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Unit 1 DEFINITIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY: In the 18th century, psychology was understood as the Science of Mind. William James (1892) defined psychology as the science of mental processes. But the word minds is also quite ambiguous as there was confusion regarding the nature and functions of mind. Modern psychologists defined psychology as the Science of Consciousness. James Sully (1884) defined psychology as the Science of the Inner World. Wilhelm Wundt (1892) defined psychology as the science which studies the internal experiences. But there are three levels of consciousness conscious, subconscious and the unconscious and so this definition also was not accepted by some. William McDougal (1905) defined psychology as the Science of Behaviour, W.B. Pillsbury (1911) and J.B. Watson (1912) also defined psychology as the science of behavior. Behaviour generally means overt activities which can be observed and measured scientifically. But ones behaviour is always influenced by his experiences. So when we study ones behaviour we must also study his experiences. Psychology should, therefore, be defined as a science of behaviour and experiences on human beings (B.F. Skinner) According to Crow and Crow, Psychology is the study of human behaviour and human relationship. EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY: Educational psychology is the study of human learning. Educational psychology is that branch of psychology in which the findings of psychology are applied in the field of education. It is the scientific study of human behavior in educational setting. According to Charles. E. Skinner, Educational psychology deals with the behavior of human beings in educational situations. Thus educational psychology is a behavioural science with two main references human behavior and education. In the words of E.A. Peel, Educational Psychology is the science of Education.

Education by all means is an attempt to mould and shape the behavior of the pupil. It aims to produce desirable changes in him for the all-round development of his personality.

Thus, Educational Psychology concerned primarily with understanding the processes of teaching and learning that take place within formal environments and developing ways of improving those methods. It covers important topics like learning theories; teaching methods; motivation; cognitive, emotional, and moral development; and parent-child relationships etc.

In short, it is the scientific discipline that addresses the questions: Why do some students learn more than others? and What can be done to improve that learning?

NATURE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY: Its nature is scientific as it has been accepted that it is a Science of Education. We can summarize the nature of Educational Psychology in the following ways: Educational Psychology is a science. Science is a branch of study concerned with observation of facts and establishment of verifiable general laws. Science employs certain objective methods for the collection of data. It has its objectives of understanding, explaining, predicting and control of facts. Like any other science, educational psychology has also developed objective methods of collection of data. It also aims at understanding, predicting and controlling human behaviour. Educational Psychology is a natural science. An educational psychologist conducts his investigations, gathers his data and reaches his conclusions in exactly the same manner as physicist or the biologist. Educational psychology is a social science. Like the sociologist, anthropologist, economist or political scientist, the educational psychologist studies human beings and their sociability. Educational psychology is a positive science. Normative science like Logic or Ethics deals with facts as they ought to be. A positive science deals with facts as they are or as they operate. Educational psychology studies the childs behaviour as it is, not, as it ought to be. So it is a positive science. Educational psychology is an applied science. It is the application of psychological principles in the field of education. By applying the principles and techniques of psychology, it tries to study the behaviour and experiences of the pupils. As a branch of psychology it is parallel to any other applied psychology. For example,

educational psychology draws heavily facts from such areas as developmental psychology, clinical psychology, abnormal psychology and social psychology. Educational psychology is a developing or growing science. It is concerned with new and ever new researches. As research findings accumulate, educational psychologists get better insight into the childs nature and behaviour. W.A. Kelly (1941) listed the nature of Educational Psychology as follows: To give a knowledge of the nature of the child To give understanding of the nature, aims and purposes of education To give understanding of the scientific methods and procedures which have been used in arriving at the facts and principles of educational psychology To present the principles and techniques of learning and teaching To give training in methods of measuring abilities and achievement in school subjects To give a knowledge of the growth and development of children To assist in the better adjustment of children and to help them to prevent maladjustment To study the educational significance and control of emotions and To give an understanding of the principles and techniques of correct training. Thus, educational psychology is an applied, positive, social, specific and practical science. While general science deals with behaviour of the individuals in various spheres, educational psychology studies the behaviour of the individual in educational sphere only. SCOPE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY The scope of educational psychology is ever-growing due to constantly researches in this field. The following factors will indicate the scope of educational psychology: 1. The Learner. The subject-matter of educational psychology is knitted around the learner. Therefore, the need of knowing the learner and the techniques of knowing him well. The topics include the innate abilities and capacities of the individuals, individual differences and their measurements, the overt, covert, conscious as well as unconscious behaviour of the learner, the characteristics of his growth and development and each stage beginning from childhood to adulthood. 2. The Learning Experiences. Educational Psychology helps in deciding what learning experiences are desirable, at what stage of the growth and development of the learner, so that these experiences can be acquired with a greater ease and satisfaction.

