Chapter 24 Baroque Art - Notes

The cultural production of the 17th and early 18th centuries in the West is often described as Baroque, a convenient blanket term. However, this term is problematic because the period encompasses a broad range of developments, both historical, and artistic, across an e pansive geographical territory. !lthough its origin is unclear, the term may have come from the "ortuguese word barroco, meaning an irregularity shaped pearl. #se of the term baro$ue emerged in the late 18th and 1%th centuries when critics disparaged the &aro$ue period's artistic production, in large part because of the perceived deficiencies in comparison to the art of the period preceding it. (ver time, this negative connotation faded, and the term is now most often used as a general designation of the period. )ome scholars use &aro$ue to describe a particular style that emerged during the 17th century. *t was a style of comple ity and drama that is usually associated with *talian art of the period. The dynamism and e travagance of this &aro$ue style contrast with the rational order of classicism. +ot all artists adopted this style during the &aro$ue period. *n our study, because of the diversity of styles in the various cultures of the period, &aro$ue will be used to describe the characteristics associated with a particular culture, such as, *talian &aro$ue or ,utch &aro$ue. (ne historian claims that between 1-./ and 17/1, all of 0urope only had peace for four years. The ma1or conflict was the Thirty 2ears War that was rooted in conflict between militant 3atholics and "rotestants that grew into secular, dynastic, and nationalistic reasons. The result was a ma1or restructuring of 0urope. The formation of the #nited "rovinces of the +etherlands 4the ,utch 5epublic6, )weden and 7rance e panded their authority8 )pain's and ,enmark's power diminished. The building of nation9states was underway. *n addition to the reconfiguring territorial boundaries, the Treaty of Westphalia in essence granted freedom of religious choice throughout 0urope. The treaty thus marked the abandonment of the idea of a united Christian Europe, which was rep aced by the practica rea ities of secu ar po itica systems! &y the 17th century, 0uropean societies began to coordinate their long distance trade more systematically. The allure of e panding markets, rising profits, and access to a wider range of goods contributed to the relentless economic competition between countries. :uch of the foundation for worldwide mercantilism 9 e tensive voyaging and geographic e ploration, improved cartography, and advances in shipbuilding 9 was laid in the previous century. *n fact by the end of the 1.th century, all ma1or trade routes had been established. *n the 17th century changes in financial systems, lifestyles, and trading patterns, along with e panding colonialism, fueled the creation of a worldwide marketplace. The ,utch founded the bank of !msterdam in 1.;%, which eventually became the center of 0uropean transfer banking. &y establishing a system in which merchant firms held money on account, the bank relieved traders of having to transfer precious metals as payment. !s a result trading became more

comple and could involve many parties rather than simple e changes between two or three parties. :any new goods became available. 3offee from island colonies, tea from china, and sugar e ploded in popularity. )ugar, along with tobacco, and rice, were slave crops, and the slave trade e panded to accommodate demand for these goods. !fricans were enslaved and imported to 0uropean colonies and the !mericas to provide the labor for producing these commodities. The worldwide mercantile system permanently changed the face of 0urope. The prosperity such trading generated, affected social and political relationships, necessitating new rules of eti$uette and careful diplomacy. "ith increased disposab e income, more of the new y wea thy spent money on art #amon$ other thin$s%, e&pandin$ the number of possib e sources of patrona$e! By '()), the $rowth of the moneyed c ass had contributed si$nificant y to the emer$ence of *ococo, a decorati+e sty e associated with the wea thy and aristocratic!

'(th Century ,ta ian Baroque

What to do about the considerable appeal of "rotestantism in the succeeding century occupied the 3atholic 3hurch even into the 17th century. With the popes and clergy still continuing as ma1or patrons of the arts, as in the previous centuries, much of *talian &aro$ue art was aimed at propagandistically restoring 3atholicism's predominance and centrality. "hereas ,ta ian *enaissance artists often had re+e ed in the precise, order y rationa ity of c assica mode s, ,ta ian Baroque artists embraced a more dynamic and comp ete aesthetic! -urin$ the '(th century, dramatic theatrica ity, $randiose sca e, and e aborate ornateness, a used to spectacu ar effect, characteri.ed ,ta ian Baroque art and architecture! "apal 5ome's importance as the cradle of *talian &aro$ue art further suggests the role art played in supporting the aims of the 3hurch. "rotestant ob1ection to using images in religious worship was firmly resisted by the 3atholic 3hurch, insisting on their necessity for teaching the laity. Therefore *talian &aro$ue art commissioned by the 3hurch was not merely decorative but didactic as well. The popes of the late 1.th and 17th centuries contributed much to reestablishing the preeminence of the 3atholic 3hurch. They were responsible for building what is the modern city of 5ome. The papal treasury commissioned art and architecture that embodied the renewed energy of the 3atholic 3ounter95eformation and communicated to its populace. Architecture The facade designed by Car o /aderno #'001-'122% at the turn of the century for the 5oman church of 3anta 3usanna, stands as one of the earliest manifestations of the &aro$ue spirit. The facade emphasi<es verticality and dramati<es the ma1or features. The facade's tall central section pro1ects forward from the hori<ontal lower story and the scroll buttresses that connect the two levels are narrower and set at a sharper angle. The elimination of an arch framing the pediment over the doorway further enhances the designs vertical thrust. )trong shadows cast by

)anta )usanna's vigorously pro1ecting columns and pilasters mount dramatically toward the stressed central a is. The recessed niches, which contain statues, heighten the sculptural effect.

