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Lymphatic system
Lymphatic system
Lymphatic System blood, but is moved mostly by the contractions of skeletal muscles. The lymphatic system has three interrelated functions. It is responsible for the removal of interstitial fluid from tissues. It absorbs and transports fatty acids and fats as chyle to the circulatory system. The last function of the lymphatic system is the transport of antigen presenting cells (APCs), such as dendritic cells, to the lymph nodes where an immune response is stimulated. The study of lymphatic drainage of various organs is important in diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment of cancer. The lymphatic system, because of its physical proximity to many tissues of the body, is responsible for carrying cancerous cells between the various parts of the body in a process called metastasis. The intervening lymph nodes can trap the cancer cells. If they are not successful in destroying the cancer cells the nodes may become sites of secondary tumors. Diseases and other problems of the lymphatic system can cause swelling and other symptoms. Problems with the system can impair the bodys ability to fight infections.
Organization
The lymphatic system can be broadly divided into the conducting system and the lymphoid tissue. The conducting system carries the lymph and consists of tubular vessels that include the lymph capillaries, the lymph vessels and the right and the thoracic ducts. The lymphoid tissue is primarily involved in immune responses and consists of lymphocytes and other white blood cells enmeshed in connective tissue through which the lymph passes. Regions of the lymphoid tissue that are densely packed with lymphocytes are known as lymphoid follicles. Lymphoid tissue can either be structurally well organized as lymph nodes or may consist of loosely organized lymphoid follicles known as the mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue.
The lymphatic system in vertebrates is a network of conduits that carry a clear fluid called lymph. It also includes the lymphoid tissue through which the lymph travels. Lymphoid tissue is found in many organs, particularly the lymph nodes, and in the lymphoid follicles associated with the digestive system such as the tonsils. The system also includes all the structures dedicated to the circulation and production of lymphocytes, which includes the spleen, thymus, bone marrow and the lymphoid tissue associated with the digestive system.[1] The lymphatic system as we know it today was first described independently by Olaus Rudbeck and Thomas Bartholin. The dissolved constituents of the blood do not directly come in contact with the cells and tissues in the body, but first enter the interstitial fluid, and then the cells of the body. Lymph is the fluid that is formed when interstitial fluid enters the conduits of the lymphatic system. The lymph is not pumped through the body like
Formation of lymph
Blood supplies nutrients and important metabolites to the tissues, and collects back the waste products that they produce, which requires exchange of respective constituents between the blood and tissues. This exchange is not direct, however, and is effected through an intermediary called interstitial fluid or tissue fluid that the blood forms. Interstitial fluid (ISF) is the fluid that
Lymphatic system
includes the gut-associated lymphoid tissues and the tonsils.
Lymphoid tissue
Lymphoid tissue associated with the lymphatic system is concerned with immune functions in defending the body against the infections and spread of tumors. It consists of connective tissue with various types of white blood cells enmeshed in it, most numerous being the lymphocytes. The lymphoid tissue may be primary, secondary, or tertiary depending upon the stage of lymphocyte development and maturation it is involved in. Primary (central) lymphoid tissues serve to generate mature virgin lymphocytes from immature progenitor cells. Secondary (peripheral) lymphoid tissues provide a place where lymphocytes can talk to each other; an environment for antigen focusing, where lymphocytes can study an antigen and sharpen up the immune response by clonal expansion and affinity maturation; and provide a home for lymphocytes, where they can be available when they are needed. The thymus and the bone marrow constitute the primary lymphoid tissues involved in the production and early selection of lymphocytes. Secondary lymphoid tissue provides the environment for the foreign or altered native molecules (antigens) to interact with the lymphocytes. It is exemplified by the lymph nodes, and the lymphoid follicles in tonsils, Peyers patches, etc. that are associated with the mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT). The tertiary lymphoid tissue typically contains much fewer lymphocytes, and assumes an immune role only when challenged with antigens that result in inflammation. It achieves this by importing the lymphocytes from blood and lymph.[3]
Formation of interstitial fluid from blood occupies the spaces between the cells and acts as their immediate environment. As the blood and the surrounding cells continually add and remove substances from the ISF, its composition keeps on changing. Water and solutes can freely pass (diffuse) between the ISF and blood, and thus both are in dynamic equilibrium with each other; exchange between the two fluids occurs across the walls of small blood vessels called capillaries.
Formation of lymph from interstitial fluid (labeled here as "Tissue fluid"). Note: how the tissue fluid is entering the blind ends of lymph capillaries (shown as deep green arrows) ISF forms at the arterial (coming from the heart) end of the capillaries because of higher pressure of blood, and most of it returns to its venous ends and venules; the rest (1020%) enters the lymph capillaries as lymph.[1] Thus, lymph when formed is a watery clear liquid with the same composition as the ISF. As it flows through the lymph nodes, however, it comes in contact with blood and tends to accumulate more cells (particularly lymphocytes) and proteins.[2] The two primary lymph systems are the thymus gland and the bone marrow, where the immune cells form or mature. The secondary lymph system is made up of encapsulated and unencapsulated diffuse lymphoid tissue. The encapsulated tissue includes the spleen and the lymph nodes. The unencapsulated tissue
Lymph nodes
For more details on this topic, see lymph node.