3. Learning process: After knowing the learner and deciding what learning experiences are to be provided, Educational Psychology moves on to the laws, principles and theories of learning. Other items in the learning process are remembering and forgetting, perceiving, concept formation, thinking and reasoning, problem solving, transfer of learning, ways and means of effective learning etc. 4. Learning Situation or Environment. Here we deal with the environmental factors and learning situations which come midway between the learner and the teacher. Topics like classroom climate and group dynamics, techniques and aids that facilitate learning and evaluation, techniques and practices, guidance and counseling etc. for the smooth functioning of the teaching-learning process. 5. The Teacher: The teacher is a potent force is any scheme of teaching and learning process. It discusses the role of the teacher. It emphasizes the need of knowing thyself for a teacher to play his role properly in the process of education. His conflicts, motivation. Anxiety, adjustment, level of aspiration etc. It throws light on the essential personality traits, interests, aptitudes, the characteristics of effective teaching etc so as to inspire him for becoming a successful teacher. Though the entire scope of Educational Psychology is included in the above mentioned five key-factors, it may be further expanded by adding the following: 6. It studies Human Behaviour in educational situations. Psychology is the study of behaviour, and education deals with the modification of behaviour; hence, educational psychology pervades the whole field of education. 7. It studies the Growth and Development of the child. How a child passes through the various stages of growth and what are the characteristics of each stage are included in the study of educational psychology. 8. To what extent Heredity and Environment contribute towards the growth of the individual, and how this knowledge can be made use of for bringing about the optimum development of the child; form a salient feature of the scope of educational psychology. 9. Educational psychology deals with the Nature and Development of the Personality of an individual. In fact, education has been defined as the all-round development of the personality of an individual; personality development also implies a well-adjusted personality.

10. It studies Individual Difference: Every individual differs from every other individual. It is one of the fundamental facts of human nature which have been brought to light by educational psychology. This one fact has revolutionalised the concept and process of education. 11. It studies the nature Intelligence and its Measurement. This is of utmost importance for a teacher. 12. It Provides Guidance and Counseling: Education is nothing but providing guidance to the growing child. We can conclude by saying that Educational Psychology is narrower in scope than general psychology. While general psychology deals with the behaviour of the individual in a general way, educational psychology in concerned with the behaviour of the learner in an educational setting. RELEVANCE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY FOR SECONDARY TEACHERS Educational psychology has contributed considerably to the creation of the modern system of education. The knowledge of educational psychology helps the teacher in the following ways: 1. To understand the Stages of Development: Psychology has clearly shown that human life passes through different stages of development before it reaches adulthood. They are infancy, childhood, adolescence and adulthood. Psychologists have also thoroughly studied the characteristic behaviour patterns in these different periods of life. Identification of these periods with different sets of characteristics and attributes as regards physical, mental and emotional development greatly help educationists to design curriculum and determine appropriate methods of teaching for students at different stages. 2. To Know the Learner: The child or the learner is the key factor in the teaching-learning process. Educational psychology helps the teacher to know his interests, attitudes, aptitudes and the other acquired or innate capacities and abilities; to know the stage of development linked with his social, emotional, intellectual, physical and aesthetic needs; to know his level of aspiration, his conscious and unconscious behaviour; his motivational and group behaviour; his conflicts, desires and other aspects of his mental health. So that perfect guidance and help can be provided and positive attitude towards the learner can be formed. 3. To Understand the Nature of Classroom Learning: Educational Psychology helps the teacher to adapt and adjust his teaching according to the level of the learners. A teacher is teaching in a class but a large number of students do not understand the subject-matter

which is being taught. To deal with the students effectively in the class the teacher must have the knowledge of the various approaches to the learning process, principles, laws and factors affecting it then only he/she can apply remedial measures in the learning situation. 4. To Understand the Individual Differences: No two persons are exactly alike. Pupils differ in their level of intelligence, aptitudes, likes and dislikes and in other propensities and potentialities. There are gifted, backward, physically and mentally challenged children. Thus, psychology tells the teacher about the individual differences among the students in the class and the procedure, methodology and techniques to be adopted for them. 5. To Solve Classroom Problems: There are innumerable problems like truancy, bullying, peer pressure, ethnic tensions, cheating in tests etc. Educational Psychology helps to equip the teacher by studying the characteristics of the problem children, the dynamics of the group, behavioural characteristics and adjustments. 6. To develop Necessary Skills and Interest in Teaching: Educational psychology helps the teacher to acquire and develop necessary qualities and skills to deal with the problems created by the pupils, maintain a healthy atmosphere in the classroom and show concern regarding the progress of the child. 7. To Understand Effective Methods of Teaching: Educational Psychology has discovered several new approaches, principles. methods and techniques of teaching which are very helpful in todays teaching-learning process. Educational psychology tells us how significant play and recreation are for the children and how play-way methods turn learning into an interesting task. 8. To Understand the Influence of Heredity and Environment on the Child: Educational psychology helps the teacher to know that the child is the product of heredity and environment. They are the two sides of a coin. Both play a prominent part in the allround development of the child. While the child is born with a number of hereditary qualities, environment helps them to be modified according to the requirements of the society. 9. To Understand the Mental Health of the Child: Educational Psychology helps the teacher to know what are the factors responsible for the mental ill-health and maladjustment of a student and to suggest improvement thereof. Besides this, it also provides the teacher with necessary insight to improve his own mental status to cope up with the situation.