3aint 4eter5s The drama of )anta )usanna's facade appealed to "ope "aul = 41.;-91./16, who commissioned :aderno in 1.;. to complete )aint "eter's in 5ome. !s the symbolic seat of the papacy, )aint "eter's radiated enormous symbolic presence, and needed to be finished. *n many ways :aderno>s facade of )aint "eter's is a gigantic e pansion of the elements of )anta )usanna's first level. &ut the compactness and verticality of the smaller church's facade are not as prominent because the e pansive width in )aint "eter's counterbalances them. The pree isting core of an incomplete building restricted :aderno, so he did not have the lu ury of formulating a totally new concept for )aint "eter's. His design for the facade was also never fully e ecuted. The two outside bell tower bays were not part of :aderno's original plan. Hence, had the facade been constructed according to the architect's initial design, it would have established greater verticality and coherence. :aderno's plan also departed from the central plans designed by &ramante and :ichelangelo during the 5enaissance. )eventeenth century clergy re1ected a central plan for )aint "eter's because of its association with pagan buildings, such as the "antheon. "aul = commissioned :aderno to add three nave bays to the earlier nucleus. The longitudinal plan reinforced the symbolic distinction between clergy and laity and provided space for the processions of ever growing assemblies. ?engthening the nave, unfortunately, pushed the dome further back from the facade and the effect :ichelangelo had planned 9 a structure pulled together and dominated by its dome is not readily visible. When viewed at close range, the dome hardly emerges above the facades soaring frontal plane8 seen from far back, it appears to have no drum. =isitors must move back $uite a distance from the front to see the drum and dome together and e perience the effect :ichelangelo intended. Bernini The design of )aint "eter's was finally completed 4e cept for details6 by @ianloren<o &ernini 41-%891.8;6. &ernini was an architect, painter, and sculptor, and one of the most important and imaginative artists of the *talian &aro$ue era. He also designed its most impressive single pro1ect8 the monumental pia..a 4pla<a8 1.-.91..76 in front of )aint "eter's. *n much the same way :ichelangelo was forced to reorgani<e the 3apitoline Hill, &ernini had to ad1ust his design to some pree isting structures on the site 9 and an ancient obelisk the 5omans brought from 0gypt 4which "ope )i tus = had relocated to the pia<<a in 1-8- as part of the pope's vision of 3hristian triumph in 5ome6 and a fountain :aderno designed. He used these features to define the long a is of a vast oval embraced by colonnades 1oined to )aint "eter's facade by two diverging wings. 7our rows of huge Tuscan columns make up the two colonnades, which

terminate in severely classical temple fronts. The dramatic gesture of embrace that the colonnades make as viewers enter the pia<<a symboli<es the welcome the 3atholic 3hurch gave its members during the 3ounter95eformation. &ernini himself referred to his design of the colonnade as appearing like the welcoming arms of the 3hurch. &eyond their symbolic purpose, the colonnades served the functional purpose of providing pilgrims with easy access to the pia<<a. The wings that connect )aint "eter's facade with the oval pia<<a flank a trape<oidal space. The diverging wing counteracts the natural perspective and tends to bring the facade closer to the observers and emphasi<ing its height. A Baroque transformation e&panded the compact and centra desi$ns of Bramante and /iche an$e o into a dynamic comp e& of a&ia y ordered e ements that reach out and enc ose spaces of +ast dimension! By sheer sca e and theatrica ity, the comp eted 3aint 4eter5s presented the Catho ic Church in an awe inspirin$ and authoritati+e +ision! The Ba dacchino ?ong before he began planning the pia<<a, &ernini had been at work on the interior of )aint "eter's. His first commission, completed between 1./A and 1.BB, called for the design and erection of the gigantic bron<e ba dacchino under the great dome. The canopy like structure 4baldacchino is *talian for Csilk from &aghdad,D such as for a cloth canopy6 stands almost 1;; feet high 4the height of an average eight story building6, has both functional and symbolic purposes. *t marks the high altar and the Tomb of )aint "eter. *t visually bridges human scale to the lofty vaults above. *t also provides a dramatic presence at the crossing. *ts columns create a visual frame for the elaborate sculpture representing the throne of )aint "eter's 43athedra "etri6 at the far end. The structure's symbolic character speaks of the power of the 3atholic 3hurch and "ope #rban =***. The fluted and wreathed columns recall those of the ancient baldacchino that once straddled the same spot and evoked the past to reinforce the primacy of the 5oman 3atholic 3hurch. !t the top of the columns, four colossal angels stand guard at the upper corners of the canopy. 7orming the canopy's ape are four serpentine brackets that elevate the orb and the cross that since the time of 3onstantine represented the 3hurch's triumph. The baldacchino also features numerous bees, symbols of the &arberini family the "ope's family, and gives recognition to the patron. The construction of the baldacchino was itself an awesome feat. 0ach of the bron<e columns was cast in five sections using the lost wa method from wooden models. !lthough &ernini did some of the actual production of the columns himself, much of the work was contracted out to e perienced founders and sculptors. The bron<e for the huge structure was ac$uired by dismantling the portico of the "antheon 9 ideologically appropriate given the church's re1ection of paganism. -a+id &ernini devoted much of his prolific career to the adornment of )aint "eter's where his works combine sculpture and architecture. !lthough he was a great architect, &ernini's fame rests primarily with his sculpture, which like his architecture, e presses the *talian &aro$ue spirit.

&ernini's -a+id, predates his work at )aint "eter's and was commissioned by 3ardinal )cipione &orghese. This marble statue aims at catching the figure's split second action and differs markedly from the figures of ,avid presented by ,onatello, =errocchio, and :ichelangelo. &ernini shows ,avid with his muscular legs widely and firmly planted, and is beginning the violent, pivoting motion that will launch the stone from the sling. Bernini se ected the most dramatic of an imp ied sequence of poses, so obser+ers ha+e to think simu taneous y of the continuum and of this tiny fraction of it! This is not the kind of scu pture that can be inscribed in a cy inder or confined in a niche6 its indicated action demands space around it! +or is it self sufficient in the 5enaissance sense, as its pose and attitude direct the the viewer's attention beyond it to its surroundings. ,avid's intense ga<e is a far cry from the placid e pression on ,onatello's ,avid. The Ecstasy of 3aint Teresa also displays the e pansive $uality of *talian &aro$ue art and its refusal to limit itself to firmly defined spatial settings. The Ecstasy of 3aint Teresa is in the 3ornaro 3hapel of the 5oman 3hurch of )anta :aria della =ittoria. 7or this 3hapel, &ernini utili<ed the full capabilities of architecture, sculpture, and painting to charge the entire area with palpable tension. He accomplished this by drawing on his considerable knowledge of the theater he derived from writing plays and producing stage designs. The marble sculpture that serves as the focus of this chapel depicts )aint Teresa, who was a nun of the 3armelite order and one of the great mystical saints of the )panish 3ounter95eformation. Her conversion occurred after the death of her father, when she fell into a series of trances, saw visions, and heard voices. 7eeling a persistent pain, she attributed it to the fire9tipped arrow of ,ivine love that an angel thrust repeatedly into her heart. *n her writings, )aint Teresa described this e perience as making her swoon in delightful anguish. The whole chapel became a theater for the production of this mystical drama. The niche in which it takes place appears as a shallow proscenium 4the part of a stage in front of the curtain6 crowned with a broken &aro$ue pediment and ornamented with polychrome marble. (n either side of the chapel, sculpted relief portraits of the 3ornaro family behind draped praying desks attest to the piety of the patrons 43ardinal 7ederico 3ornaro and his relatives6 &ernini depicted the saint in ecstasy, unmistakably a mingling of spiritual and physical passion, swooning back on a cloud, while the smiling angel aims his arrow. The entire sculptural group is made of white marble, and attests to &ernini's supreme technical virtuosity in creating different te tures8 clouds, rough monk's cloth, gau<y material, smooth flesh, and feathery wings. ?ight from a hidden window of yellow glass pours down on bron<e rays that suggest the radiance of Heaven 4whose painted representation covers the vault6. The passionate drama of &ernini's sculpture correlated with the ideas disseminated earlier by *gnatius ?oyola, who founded the Eesuit (rder in 1-BA and was canoni<ed as )aint *gnatius in 1.//. *n his book 3piritua E&ercises, *gnatius argued that the recreation of spiritua e&periences for +iewers wou d do much to increase de+otion and piety! Thus, theatrica ity and sensory impact were usefu +ehic es for achie+in$ Counter *eformation $oa s! Architecture

