kansas Expressway without asking bikers to stop for traffic. The facilitator
prints the phrase "Crossing Kansas Expressway" in the center of the sheet and draws a
circle around it. (As an alternative, a line drawing of a busy highway could be placed in
the center.) Each member then adds his or her mental associations to this central idea.
One member connects a bicycle with wings to the central concept. Another draws an arch
spanning the busy highway. A third member connects "stop light" to the central idea.
Someone else connects the words "annoying" and "interfering with the flow" to the "stop
light." The picture of the winged bicycle next to the arch suggests to yet another member
the idea of constructing an overpass that would allow bikers to cross without stopping. In
fact, construction of an overpass was the solution chosen by Ozarks Greenways, Inc. (see
Figure 6.2).
Mind mapping can be a lot of fun, particularly if members draw their associations using
colored markers. The process taps into members' creativity by encouraging them to make
visual connections they otherwise would miss. In addition, drawing is different enough
from what groups usually do that members enjoy the process.
As with brainstorming, members should not criticize the associations that appear on
the mind map. As the group mind map is being developed, members need to feel men-
tally and emotionally uninhibited so they can make unusual connections. Fear of being
ridiculed or criticized could make them feel self-conscious. After the mind map has been
developed, members can begin to evaluate the ideas on the map.
Creative thinking plays a significant role in group problem solving. Groups trained
in creative thinking have been found to show more humor and to have higher rates of
Creative and Critical Thinking in the Small Group
participation than those not trained to think creatively. Members of such groups support
more ideas and criticize less, both of which are important to creative thinking.
25
Creativity in group members and group processes is essential to productivity and ef-
fective problem solving, and it must work alongside critical thinking. Critical thinking,
like creative thinking, is found both within individuals and in a group's norms. Critical
thinking involves careful and systematic examination of the information used by the group.
have to be critically assessed, as do the potential solutions the
group derives. Surprisingly, groups have more problems being critical than being creative,
which can have dire consequences. Failure to be critical is more dangerous than failure to
be creative, because it can lead to groupthink, discussed in Chapter 4. Group problem
solving can be effective because several heads are potentially better than one. However,
simply placing divergent talents and perspectives in a group does not make critical thinking
happen! Groups are notorious for not being vigilant or critical in their discussions because
tend to each other and also develop their own
167