10. To Understand the Procedure of Curriculum Construction: Curriculum is an integral part of the teaching-learning process. Curriculum should be child-centered and fulfill the motives and psychological needs of the individual because child capacities differ from stage to stage. Educational psychology helps the teacher to suggest ways and means to curriculum framers to prepare sound and balanced curriculum for the children 11. To Provide Guidance and Counseling: Today guidance to a child at every stage of life is needed because psychological abilities, interests and learning styles differ from person to person. Similarly, what courses of study the child should undertake in future is also a vital question. All these can be answered well if the teacher knows the psychology of children. 12. To Understand Principles of Evaluation and Assessment: Evaluation is an integral part of the teaching-learning process. How to test the potentialities of the child depends upon the evaluation techniques. The development of the different types of psychological tests for the evaluation of the individual is a distinct contribution of educational psychology. 13. To inculcate Positive and Creative Discipline: The slogan of the traditional teachers was spare the rod and spoil the child. Flogging the child was the chief instrument. Educational Psychology has replaced the repressive system with the preventive system. Now teachers adopt a cooperative and scientific approach to modify the behaviour of the students. Emphasis is laid on self-discipline through creative and constructive activities. 14. Educational Psychology and Research: Educational psychologists conduct research to improve the behaviour of human beings in the educational situation. For this purpose it helps in developing tools and devices to measure the performance and suggest remedial measures thereof. 15. To Know Himself/Herself: Educational Psychology helps the teacher to know about himself/herself. His/her own behaviour pattern, personality characteristics, likes and dislikes, motivation, anxiety, conflicts, adjustment etc. All this knowledge helps him in growing as a successful teacher. 16. Educational Psychology Helps in Professional Growth, Changing Attitude and Innovative Thinking: Inside the classroom, educational psychology has enabled the teacher to achieve proper conditioning of pupils by achieving and directing classroom programmes on human lives. Not only this, educational psychologists are busy in finding out innovations in the field of education. These innovations will bring about professional growth of the teacher

In Conclusion, we can say that educational psychology has contributed considerably to the creation of the modern system of education. In teaching, we are dealing with three elements the teacher, the student, and the subject. It has helped teachers, headmasters, administrators, inspectors, guidance and counseling workers, social workers to significantly develop an impartial and sympathetic attitude towards children and form them into integrated personalities. BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY: The following are some of the major branches of psychology within the field today. 1. Abnormal Psychology Abnormal psychology is the area that looks at psychopathology and abnormal behavior. The term covers a broad range of disorders, from depression to obsession-compulsion to sexual deviation and many more. Counselors, clinical psychologists and psychotherapists often work directly in this field. 2. Behavioral Psychology Behavioral psychology, also known as behaviorism, is a theory of learning based upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. While this branch of psychology dominated the field during the first part of the twentieth century, it became less prominent during the 1950s. However, behavioral techniques remain a mainstay in therapy, education and many other areas. 3. Biopsychology The branch of psychology focused on the study of how the brain influences behavior is often known as biopsychology, although it has also been called physiological psychology, behavioral neuroscience and psychobiology. 4. Cognitive Psychology Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology that focuses on internal states, such as motivation, problem solving, decision-making, thinking and attention. This area of psychology has continued to grow since it emerged in the 1960s. 5. Comparative Psychology Comparative psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with the study of animal behavior. The study of animal behavior can lead to a deeper and broader understanding of human psychology. 6. Cross-Cultural Psychology Cross-cultural psychology is a branch of psychology that looks at how cultural factors influence human behavior. The International Association of Cross-Cultural Psychology (IACCP) was established in 1972, and this branch of psychology has continued to grow and develop since that