7rancesco Borromini #'022-'11(% took *talian &aro$ue architecture to even greater heights. ! new dynamism appeared in the little church of 3an Car o a e 8uartto 7ontane 4)aint 3harles of the 7our 7ountains6, where &orromini went far beyond any of his predecessors or contemporaries in emphasi<ing the building's sculptural $ualities. !lthough :aderno incorporated sculptural elements in his designs for the facades of )aint )usanna and )aint "eter's, they still develop along relatively lateral planes. &orromini set his whole facade in motion, forward and back, making a counterpoint of concave and conve elements on the two levels. He emphasi<ed the three dimensional effect with deeply recessed niches. The facade is not the traditional flat frontispiece that defines a buildings outer limits, it is a pulsating, engaged component inserted between interior and e terior space, designed not to separate but to provide a fluid transition between the two. This functional interrelation of the building and its environment is underlined by the curious fact that it has not one but two facades. The second is a narrow bay crowned by its own small tower, turns away from the facade and, following the curve of the street, faces an intersection. The upper facade was completed seven years after &orromini's death, and historians are not sure to what degree the present design reflects his original intention. The interior is not only an ingenious response to an awkward site but also a provocative variation on the theme of a centrally planned church. *n plan, )an 3arlo looks like a hybrid of a @reek cross and an oval, with a long a is between entrance and apse. The side walls move with an undulating flow that reverses the facades motion. =igorously pro1ecting columns define the space into which they protrude as much as they accent the walls attached to them. This molded interior space is capped by a deeply coffered oval dome that seems to float on the light entering through the windows hidden at the base. *ich +ariations on the basic theme of the o+a , dynamic re ati+e to the static circ e, create an interior that appears to f ow from entrance to a tar, unimpeded by the se$mentation so characteristic of *enaissance bui din$s! 9uarino 9uarini The heir to &orromini's architectural style was 9uarino 9uarini #'124-'1:;%, a priest, mathematician, and architect who spent the last 17 years of his life in Turin converting that provincial *talian town into a showcase of architectural theories that later swept much of 0urope. *n his 4a a..o Cari$nano, @uarini effectively applied &orromini's principle of undulating facades. The facade is divided into three units, the central one curving like )an 3arlo and flanked by two block like wings. This lateral three part division was characteristic of &aro$ue pala<<i and is probably based on the observation that the average person instinctively can recogni<e up to three ob1ects in a unit. ! greater number would re$uire the viewer to count each ob1ect individually. ! tripartite organi<ation of e tended surfaces thus allowed artists to introduce a variety into their designs without destroying structural unity. *t also permitted added emphasis on the central a is. @uarini did this by punching out deep cavities in the middle of the conve central block. Hr enhanced the variety of his design with richly te tured surfaces 4all e ecuted in brick6 and pilasters, which further subdivide his units into three bays each. High and low reliefs create shadows of different intensities and add a decorative effect.

@uarini's mathematical talents must have guided him when he designed the e traordinarily comple dome of the Chape of the 3antissima 3indone #<o iest 3hroud%, a small central plan building attached to the Turin 3athedral. ! view into the dome reveals a display of geometric elements appearing to move in kaleidoscope fashion around a circular focus containing a painting of the bright dove of the Holy )pirit. Here the architect transformed the traditional dome in a series of segmented intersecting arches. The pristine clarity of the unmodified shape of the 5enaissance Cdome of Heaven,D is gone and replaced with the dynamism of the &aro$ue. The styles of &orromini and @uarini moved across the !lps and inspired architects in !ustria and )outhern @ermany in the late 17th and 18th centuries. These styles were very popular in 3atholic regions of 0urope and the +ew World, especially &ra<il. Cara+a$$io !lthough sculpture and architecture provided the most obvious means of manipulating space and creating theatrics, painting also was capable of much. (ne of the greatest of the &aro$ue painters was /iche an$e o /erisi, known as, Cara+a$$io #'0(;-'1')% after the northern *talian town he came from, developed a uni$ue style that had tremendous influence throughout 0urope. His out spoken disdain for the classical masters drew bitter criticism from many painters who denounced him as the Cantichrist of painting. @iovanni "ietro &ellori, the most influential critic of the age felt that 3aravaggio's refusal to emulate the models of his distinguished predecessors threatened the whole tradition of *talian painting that had reached its peak in 5aphael. 2et despite this criticism and the problems of 3aravaggio's troubled life, he received many commissions, both public and private, and numerous artists paid him the supreme compliment of borrowing from his innovations. His influence on artists outside of *taly was immense. ,n his art, Cara+a$$io in=ected natura ism into both re i$ious and c assics, reducin$ them to human dramas p ayed out in the harsh and din$y settin$s of his time and p ace! <is unidea i.ed fi$ures se ected from the fie ds and the streets were, howe+er, effecti+e precise y because of the ,ta ian pub ic5s fami iarity with such fi$ures! Con+ersion of 3aint 4au , painted for the 3erasi 3hapel in the 5oman 3hurch of )anta :aria del "opolo. The saint to be is depicted flat on his back with his arms thrown up toward a light that has no obvious source. !n old hostler seems preoccupied with caring for the horse. !t first glance there is little here to suggest a momentous spiritual event is taking place. This appears to be a mere stable event, not a great miracle. !lthough 3aravaggio departed from the traditional depictions of such religious scenes, the elo$uence and humanity with which he imbued his paintings impressed many. 3aravaggio also employed other formal devices to compel the viewer's interest and involvement in the event. *n Con+ersion of 3aint 4au , he used perspective and a chiaroscuro intended to bring viewers as close as possible to the scene's space and action, almost as if