A lymph node showing afferent and efferent lymphatic vessels A lymph node is an organized collection of lymphoid tissue, through which the lymph passes on its way to returning to the blood. Lymph nodes are located at intervals along the lymphatic system. Several afferent lymph
Lymphatic system
muscles that are arranged in a circular fashion around the endothelium, which by shortening (contracting) or relaxing alter the diameter (caliber) of the lumen. The outermost layer is the adventitia that consists of fibrous tissue. The general structure described here is seen only in larger lymphatics; smaller lymphatics have fewer layers. The smallest vessels (lymphatic or lymph capillaries) lack both the muscular layer and the outer adventitia. As they proceed forward and in their course are joined by other capillaries, they grow larger and first take on an adventitia, and then smooth muscles. The whole lymphatic conducting system broadly consists of two types of channelsthe initial lymphatics, the prelymphatics or lymph capillaries that specialize in collection of the lymph from the ISF, and the larger lymph vessels that propel the lymph forward. Unlike the cardiovascular system, the lymphatic system is not closed and has no central pump. Lymph movement occurs despite low pressure due to peristalsis (propulsion of the lymph due to alternate contraction and relaxation of smooth muscle), valves, and compression during contraction of adjacent skeletal muscle and arterial pulsation.[6]
Lymph capillaries
The lymphatic circulation begins with blind ending (closed at one end) highly permeable superficial lymph capillaries, formed by endothelial cells with button-like junctions between them that allow fluid to pass through them when the interstitial pressure is sufficiently high.[7] These button-like junctions consist of protein filaments like platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule-1 or (PECAM-1). A valve system in place here prevents the absorbed lymph from leaking back into the ISF. There is another system of semilunar (semi=half; lunar=related to the Moon) valves that prevents back-flow of lymph along the lumen of the vessel.[7] Lymph capillaries have many interconnections (anastomoses) between them and form a very fine network.[8] Rhythmic contraction of the vessel walls through movements may also help draw fluid into the smallest lymphatic vessels, capillaries. If tissue fluid builds up the tissue will swell; this is called edema. As the circular path through the bodys system continues, the fluid is then transported to progressively larger lymphatic vessels culminating in the right lymphatic duct (for lymph from the right upper body) and the thoracic duct (for the rest of the body); both ducts drain into the circulatory system at the right and left subclavian veins. The system collaborates with white blood cells in lymph nodes to protect the body from being infected by cancer cells, fungi, viruses or bacteria. This is known as a secondary circulatory system.
Lymphatics
lymphatic system Tubular vessels transport back lymph to the blood ultimately replacing the volume lost from the blood during the formation of the interstitial fluid. These channels are the lymphatic channels or simply called lymphatics.[4]
Lymphatic system
length to its radius, it can act either like a contractile chamber propelling the fluid ahead, or as a resistance vessel tending to stop the lymph in its place.[9]
Lymph vessels
The lymph capillaries drain the lymph to larger contractile lymphatics, which have valves as well as smooth muscle walls. These are called the collecting lymphatics.[6] As the collecting lymph vessel accumulates lymph from more and more lymph capillaries in its course, it becomes larger and is called the afferent lymph vessel as it enters a lymph node. Here the lymph percolates through the lymph node tissue and is removed by the efferent lymph vessel. An efferent lymph vessel may directly drain into one of the (right or thoracic) lymph ducts, or may empty into another lymph node as its afferent lymph vessel.[8] Both the lymph ducts return the lymph to the blood stream by emptying into the subclavian veins The functional unit of a lymph vessel is known as a lymphangion, which is the segment between two valves. Since it is contractile, depending upon the ratio of its
Lymphatic system
the lacteals (lymph vessels of the intestines), drained into the hepatic portal veins, and thus into the liver.[11] Findings of Ruphus and Herophilus findings were further propagated by the Greek physician Galen, who described the lacteals and mesenteric lymph nodes which he observed in his dissection of apes and pigs in the second century A.D.[11][12] Until the seventeenth century, ideas of Galen were most prevalent. Accordingly, it was believed that the blood was produced by the liver from chyle contaminated with ailments by the intestine and stomach, to which various spirits were added by other organs, and that this blood was consumed by all the organs of the body. This theory required that the blood be consumed and produced many times over. His ideas had remained unchallenged until the seventeenth century, and even then were defended by some physicians.[12]