time. Today, increasing numbers of psychologists investigate how behavior differs among various cultures throughout the world. 7. Developmental Psychology This branch of psychology looks at development throughout the lifespan, from childhood to adulthood. The scientific study of human development seeks to understand and explain how and why people change throughout life. This includes all aspects of human growth, including physical, emotional, intellectual, social, and perceptual and personality development. Topics studied in this field include everything from prenatal development to Alzheimer's disease. 8. Educational Psychology Educational psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with schools, teaching psychology, educational issues and student concerns. Educational psychologists often study how students learn or work directly with students, parents, teachers and administrators to improve student outcomes. 9. Experimental Psychology Experimental psychology is the branch of psychology that utilizes scientific methods to research the brain and behavior. Many of these techniques are also used by other areas in psychology to conduct research on everything from childhood development to social issues. 10. Forensic Psychology Forensic psychology is a specialty area that deals with issues related to psychology and the law. Forensic psychologists perform a wide variety of duties, including providing testimony in court cases, assessing children in suspected child abuse cases, preparing children to give testimony and evaluating the mental competence of criminal suspects. DIFFERENT SCHOOLS OF PSYCHOLOGY: Behaviorism Behaviorism can perhaps be best summed up by the following quote from the famous psychologist John B. Watson: "Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select -- doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors." --John Watson, Behaviorism, 1930 The term behaviorism refers to the school of psychology founded by John B. Watson based on the belief that behaviors can be measured, trained, and changed. Behaviorism

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was established with the publication of Watson's classic paper "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It" (1913). Behaviorism, also known as behavioral psychology, is a theory of learning based upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. Conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment. Behaviorists believe that our responses to environmental stimuli shape our behaviors. According to this school of thought, behavior can be studied in a systematic and observable manner with no consideration of internal mental states. It suggests that only observable behaviors should be studied, since internal states such as cognitions, emotions, and moods are too subjective. As Watson's above quote suggests, strict behaviorists believe that any person could potentially be trained to perform any task, regardless of things like genetic background, personality traits, and internal thoughts (within the limits of their physical capabilities); all it takes is the right conditioning. There are two major types of conditioning:

1. Classical conditioning is a technique used in behavioral training in which a naturally occurring stimulus is paired with a response. Next, a previously neutral stimulus is paired with the naturally occurring stimulus. Eventually, the previously neutral stimulus comes to evoke the response without the presence of the naturally occurring stimulus. The two elements are then known as the conditioned stimulus and the conditioned response. 2. Operant conditioning Operant conditioning (sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning) is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence for that behavior. Major Thinkers in Behaviorism There are a number of important theorists and psychologists who left and indelible mark on behaviorism, including:

Ivan Pavlov B. F. Skinner Edward Thorndike John B. Watson Clark Hull

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Psycho- Analysis: Sigmund Freud was the founder of psychoanalysis and the psychodynamic approach to psychology. According to Sigmund Freuds psychoanalytic theory of personality, our personality is composed of three core elements. These three elements of personality are known as the id, the ego and the superego. These three elements work together to create complex human behaviors! Structural Model (id, ego, superego) Id: According to Freud, we are born with our Id. The id is an important part of our personality because as newborns, it allows us to get our basic needs met. Id is the source of instincts and impulses and it seeks unconsciously immediate satisfaction of biological needs and is the source of psychic energy (libido). Freud believed that the id is based on our pleasure principle. In other words, the id wants whatever feels good at the time, with no consideration for the reality of the situation. Ego: Within the next three years, as the child interacts more and more with the world, the second part of the personality begins to develop. Freud called this part the Ego. The ego is the mental structure which adapts to reality and negotiates conflicts between id and the super ego. The ego is based on the reality principle. The ego understands that other people have needs and desires and that sometimes being impulsive or selfish can hurt us in the long run. It is the ego's job to meet the needs of the id, while taking into consideration the reality of the situation. Super ego: By the age of five, or the end of the phallic stage of development, the Superego develops. The superego represents societys restrictions and produces guilt and an ego ideal. The Superego is the moral part of us and develops due to the moral and ethical restraints placed on us by our caregivers. Many equate the superego with the conscience as it dictates our belief of right and wrong.

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In a healthy person, according to Freud, the ego is the strongest so that it can satisfy the needs of the id, not upset the superego, and still take into consideration the reality of every situation. Topographical Model Unconscious level: Freud believed that the majority of what we experience in our lives, the underlying emotions, beliefs, feelings, and impulses are not available to us at a conscious level. He believed that most of what drives us is buried in our unconscious. Conscious level: Freud also believed that everything we are aware of is stored in our conscious. Our conscious makes up a very small part of who we are. In other words, at any given time, we are only aware of a very small part of what makes up our personality; most of what we are is buried and inaccessible.