participating in them. The sense of inclusion is augmented by the low hori<on line. 3aravaggio designed Con+ersion of 3aint 4au for presentation on the chapel wall, positioned at the viewer's eye level as they stand at the chapel entrance. The sharply lit figures are meant to be seen as emerging from the dark of the background. The stark contrast of light and dark was a feature of 3aravaggio's style that first shocked then fascinated his contemporaries. Cara+a$$io5s use of dark settin$s en+e opin$ their occupants, which profound y inf uenced European art! Cara+a$$io>s paintin$ technique has been ca ed tenebrism! The word comes from the ,ta ian word tenebroso, or ?shadowy@ manner! !lthough tenebrism was widespread in 17th century art, it was especially strong in )pain and the +etherlands. The tenebrism in 3aravaggio>s work usually had great meaning. *n 3onversion of )aint "aul the light is divine revelation converting "aul to 3hristianity. *n 1.;B, 3aravaggio produced a large scale painting, Entombment, for the 3hapel of "ietro =ittrice at )anta :aria in =allicella in 5ome. This work includes all the hallmarks of 3aravaggio's distinctive styleF the plebeian figures, the stark use of light and dark, and the invitation of the viewer to participate in the scene. The action takes place in the foreground. The artist positioned the figures on a stone slab whose corner appears to e tend into the viewer's space8 suggesting that 3hrist's body will be laid directly in front of the viewer. This moving composition also had theological implications. With 3ounter95eformation concerns, this image gives visual form to the 3atholic doctrine of transubstantiation 4the transformation of the 0ucharistic bread and wine into the &ody and &lood of 3hrist6, and was re1ected by "rotestants. &y depicting 3hrist's body as though it were physically present during the :ass, 3aravaggio visually articulated the abstract theological concept. Artemisia 9enti eschi 3aravaggio's combination of naturalism and drama became very popular. Those who were greatly influenced by him were called Cara+a$$ista! (ne of those was Artemisia 9enti eschi #'02;-'10;%! @entileschi was instructed by her father (ra<io, who himself was strongly influenced by 3aravaggio. Her successful career, helped disseminate 3aravaggio's manner throughout the "eninsula. *n Audith 3 ayin$ <o ofernes, @entileschi used the tenebrism and the dark sub1ect matter 3aravaggio embraced. )ignificantly, @entileschi picked a narrative involving a heroic female figure, a favorite theme of hers. The story from an !pocryphal work of the (ld Testament, the &ook of Eudith, relates the delivery of *srael from its enemy, Holofernes. Having succumbed to Eudith's charms, the !ssyrian general, Holofernes, invites her to his tent for the night. When he fell asleep, Eudith cut off his head. *n this version, 4she made several6, Eudith and her maid servant are beheading Holofernes. &lood spurts everywhere and the strength re$uired to complete the deed is evident as the two women struggle with the sword. Anniba e Carracci

*n contrast to 3aravaggio, Anniba e Carracci #'01)-'1)2%, not only studied, but also emulated the 5enaissance masters carefully. 3arracci received much of his training at the academy of art in his native &ologna. 7ounded cooperatively by his family members, the Bo o$nese Academy was the first si$nificant institution of its kind in the history of "estern art! *t was founded on the premise that art can be taught and that its instruction must include the classical and 5enaissance traditions in addition to the study of anatomy and life drawing. 3arracci embraced a more classically ordered style while 3aravaggio's style was more naturalistic. *n 7 i$ht into E$ypt, based on the &iblical narrative from :atthew /F1B91A, 3arracci created the ideal or classical landscape that represented nature as ordered by divine and human reason. The roots of the style are in =enetian 5enaissance paintings, the pastoral. The viewer is led from the foreground to the background and eventually to the architectural setting of the castle. )uch constructed environments captured ideali<ed anti$uity and the idyllic life. !lthough artists often took their sub1ects from religious of heroic stories, they seem to have given precedence to the pastoral landscapes over the narrative. *n other words, the stories were an opportunity to do landscape, as evidenced by the scale of the figures. !mong 3arracci's most notable works is his decoration of the "ala<<o 7arnese gallery in 5ome. 3ardinal (rlando 7arnese, a wealthy descendant of "ope "aul ***, commissioned this ceiling fresco to celebrate the wedding of the 3ardinal's brother. *ts iconographic program is titled Bo+es of the 9ods 9 interpretations of earthly and divine love in classical mythology. 3arracci arranged the scenes in a format resembling framed easel paintings on a wall, but here he painted them on the surfaces of the shallow curved vault. This type of simulation of easel painting for ceiling design is called quadro riportato 4transferred framed paintings6. 3arracci's great influence made it fashionable for more than a century. The framed pictures are flanked by polychromes seated nude youths, whose heads turn to ga<e at the scenes around them, and by standing !tlas figures painted to resemble marble statues. The influence of the )istine chapel is clearly evident. +otably the chiaroscuro is not the same for the pictures and the figures surrounding them. The figures inside the $uadri are modeled in an even light, while the outside figures appear to be lit from underneath as large statues illuminated by torches in the gallery below would be. The great interest in illusion continued in the grand ceiling paintings of the 17th century. *n the crown of the vault a long panel representing the Triumph of Bacchus is an ingenious mi ture of 5aphael's and Titian's styles into 3arracci's own. 4ietro -a Cortona "atrons who wanted to burnish their public image or control their legacy found monumental ceiling frescos to be perfect vehicles for such statements. *n 1.BB, "ope #rban *** commissioned a ceiling fresco for the 9ran 3a one of the 4a a..o Barberini in *ome! This pro1ect was the most important decorative commission of the 1.B;'s and was highly coveted. #rban *** selected 4ietro -a Cortona #'021-'112%, a fellow Tuscan who had moved to 5ome in 1.1/. The grandiose and spectacular Triumph of the Barberini overwhelms spectators with