Olaus Rudbeck in 1696 In the mid 16th century Gabriel Fallopius (discoverer of the Fallopian Tubes) described what are now known as the lacteals as "coursing over the intestines full of yellow matter."[11] In about 1563 Bartolomeo Eustachi, a professor of anatomy, described the thoracic duct in horses as vena alba thoracis.[11] The next breakthrough came when in 1622 a physician, Gasparo Aselli, identifed lymphatic vessels of the intestines in dogs and termed them venae alba et lacteae, which is now known as simply the lacteals. The lacteals were termed the fourth kind of vessels (the other three being the artery, vein and nerve, which was then believed to be a type of vessel), and
History
Hippocrates was one of the first persons to mention the lymphatic system in fifth century BC. In his work "On Joints," he briefly mentioned the lymph nodes in one sentence. Rufus of Ephesus, a Roman physician, identified the axillary, inguinal and mesenteric lymph nodes as well as the thymus during the first to second century AD.[11] The first mention of lymphatic vessels was in 3rd century BC by Herophilus, a Greek anatomist living in Alexandria, who incorrectly concluded that the "absorptive veins of the lymphatics", by which he meant
Lymphatic system
Bartholin, who additionally published that such vessels are present everywhere in the body, and not just the liver. He is also the one to have named them "lymphatic vessels".[13] This had resulted in a bitter dispute between one of Bartholins pupils, Martin Bogdan,[15] and Rudbeck, whom he accused of plagiarism.[14]
See also
Lymphangiogenesis Lymphedema Lymphoma American Society of Lymphology Manual lymphatic drainage
References
[1] ^ Warwick, Roger; Peter L. Williams (1973) [1858]. "Angiology (Chapter 6)". Grays anatomy. illustrated by Richard E. M. Moore (Thirty-fifth ed.). London: Longman. pp. 588785. Sloop, Charles H.; Ladislav Dory, Paul S. Roheim (March 1987). "Interstitial fluid lipoproteins". Journal of Lipid Research 28 (3): 225237. PMID 3553402. http://www.jlr.org/cgi/reprint/28/3/225.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-07-07. Goldsby, Richard; Kindt, TJ; Osborne, BA; Janis Kuby (2003) [1992]. "Cells and Organs of the Immune System (Chapter 2)". Immunology (Fifth ed.). New York: W. H. Freeman and Company. pp. 2456. ISBN 07167-4947-5. "Definition of lymphatics". Websters New World Medical Dictionary. MedicineNet.com. http://www.medterms.com/script/main/ art.asp?articlekey=4217. Retrieved on 2008-07-06. Pepper, Michael S.; Michaela Skobe (2003-10-27). "Lymphatic endothelium : morphological, molecular and functional properties". The Journal of Cell Biology 163 (2): 209213. doi:10.1083/jcb.200308082. PMID 14581448. http://www.jcb.org/cgi/content/full/163/2/209. Retrieved on 2008-07-06. ^ Shayan, Ramin; Achen, Marc G.; Stacker, Steven A. (2006). "Lymphatic vessels in cancer metastasis: bridging the gaps". Carcinogenesis 27 (9): 1729. doi:10.1093/carcin/ bgl031. PMID 16597644. http://carcin.oxfordjournals.org/ cgi/content/full/27/9/1729. ^ Baluk, Peter; Jonas Fuxe, Hiroya Hashizume, Talia Romano, Erin Lashnits, Stefan Butz, Dietmar Vestweber, Monica Corad, Cinzia Molendini, Elisabetta Dejana, and Donald M. McDonald (2007-09-10). "Functionally specialized junctions between endothelial cells of lymphatic vessels". Journal of Experimental Medicine 204 (10): 23492362. doi:10.1084/jem.20062596. 10.1084/ jem.20062596. PMID 17846148. http://www.jem.org/cgi/ content/full/204/10/2349. Retrieved on 2008-07-07. ^ Rosse, Cornelius; Penelope Gaddum-Rosse (1997) [1962]. "The Cardiovascular System (Chapter 8)". Hollinsheads
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6] Thomas Bartholin The idea that blood recirculates through the body rather than being produced anew by the liver and the heart was first accepted as a result of works of William Harveya work he published in 1628. In 1652, Olaus Rudbeck (16301702), a Swede, discovered certain transparent vessels in the liver that contained clear fluid (and not white), and thus named them hepatico-aqueous vessels. He also learned that they emptied into the thoracic duct, and that they had valves.[13] He announced his findings in the court of Queen Christina of Sweden, but did not publish his findings for a year,[14] and in the interim similar findings were published by Thomas
[7]
[8]
Lymphatic system
[13] ^ Flourens, P. (1859). "ASELLI, PECQUET, RUDBECK, BARTHOLIN (Chapter 3)". A History of the Discovery of the Circulation of the Blood. Rickey, Mallory & company. pp. 6799. http://books.google.com/ books?id=4QqS6LrYWf4C&printsec=frontcover&dq=william+harvey&as_b Retrieved on 2008-07-11. [14] ^ Eriksson, G. (2004). "Olaus Rudbeck as scientist and professor of medicine (Original article in Swedish)" (in Swedish). Svensk Medicinhistorisk Tidskrift 8 (1): 3944. [15] "Disputatio anatomica, de circulatione sanguinis". Account of Rudbecks work on lymphatic system and dispute with Bartholin. The International League of Antiquarian Booksellers. http://www.ilab.org/db/ detail.php?booknr=349906004. Retrieved on 2008-07-11.
External links
Lymphatic System Lymphatic System Overview (innerbody.com)
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