Preconscious or subconscious level: The final part is the preconscious or subconscious. This is the part of us that we can access if prompted, but is not in our active conscious. Information such as our telephone number, some childhood memories, or the name of your best childhood friend is stored in the preconscious. Unconscious: Holds repressed memories and emotions and the ids instinctual drives Conscious: Everything you are aware of at a given moment including thoughts, perceptions, feelings, and memories Preconscious: Material that can easily be brought into awareness Major Thinkers Associated With Psychoanalysis

Sigmund Freud Anna Freud

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Erik Erikson Erich Fromm Carl Jung Karl Abraham Otto Rank Sabina Spielrein

Humanistic Psychology: Humanistic psychology emerged during the 1950s as a reaction to psychoanalysis and behaviorism, which dominated psychology at the time. Psychoanalysis was focused on understanding the unconscious motivations that drive behavior while behaviorism studied the conditioning processes that produce behavior. Humanist thinkers felt that both psychoanalysis and behaviorism were too pessimistic, either focusing on the most tragic of emotions or failing to take into accounts the role of personal choice. Humanistic psychology was instead focused on each individual's potential and stressed the importance of growth and self-actualization. The fundamental belief of humanistic psychology is that people are innately good and that mental and social problems result from deviations from this natural tendency. In 1962, Abraham Maslow published Toward a Psychology of Being, in which he described humanistic psychology as the "third force" in psychology. The first and second forces were behaviorism and psychoanalysis respectively. Humanistic psychology is a psychological perspective that emphasizes the study of the whole person. Humanistic psychologists believe that an individual's behavior is connected to his inner feelings and self-image. Humanistic psychologists study how people are influenced by their self-perceptions and the personal meanings attached to their experiences. Humanistic psychologists are not primarily concerned with instinctual drives, responses to external stimuli, or past experiences. Rather, they consider conscious choices, responses to internal needs, and current circumstances to be important in shaping human behavior.

Summary:

Humanistic psychologists believe that: An individual's behavior is primarily determined by his perception of the world around him.

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Individuals are not solely the product of their environment. Individuals are internally directed and motivated to fulfill their human potential.

Transpersonalism Transpersonal psychology is a field centered on the spiritual aspects of human life. The term transpersonal psychology was first introduced in the 1960s by psychologists such as Abraham Maslow and Victor Frankl. This field utilizes psychological methods and theories to examine spiritual subject matter. It is also possible to define it as a "spiritual psychology". Issues considered in transpersonal psychology include spiritual self-development, self beyond the ego, peak experiences, mystical experiences, systemic trance, spiritual crises, spiritual evolution, religious conversion, altered states of consciousness, spiritual practices, and other sublime and/or unusually expanded experiences of living. Short definition from the Journal of Transpersonal Psychology suggests that transpersonal psychology "is concerned with the study of humanity's highest potential, and with the recognition, understanding, and realization of unitive, spiritual, and transcendent states of consciousness Transpersonal psychology was called the Fourth Force psychology by Abraham Maslow IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS: Introduction: The contribution of educational psychology to the theory and practice of education is rich and varied. The knowledge of educational psychology is important as it provides teachers with some basic skills and guidelines to solve the problems of teaching- learning process. Teaching is not every body's cup of tea i.e., everyone cannot teach. According to John Adams, "Teacher should know John as well as Latin". It means teacher should know child and subject- matter. A teacher should know the nature, capacities, likings and aptitudes and attitudes of the child. Child is like a book, teacher should know each and every page of it." Skinner's View, "The teacher needs psychology to bridge the lives of the young and the aims of education in our democratic society." Kuppuswamy's View, "Psychology contributes to the development of the teacher by providing him with a set of concepts and principles." Teaching is an art. Knowledge of educational psychology is very useful and indispensable for the teacher because it gives knowledge to the teacher.

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Knowledge of Innate Nature The child has got natural urges instincts, potentialities and propensities. These innate qualities are the "Prime movers" of his behaviour. The teacher who knows psychology can make his teaching very successful while keeping in view innate nature of the child. Knowledge of Behaviour Educational psychology assists the teacher in knowing the behaviour of the child at different stages of development. It also helps the teacher in understanding the physiological and psychological basis of behaviour, i.e., nervous system, glands, instincts, emotions, sentiments, motives, play, intelligence, heredity and environment etc. Knowledge of Guidance It helps the teacher in giving guidance to the pupils by having an understanding of interests, abilities, aptitudes, achievements, problems, educational and vocational plans of the pupils. Knowledge of Unconscious Mind It helps the teacher in knowing the unconscious mind of the students and plays very important role in the development of the personality of the individual. Knowledge about Himself It helps the teacher to know about himself. He learns the psychology of being a teacher and acquaints himself with the traits of a successful teacher. Understand Development Characteristics Children pass through different stages of development as infancy, childhood and adolescence. These developmental stages have their own characteristics. If the prospective teacher knows the characteristics emerging at different stages of development, he can utilize these characteristics in imparting instruction and molding their behaviour according to the specified goals of education. Understand the Individual Differences No two individuals are alike. The teacher with the knowledge of the kind of individual differences may adjust his teaching to the needs and requirements of the class and thus may be helpful in creating conducive environment in the schools where the students can develop their inherent potentialities to the maximum. Understand the Nature of Classroom Learning. The knowledge of educational psychology provides a teacher the knowledge of learning process in general and problems of classroom learning in particular.

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The teacher by the knowledge of educational psychology can understand the principles of learning and various approaches to learning process, problems of learning and their remedial measures and also about factors affecting and guidance for effective learning.