the glory of the &arberini family 4 and #rban *** in particular6. The iconographic program for this fresco, designed by the poet 7rancesco &racciolini, centered on the accomplishments of the &arberini. ,ivine "rovidence appears in a halo of radiant light directing *mmortality, holding a crown of stars, to bestow eternal life on the &arberini family. The laurel wreath 4also a symbol of immortality6 reinforces the enduring &arberini legacy. *t floats around bees and is supported by 7aith, Hope, and 3harity. The papal tiara and keys announcing personal triumph of #rban *** are also clearly visible. 7ra Andrea 4o..o 7ra Andrea 4o..o #'142-'()2% was a lay brother in the Eesuit order and master of perspective, on which he wrote an influential treatise. "o<<o designed and e ecuted the vast ceiling fresco 9 orification of 3aint ,$natius for the church of )ant' *gna<io in 5ome. )ant' *gna<io was prominent in 3ounter95eformation 5ome because it was named for the founder of the Eesuit order. "o<<o created the illusion that heaven is opening up above the congregation. To accomplish this, the artist illusionistically continued the church's actual architecture into the vault so that the roof seemed to be lifted off. !s Heaven and 0arth co mingle,, )aint *gnatius is carried to the waiting 3hrist in the presence of figures personifying the four corners of the world. ! disk in the nave floor marks the stand point for the whole perspectival illusion. 7or visitors looking up from this point, the vision is complete8 they are truly in the presence of the heavenly and spiritual. The effecti+eness of ,ta ian Baroque re i$ious art depended on the drama and theatrica ity of indi+idua ima$es, as we as on the interaction and fusion of architecture, scu pture, and paintin$! 3ound enhanced this e&perience! Churches were desi$ned with acoustica effect in mind, and in an ,ta ian church fi ed with music6 the stimu ation of ima$es and sound must ha+e produced a powerfu effect, creatin$ an effect of <ea+en to the faithfu !

3pain
,uring the 1.th century )pain had established itself as an international power. )uch dominance provoked animosity among other 0uropean countries and increasing challenges. &y the 1..;'s the imperial age of )panish power was over. *n part the demise was due to economic woes, which were e acerbated by e pensive military campaigns during the Thirty 2ear's War. &y "hillip *** and his son "hillip *=, The increasing ta burden that was placed on the )panish sub1ects led to revolts and civil war in 3atalonia and "ortugal in the 1.A;'s. !t the dawn of the &aro$ue in )pain the leaders struggled to maintain control of their empire. 5eali<ing the communicating value of images, "hillip *** and *= were avid art pensions. Aose #Ausepe% -e *ibera #'0::-'102% #sometimes ca ed Bo 3pa$no etto ?the Bitt e 3paniard@% immigrated to +aples as a young man and settled there! *nfluenced by 3aravaggio, 5ibera imbued his work with both naturalism and compelling drama, which lend shock value to his often brutal themes. These themes e press both the harsh times of the 3ounter 5eformation and a )panish taste for the representation of courage and devotion. The /artyrdom of 3aint

Bartho omew is grim and dark in sub1ect and form. 0 ecutioners are hoisting into position )aint &artholomew, who is about to suffer the torture of being skinned alive. The saint's rough, heavy body and swarthy, plebeian features e press a kinship between him and his tormentors. The concept of ideali<ed forms of any kind is scorned. 7rancisco Curbaran #'02:-'114% also produced forceful images, many which were commissioned by monastic orders. 3aint 3erapion was painted as a devotional image for the funerary chapel of the (rder of :ercy. The )aint who participated in the Third 3rusade of 11%., was martyred while preaching the @ospel to the :uslims. !ccording to one account of his martyrdom, the monk was tied to a tree, tortured, and decapitated. The (rder of :ercy was dedicated to self sacrifice, and )aint )erapion's membership in this order amplifies the resonance of this work. *n )aint )erapion the figure emerges from a dark background and fills the foreground. The bright light shining on the figure calls attention to the tragic death and increases the dramatic impact. Two tree branches are barely visible in the background, and a small note ne t to the saint identifies him for the viewers. The course features of the )panish monk, born in 0ngland, label him as common, evoking empathy from a wide audience. Gurbaran's paintings are often $uiet and contemplative, appropriate for prayer and devotional purpose. -ie$o De a.que. #'022-'11)% is often e tolled as the greatest )panish painter of the age. He produced many religious paintings, but he is most known for the work he painted for his ma1or patron, Hing "hillip *=. Trained in )eville, =ela<$ue< was $uite young when he came to the attention of "hillip *=. The king was struck by the immense talent of =ela<$ue< and named him to the position of court painter. With the e ception a few trips, he spent the rest of his life in :adrid. =ela<$ue< was given the rare opportunity to fulfill the promise of his genius with a variety of artistic assignments. =ela<$ue< painted "ater Carrier of 3e+i e when he was only twenty. The figures are painted with a great naturalism showing the influence of 3aravaggio whom he studied. The artist presented this genre scene with such care and conviction that it seems to convey a deeper significance. !fter an e tended visit to 5ome from 1.A8 to 1.-1, =ela<$ue< returned to )pain and painted his greatest masterpiece, Bas /eninas #The /aids of <onor%. *n it, =ela<$ue< showed his mastery of both form and content. The painter represented himself in his studio standing before a large canvas. The young *nfanta 4"rincess6 :argarita appears in the foreground with her maids in waiting, her favorite dwarfs, and a large dog. *n the middle ground are a woman in widow's attire and a male escort8 in the background, a chamberlain is framed in a brightly lit doorway. The personages present have been identified. The room represented in the painting was the artist's studio in the palace of !lca<ar in :adrid. !fter the death of "rince &altasar 3arlos in 1.A., "hillip *= ordered part of the prince's chamber converted into =ela<$ue<>s studio.