Understand Effective Teaching Methods Educational psychology gives us the knowledge of appropriate teaching methods. It helps in developing new strategies of teaching. It also provides us with the knowledge of different approaches evolved to tackle the problems of teaching at different age levels. Understand the Problems of Children By studying educational psychology a teacher may understand the causes of the Problems of the children which occur at different age levels and can successfully solve them. Knowledge of Mental Health By studying educational Psychology teacher can know various factors which are responsible for mental ill health and maladjustment and can successfully help in Central hygiene. Measurement of Learning Outcome Psychological tools help the teacher to assess the learning outcome of the students and also to evaluate his teaching methods for required modification. Curriculum Construction Psychological principles are also used in formulating curriculum for different stages. Needs of the students, their developmental characteristics, learning patterns and needs of the society all are to be included in curriculum construction. Research Educational psychology helps in developing tools and devices for the measurement of various variables which influence the behaviour and performance of students. Helps to Develop Positive Attitude The teacher training programme aims to develop positive attitude towards teaching profession and provides the prospective teachers with the necessary competencies to meet the classroom challenges. Training colleges provide the knowledge of organizing the subject matter in a sequential order to suit the needs of the class. The trainees are also acquainted with the techniques of motivating children for learning. Understanding of Group Dynamics Educational psychology helps the teacher to recognize the importance of social behaviour and group dynamics in classroom teaching learning.

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Problem of Discipline With the knowledge of educational psychology teacher utilizes the importance of indirect discipline rather than corporal punishment. It tells the teacher that discipline should be self-discipline, dynamic, positive and constructive through participation in purposeful activity. Pleasure and pain, reward and punishment, praise etc., should be judiciously used. If the teacher is unaware of the principles of educational psychology he may be unable to solve the problems of his students and thereby fail to induce order and discipline among them. School and Class Administration Former autocratic method of administration in school and class has been charged by democratic way of life wherein the teachers and administrators are more democratic, cooperative and sympathetic and problems of administration solved by mutual discussion. Use of Audio-Visual Aids Educational psychology has helped the teachers to make use of various types as audiovisual aids in classroom teaching so as to make the concept more clear, definite and learning to last longer. Time-Table The knowledge of psychology is helpful to the teacher in preparing time-table. He should keep in main the relative importance and toughness of different subjects and level and index of fatigue of the students. Use of Innovations Activity-centered teaching, discussion method, micro-teaching etc., are some innovative ideas adopted to improve the teaching learning process. Co-curricular Activities Activities like debate, drama, games are given due importance along with theoretical subjects for the harmonious development of the personality of children. Production of Text Books Educational psychology has helped in planning of text books according to the intellectual development of children, their needs and interests at different age levels. Undoubtedly the study of educational psychology may be very helpful to equip our prospective teachers with necessary skills to deal with classroom teaching learning problems.

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Unit 2 SIGMUND FREUD'S STAGES OF PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT: Introduction: Sigmund Freud was an Austrian scientist well known as the founder of Psychoanalysis which is primarily devoted to the study of human psychological functioning and behavior. He also created theories to explain human development relating to how the mind works. Freud's theory of Psychosexual Development is one of the most controversial theories in psychology today and is often discredited. In this theory, Freud suggests that the driving force behind behavior is Libido, which is psychosexual energy. Healthy personalities are a result of successful completion of the five psychosexual stages.

Oral Stage (Birth to 18 months): During the oral stage, the child if focused on oral pleasures (sucking). Too much or too little gratification can result in an Oral Fixation or Oral Personality which is evidenced by a preoccupation with oral activities. This type of personality may have a stronger tendency to smoke, drink alcohol, over eat, or bite his or her nails. Personality wise, these individuals may become overly dependent upon others, gullible, and perpetual followers. On the other hand, they may also fight these urges and develop pessimism and aggression toward others. Anal Stage (18 months to three years): The childs focus of pleasure in this stage is on eliminating and retaining feces. Through societys pressure, mainly via parents, the child has to learn to control anal stimulation. In terms of personality, after effects of an anal fixation during this stage can result in an obsession with cleanliness, perfection, and control (anal retentive). On the opposite end of the spectrum, they may become messy and disorganized (anal expulsive). Phallic Stage (ages three to six): The pleasure zone switches to the genitals. Freud believed that during this stage boy develop unconscious sexual desires for their mother. Because of this, he becomes rivals with his father and sees him as competition for the mothers affection. During this time,

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boys also develop a fear that their father will punish them for these feelings, such as by castrating them. This group of feelings is known as Oedipus Complex ( after the Greek Mythology figure who accidentally killed his father and married his mother). Later it was added that girls go through a similar situation, developing unconscious sexual attraction to their father. Although Freud Strongly disagreed with this, it has been termed the Electra Complex by more recent psychoanalysts. According to Freud, out of fear of castration and due to the strong competition of his father, boys eventually decide to identify with him rather than fight him. By identifying with his father, the boy develops masculine characteristics and identifies himself as a male, and represses his sexual feelings toward his mother. A fixation at this stage could result in sexual deviancies (both overindulging and avoidance) and weak or confused sexual identity according to psychoanalysts Latency Stage (age six to puberty): Its during this stage that sexual urges remain repressed and children interact and play mostly with same sex peers. Genital Stage (puberty on): The final stage of psychosexual development begins at the start of puberty when sexual urges are once again awakened. Through the lessons learned during the previous stages, adolescents direct their sexual urges onto opposite sex peers, with the primary focus of pleasure is the genitals. Key Notes: Freud emphasized that a child's first five years were the most important years to social and personality development. Gratification has a big role in a child's development, as well as the child's parents. Conflicts occur when the child's gratification is put off by the parents, who decide when, where, and how gratification is granted. Problems can occur if the parents give in to every want and need of the child or never give the child what they want or need. Balance is very important. This theory is often discredited by many psychologists.

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ERIKSONS STAGES OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT: Instead of focusing on cognitive development, however, he was interested in how children socialize and how this affects their sense of self. Eriksons Theory of Psychosocial Development has eight distinct stage, each with two possible outcomes. According to the theory, successful completion of each stage results in a healthy personality and successful interactions with others. Failure to successfully complete a stage can result in a reduced ability to complete further stages and therefore a more unhealthy personality and sense of self. These stages, however, can be resolved successfully at a later time.

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KOHLBERG'S LEVELS AND STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT: Kohlbergs theory of moral development outlined six stages within three different levels. Kohlberg extended Piaget's theory, proposing that moral development is a continual process that occurs throughout the lifespan.

Level 1. Preconventional Morality

Stage 1 - Obedience and Punishment: The earliest stage of moral development is especially common in young children, but adults are also capable of expressing this type of reasoning. At this stage, children see rules as fixed and absolute. Obeying the rules is important because it is a means to avoid punishment.

Stage 2 - Individualism and Exchange:

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At this stage of moral development, children account for individual points of view and judge actions based on how they serve individual needs. In the Heinz dilemma, children argued that the best course of action was the choice that best-served Heinzs needs. Reciprocity is possible at this point in moral development, but only if it serves one's own interests. Level 2. Conventional Morality

Stage 3 - Interpersonal Relationships: Often referred to as the "good boy-good girl" orientation, this stage of moral development is focused on living up to social expectations and roles. There is an emphasis on conformity, being "nice," and consideration of how choices influence relationships.

Stage 4 - Maintaining Social Order: At this stage of moral development, people begin to consider society as a whole when making judgments. The focus is on maintaining law and order by following the rules, doing ones duty and respecting authority.

Level 3. Post conventional Morality

Stage 5 - Social Contract and Individual Rights: At this stage, people begin to account for the differing values, opinions and beliefs of other people. Rules of law are important for maintaining a society, but members of the society should agree upon these standards.

Stage 6 - Universal Principles: Kohlbergs final level of moral reasoning is based upon universal ethical principles and abstract reasoning. At this stage, people follow these internalized principles of justice, even if they conflict with laws and rules.

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PIAGETS THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT: Cognitive Development: the ways in which thinking and reasoning grow and change. According to Piaget, cognitive development occurs from two processes: adaptation and equilibrium. Adaptation involves the child's changing to meet situational demands. Adaptation involves two subprocesses: assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation is the application of previous concepts to new concepts. An example is the child who refers to a whale as a fish. Accommodation is the altering of previous concepts in the face of new information. An example is the child who discovers that some creatures living in the ocean are not fish, and then correctly refers to a whale as a mammal. Equilibrium is the search for balance between self and the world, and involves the matching of the child's adaptive functioning to situational demands. Equilibrium keeps the infant moving along the developmental pathway, allowing him or her to make increasingly effective adaptations.

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How Piaget's Theory Impacts Learning: Curriculum--Educators must plan a developmentally appropriate curriculum that enhances their students' logical and conceptual growth. Instruction--Teachers must emphasize the critical role that experiences--or interactions with the surrounding environment--play in student learning. For example, instructors have to take into account the role that fundamental concepts, such as the permanence of objects, play in establishing cognitive structures. THEORIES OF MOTIVATION: Abraham Maslows need hierarchy: According to humanist psychologist Abraham Maslow, our actions are motivated in order achieve certain needs. Maslow first introduced his concept of a hierarchy of needs in his 1943 paper "A Theory of Human Motivation" and his subsequent book Motivation and Personality. This hierarchy suggests that people are motivated to fulfill basic needs before moving on to other, more advanced needs. Types of Needs Abraham Maslow believed that these needs are similar to instincts and play a major role in motivating behavior. Physiological, security, social, and esteem needs are deficiency needs (also known as D-needs), meaning that these needs arise due to deprivation. Satisfying these lowerlevel needs is important in order to avoid unpleasant feelings or consequences.