?as :eninas is noteworthy for its visual and narrative comple ity. !rt historians do not agree on any single interpretation or reading. ! central issue is what is taking place in ?as :eninasI *n the painting, what is =ela<$ue< depicting on the huge canvas in front of himI *s it this pictureI !lternately is he painting the portrait of Hing "hillip *= and Jueen :arianna, whose reflections appear in the mirror on the far wallI *f so that would suggest the king and $ueen are in the viewer's space outside the picture plane. (ther scholars have proposed that the mirror image reflects not the physical appearance of the royal couple in =ela<$ue<>s studio but the image of what is painted on the canvas. :ore generally, ?as :eninas can be understood as an attempt by =ela<$ue< to elevate himself and his profession. !t first painter to the king and as chamberlain of the palace, =ela<$ue< was conscious not only of the importance of his court office, but also of the honor and dignity belonging to his profession as a painter. Throughout his career, =ela<$ue< hoped to be ennobled by royal appointment to membership in the ancient and illustrious (rder of )antiago. &ecause he lacked the re$uired patents of nobility, he gained entrance only with great difficulty at the very end of his life and then only with the pope's inter1ection. *n the painting he wears the (rder's red cross on his doublet, painted there, according to legend by the king himself. The figures in the painting all appear to acknowledge the royal presence. "laced among them of e$ual dignity is =ela<$ue<, face to face with his king. This painting hung in the personal office of "hillip *=, in another part of the palace. The art of painting, in the person of the painter, was elevated to the highest status. This status was enhanced by the presence of the king, either in the person of the viewer or the reflected image in the painting itself. The painting was further elevated by the two large paintings that appear in the dark above the doorway and mirror. The barely recogni<able images have been identified as copies of paintings by "eter "aul 5ubens that represents the immortal gods as the source of art.

7 anders
*n the 1.th century, 7landers was controlled by Hapsburg )pain. When 3harles = died he, left the )panish kingdoms, *talian and !merican possessions, and the +etherlandish provinces to his on legitimate son, "hillip **. "hillips repressive measures against the "rotestants led the +orthern provinces to break away from )pain and form the ,utch 5epublic. The )outhern provinces remained under )panish control, and they retained 3atholicism as their official religion. The political distinction between modern Holland and &elgium reflects, more or less, this original separation, which in the &aro$ue period were not only religious but also artistic. The Baroque art of 7 anders #the 3panish Nether ands% retained c ose connections to the Baroque art of Catho ic Europe, whereas -utch schoo s of paintin$ de+e oped their own sub=ects and sty es! This was consistent with their reformed religion and new political, social, and economic structure of the middle9class ,utch 5epublic.

4eter 4au *ubens #'0((-'14)% drew together the main contributions of the masters of the 5enaissance 4:ichelangelo and Titian6 and of the *talian &aro$ue 43arracci and 3aravaggio6 to synthesi<e in his own style the truly first pan90uropean manner. 5uben's art was not a weak eclecticism but an original and powerful synthesis that ultimately had international influence. 5uben's was one of the most learned individuals of his time. He had an aristocratic education, courtly manners, diplomacy and tact. He knew many languages and was an associate of princes and scholars. He was a court painter to the dukes of :antua, friend of the Hing of )pain and his advisor on art collecting, painter to 3harles * of 0ngland and :arie de :edici, $ueen of 7rance8 and permanent court painter to the )panish governors of 7landers. "atrons often trusted 5ubens with important diplomatic missions. )cores of associates and apprentices assisted 5ubens in turning out paintings numerous paintings for international clientele. *n addition he functioned as an art dealer, buying and selling contemporary artworks and classical anti$ues. His many enterprises made him a very rich man, with a magnificent townhouse and a country chateau. 5ubens became a master in 1-%8, at age /1, and went to *taly two years later, where he remained until 1.;8. ,uring these years he formulated the foundations of his style. )hortly after his return, he painted E e+ation of the Cross, for the 3hurch of )aint Walburga 4later moved to !ntwerp 3athedral6. This triptych reveals 5uben's interest in *talian art, especially :ichelangelo, Tintoretto, and 3aravaggio. The scene brings together tremendous straining forces and counter forces as heavily muscled men strain to lift the cross. Here 5ubens has an opportunity to show foreshortened anatomy and the contortions of violent action reminiscent of :ichelangelo's work. 5ubens placed the body of 3hrist on the cross as a dramatic diagonal cutting across the picture plane while inclining back into it. The whole composition seethes with power. The tension is emotional as well as physical. )trong modeling of light and dark, which heightens the drama, marks 5uben's work at this stage of his career8 it gradually gave way to a much subtler color style. 5ubens retained the vigor and passion of his early style throughout his career, although he modified the vitality of his work into less strained and more subtle forms, depending on the theme. The human figure, draped or undraped, male or female, freely acting or free to act in an environment of physical forces and other interacting bodies, was a theme that was a focus in 5uben's art. This interest led 5ubens to copy work s of the great masters of anti$uity and of *taly. *ubens statedE ?, am con+inced that in order to achie+e the hi$hest perfection one needs a fu understandin$ of the FancientG statues, nay a comp ete absorption of them! 5uben's interaction with royalty and aristocrats provided him with an understanding of the ostentation and spectacle of &aro$ue art that were appealing to those of wealth and privilege. 5ubens reveled in the pomp and ma1esty of royalty. ?ikewise, those in power embraced the lavish spectacle that served the 3atholic 3hurch so well in *taly. The magnificence and splendor of such &aro$ue imagery reinforced their authority and right to rule. !mong 5uben's royal patrons was :arie de :edici, a member of the famous 7lorentine house and widow of