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Maslow termed the highest-level of the pyramid as growth needs (also known as being needs or B-needs). Growth needs do not stem from a lack of something, but rather from a desire to grow as a person.

Five Levels of the Hierarchy of Needs There are five different levels in Maslows hierarchy of needs: 1. Physiological Needs: These include the most basic needs that are vital to survival, such as the need for water, air, food, and sleep. Maslow believed that these needs are the most basic and instinctive needs in the hierarchy because all needs become secondary until these physiological needs are met. 2. Security Needs: These include needs for safety and security. Security needs are important for survival, but they are not as demanding as the physiological needs. Examples of security needs include a desire for steady employment, health care, safe neighborhoods, and shelter from the environment 3. Social Needs: These include needs for belonging, love, and affection. Maslow described these needs as less basic than physiological and security needs. Relationships such as friendships, romantic attachments, and families help fulfill this need for companionship and acceptance, as does involvement in social, community, or religious groups. 4. Esteem Needs: After the first three needs have been satisfied, esteem needs becomes increasingly important. These include the need for things that reflect on self-esteem, personal worth, social recognition, and accomplishment. 5. Self-actualizing Needs: This is the highest level of Maslows hierarchy of needs. Selfactualizing people are self-aware, concerned with personal growth, less concerned with the opinions of others, and interested fulfilling their potential. Educational applications Maslow's (1968) hierarchy of needs theory has made a major contribution to teaching and classroom management in schools. Rather than reducing behavior to a response in the environment, Maslow (1970a) adopts a holistic approach to education and learning. Maslow looks at the entire physical, emotional, social, and intellectual qualities of an individual and how they impact on learning. Applications of Maslow's hierarchy theory to the work of the classroom teacher are obvious. Before a student's cognitive needs can be met they must first fulfil their basic physiological needs. For example a tired and hungry student will find it difficult to focus on learning. Students

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need to feel emotionally and physically safe and accepted within the classroom to progress and reach their full potential. Maslow suggests students must be shown that they are valued and respected in the classroom and the teacher should create a supportive environment. Students with a low self-esteem will not progress academically at an optimum rate until their self-esteem is strengthened. McClelland Theory of Need: David McClelland and his associates proposed McClellands theory of Needs / Achievement Motivation Theory. This theory states that human behaviour is affected by three needs Need for Power, Achievement and Affiliation. Need for achievement: is the urge to excel, to accomplish in relation to a set of standards, to struggle to achieve success. Need for power: is the desire to influence other individuals behaviour as per your wish. In other words, it is the desire to have control over others and to be influential. Need for affiliation: is a need for open and sociable interpersonal relationships. In other words, it is a desire for relationship based on co-operation and mutual understanding. Thematic Apperception Test: McClelland used the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) as a tool to measure the individual needs of different people. The TAT is a test of imagination that presents the subject with a series of ambiguous pictures, and the subject is asked to develop a spontaneous story for each picture. The assumption is that the subject will project his or her own needs into the story. Psychologists have developed fairly reliable scoring techniques for the Thematic Apperception Test. The test determines the individuals score for each of the needs of achievement, affiliation, and power. This score can be used to suggest the types of jobs for which the person might be well suited. The individuals with high achievement needs are highly motivated by competing and challenging work. They look for promotional opportunities in job. They have a strong urge for feedback on their achievement. Such individuals try to get satisfaction in performing things better. High achievement is directly related to high performance. Individuals who are better and above average performers are highly motivated. They assume responsibility for solving the problems at work. McClelland called such individuals as gamblers as they set challenging targets for themselves and they take deliberate risk to achieve those set targets. Such individuals look for innovative ways of performing job. They perceive achievement of goals as a reward, and value it more than a financial reward.

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The individuals who are motivated by power have a strong urge to be influential and controlling. They want that their views and ideas should dominate and thus, they want to lead. Such individuals are motivated by the need for reputation and self-esteem. Individuals with greater power and authority will perform better than those possessing less power. Generally, managers with high need for power turn out to be more efficient and successful managers. They are more determined and loyal to the organization they work for. Need for power should not always be taken negatively. It can be viewed as the need to have a positive effect on the organization and to support the organization in achieving its goals. The individuals who are motivated by affiliation have an urge for a friendly and supportive environment. Such individuals are effective performers in a team. These people want to be liked by others. The managers ability to make decisions is hampered if they have a high affiliation need as they prefer to be accepted and liked by others, and this weakens their objectivity. Individuals having high affiliation needs prefer working in an environment providing greater personal interaction. Such people have a need to be on the good books of all. They generally cannot be good leaders.