Henry *=, the first of the &ourbon Hings of 7rance. )he commissioned 5ubens to paint a series memoriali<ing and glorifying her career. &etween 1.// and 1./., 5ubens, working with ama<ing creative energy, produced /1 huge historical9allegorical pictures designed to hang in the $ueen's new palace, the ?u embourg, in "aris. "erhaps the most vivacious of the series was the Arri+a of /arie de /edici at /arsei es8 the others are similar in mood and style. *n this painting :arie has 1ust arrived in 7rance after a sea voyage from *taly. !s she disembarks, surrounded by her ladies in waiting, she is welcomed by allegorical personification of 7rance, draped in a cloak decorated with the fleur9de9lis 4the floral symbol of 7rench royalty6. The sea and sky re1oice at her safe arrival 9 +eptune and the +ereids 4daughters of the sea god +ereus6 salute her, and a winged, trumpeting 7ame swoops overhead. 3onspicuous in the galley's opulently carved sten9castle, under the :edici coat of arms, stands the impervious commander of the vessel. *n black and silver, his figure is in sharp contrast with the rest of the swirling color. He wears the cross of a Hnight of :alta, which may identify this as a ship belonging to that order. The only immobile figure in the composition, he could be the director of and witness to the lavish welcome. Throughout 5uben's career war was constant. !s a diplomat he never ceased to promote peace. When commissioned in 1.B8 to produce a painting for 7erdiando **, the @rand ,uke of Tuscany, 5ubens took the opportunity to e press allegorically his attitude toward war. 5ubens finished his artistic diatribe, A e$ory of the Hutbreak of "ar during the Thirty 2ears War. 5ubens wrote his own e planation of the painting in a letterF CThe principal figure is of :ars, who has left the temple of Eanus open 4which according to 5oman custom was closed in time of peace6 and struts with his shield and his blood stained sword, threatening all peoples with disaster8 he pays little attention to =enus, his lady, who, surrounded by her little love9gods, tries in vain to hold him back with caresses and embraces. (n the opposite side, :ars is pulled forward by the 7ury !lecto with a torch in her hand. There are also monsters signifying plague and famine, the inseparable companions of war. Thrown to the ground is a women with a broken lute, as a symbol that harmony cannot e ist beside the discord of war8 likewise a mother with a child in her arms indicates that fertility, procreation, and tenderness are opposed by war which breaks into and destroys everything. There is furthermore an architect fallen backwards, with his tools in his hands, to e press the idea that what is built in peace for the benefit and ornament of cities is laid in ruin and raised by the forces of arms...you will also find on the ground, beneath the feet of :ars, a book and a drawing on paper, to indicate that he tramples on literature and other refinements... the sorrowing women...clothed in black with a torn veil, and deprived of all her 1ewels and ornaments is unhappy 0urope, which for so many years has suffered pillage, degradation, and misery affecting all of us so deeply that it is useless to say more about them.D

Anthony Dan -yck #'022-'14'% was the most famous of 5uben's assistants that became one of his successors. 0arly on =an ,yck, the younger man, unwilling to be overshadowed by the undisputed stature of his master, left !ntwerp, eventually settling in ?ondon, where he became the court portraitist to 3harles *. "ortraits became his specialty. He developed a courtly manner of great elegance that was influential internationally. *n one of his finest works, Char es , -ismounted, the ill fated )tuart king stands in a landscape with the river Thames in the background. !n e$uerry and a page attend 3harles *. !lthough the king impersonates a nobleman out for a casual ride in his park, no one can mistake the regal pose and the air of absolute authority that his "arliament resented and was soon to rise against. Here, Hing 3harles turns his back on his attendants as he surveys his domain. The king's placement in the composition is e tremely artful. He stands off center but balances the picture with a single keen glance at the viewer. =an ,yck even managed to portray 3harles * in a position to look down on the observer. *n reality, the monarch's short stature forced him to e ert his power in ways other than physical. =an ,yke>s elegant style resounded in 0nglish portrait painting well into the 1%th century. C ara 4eeters #'024-'10(% was a 7lemish artist who spent time in Holland and was a pioneer in the field of still life painting, laying the groundwork for future ,utch still life painters. )he was particularly renowned for her depictions of food and flowers together, as well as, still lifes that included bread and fruit. )uch still lifes became known as breakfast pieces. 3ti Bife with 7 owers, 9ob et, -ried 7ruit, and 4ret.e s, displays "eeters considerable skills.

The -utch *epub ic

The ascendance of the ,utch 5epublic during the 17th century was largely due to economic prosperity8 !msterdam had the highest per capita income in 0urope. *t emerged as the financial center of the continent. The ,utch e pertise on the open seas facilitated establishing colonies and trade routes around the world. )pain and the southern +etherlands was 3atholic and the northern +etherlands were mainly "rotestant. The prevailing 3alvinism demanded a re1ection of art in churches, and thus artists produced little religious art in the ,utch 5epublic at the time. ,espite their 3alvinist beliefs, the ,utch were truly tolerant people, and artists 4often 3atholics6 did create religious art works. 7ans <a s ,utch &aro$ue artists were esteemed for their skills in portraiture. 7rans <a s #'0:'-'111% was the leading painter in Haarlem and made portraits his specialty. "ortrait artists had relied heavily on convention 9 specific poses, settings, attire, etc 9 to convey the sense of the sitter. The artist's goal was to produce an image appropriate to the sub1ect's station in life. With the increasing number of ,utch middle class patrons, the tasks for portraitists became more challenging. Traditional conventions were inappropriate and thus unusable, but also the 3alvinists shunned ostentation, instead wearing subdued, uniform, dark clothing with little variation or decoration. ,espite these difficulties, or perhaps because of them, Hals produced

lively portraits that seem far more rela ed than the formulaic traditional portraiture. He in1ected spontaneity into his images and conveyed the personalities of the sitters as well. His manner of e ecution intensified the casualness, immediacy, and intimacy in his paintings. The touch of Hal's brush was as light and fleeting as the moment when he captured the pose. Hals also e celled at group portraits, which multiplied the challenges of depicting a single sitter. Archers of 3aint <adrian depicts on of many ,utch civic militia groups who claimed credit for liberating the ,utch 5epublic from )pain. ?ike other companies, the !rchers met on their saint's feast day in dress uniform for a grand ban$uet. The celebrations sometimes lasted an entire week, prompting an ordinance limiting them to Cthree or at the most four days.D These events called for a group portrait, and such commissions gave Hals the opportunity to attack the problem of ade$uately representing each group member while retaining action and variety in the composition. 0arlier group portraits in the +etherlands were rather ordered and regimented images. Hals sought to enliven the depictions and the results can be seen in !rchers. Here each man is both a troop member and an individual with a distinct personality. )ome engage viewers directly, whereas others look away or at a companion8 where on is stern and the other is animated. The uniformity of attire 9 black military dress, white ruffles, and sashes 9 does not seem to have deterred Hals from in1ecting spontaneity into the work. He used those elements to create a lively rhythm that e tends throughout the composition and energi<es the portrait. Hals captured the character of straitlaced, devout 3alvinist women in The "omen *e$ents of the H d /en5s <ome at <aar em! ,utch women were given the primary role for taking care of the family and home. They populated the work force in the cities and were often educated. !mong the more prominent roles that women played in public life were regents of charitable institutions 9 orphanages, hospitals, old age homes, and houses of correction. Hals depicts a group of stern, sensible, and determined women who take their responsibilities seriously. The women look out from the painting with e pressions that range from dour disinterest to kindly concern. The somber palette contributes to the painting's restraint. !lthough this painting may lack the vitality and spontaneity of other portraits by Hals, his unerring ability to capture the details of the individual sitters and their general cultural characteristics is truly impressive. *embrandt Dan *i=n #'1)1-'112% Hal's younger contemporary was widely recogni<ed as the leading ,utch painter of his time. 5embrandt's move from his native ?eiden to !msterdam around 1.B1 provided him with a more e tensive clientele, contributed to a flourishing career. *n his portraits, 5embrandt delved deeply into the psyche and personality of his sitters. *n the Anatomy Besson of -r! Tu ip, he deviated further from the traditional group portrait than had even Hals. 5embrandt chose to portray the members of the surgeon's guild 4who commissioned the group portrait6 clustered together on the painting's left side. *n the foreground the corpse that ,r. Tulip is in the act of dissecting. 5embrandt diagonally placed and foreshortened the corpse, activating the space by disrupting the strict hori<ontal, planar orientation found in traditional portraiture. Though the students wear virtually identical attire, their varying poses and facial e pressions suggest uni$ue individuals. 5embrandt produced this painting at age /..

5embrandt amplified the comple ity and energy of the group portrait with his painting of 1.A/, The Company of Captain 7rans Bannin$ Cocq better known as Ni$ht "atch! This title is a misnomer for the painting is not a nocturnal scene. Though 5embrandt used dramatic lighting, the darkness of the painting is due more to the varnish the artist used than the sub1ect depicted. This painting is one of many civic guard group portraits produced during this time period. *t appears that 5embrandt was commissioned to paint the two officers, 3aptain 7rans &anning 3oc$ and his lieutenant Willem van 5uytenburch along with 1. members of this militia group 4each contributing to 5embrandt's fee6. This work was one of si paintings commissioned from different artist' around 1.A; for the assembly and ban$uet hall of the new :usketeer's Hall in !msterdam. )ome scholars have suggested that the occasion of the commissions was the visit of Jueen :arie de :edici to the ,utch 3ity in 1.B8. 5embrandt captured the e citement and activity of the men preparing for the parade. 5embrandt>s inventiveness was by this time becoming a conventional portrait format. 5ather than present assembled men, 5embrandt depicted them scurrying about in the act of organi<ing themselves, thereby animating the image significantly. The prominent girl to the left of center is unidentified. The large canvas placed in the hall in 1.A/, was moved in 171- to the !msterdam town hall, where it was cropped on all sides, leaving us today with an incomplete record. 5embrandt also created many religious artworks despite the 3alvinist in1unctions against religious art. The images were not the opulent, overwhelming art of &aro$ue *taly. 5ather his art is that of a committed 3hristian who desired to interpret &iblical narratives in human, rather than lofty theological terms. The spiritual stillness of 5embrandt's religious paintings is that of inward turning contemplation, far from the heavenly tumult of &ernini of "o<<o. 5embrandt portrays the humanity and humility of Eesus. His psychological insight and his profound sympathy for human affliction produced at the very end of life one of the most moving pictures in all religious art *eturn of the 4rodi$a 3on! Tenderly embraced by his forgiving father, the son crouches before him in weeping contrition, while three figures immersed in soft shadow note the lesson of mercy. The light everywhere mingled with shadow, directs the viewer's attention by illuminating the father and son and largely veiling the witnesses. *t focus is the beautiful, spiritual face of the old man8 secondarily8 it touches the stern face of the foremost witness. 5eturn demonstrates the degree to which 5embrandt developed a personal style completely in tune with the simple elo$uence of the &iblical passage. The use of light was a hallmark of 5embrandt's style. His pictorial method involved refining light and shade into finer and finer nuances until they blended with one another. 0arlier painters' use of abrupt light and dark changes gave way to the gradation seen in the work of 5embrandt and =ela<$ue<. The dramatic effect of shape chiaroscuro was sacrificed for a

greater fidelity to actual appearances. This techni$ue is closer to reality because the eyes perceive light and dark as always subtly changing and not static. @enerally speaking, 5enaissance artists represented forms and faces in a flat, neutral modeling light. They represented the idea of light, rather than the actual look of it. !rtists, such as 5embrandt discovered degrees of light and dark, degrees of difference in pose, in the movement of facial features, and in psychic states. They arrived at these differences optically, not conceptually or in terms of some ideal. 5embrandt found that by manipulating the direction, intensity, distance, and surface te ture of light and shadow, he could render the most subtle nuances of character and mood, both in persons and whole scenes. He discovered for the modern world that variation of light and shade, subtly modulated, could be read as emotional difference. *n the visible world, light, dark, and the wide spectrum of values in between are charged with meanings and feelings that sometimes are independent of the shapes and figures they modify. Theater and photography have used these discoveries to great dramatic effect. 5embrandt carried over the spiritual $uality of his religious works into his later portraits. The Cpsychology of light,D as some have said. ?ight and dark are not in conflict, they are reconciled, merging softly and subtly to produce a visual $uietness. Their prevailing mood is that of tran$uil meditation, of philosophical resignation, of musing recollection, a whole cluster of emotional tones heard only in silence. *n a self portrait produced late in life, light shines from the upper left of the painting and bathes the sub1ects face while leaving the lower part of the body in shadow. The artist depicted himself as possessing dignity and strength. The portrait can be seen as a summary of the many stylistic and professional concerns that occupied him throughout his career. Etchin$ :any artists took up etching when it was perfected early in the 17th century. *t was more manageable than engraving and allowed greater freedom in drawing the design. 7or etching, a copper plate is covered with a layer of wa or varnish. The artist incises the design into this surface with an etching tool, e posing the metal surface below, but not cutting into its surface. The plate is then immersed in acid, which etches or eats away at the e posed metal surface. The mediums softness gives greater carving freedom than woodcutters and engravers have working directly in their more resistant media of wood and metal. "rior to the invention of the lithograph in the 1%th century, etching offered the greatest subtlety of line and tone. *f 5embrandt never painted, he still would be renowned, as he principally was in his lifetime, for his prints. "rints were a ma1or source of income for him, and he often reworked the plates so they could be used to produce a new issue or edition. This constant reworking was unusual within the conte t of 17th century print making practices. Christ with the 3ick around <im, *ecei+in$ the Chi dren #<undred 9ui der 4rint% is one of 5embrandt's most celebrated etchings. The title by which the print is best known, <undred 9ui der 4rint, refers to the high price the work brought during 5embrandt's lifetime. ?ike his other religious works, the print is

diffused with abiding piety. 3hrist appears in the center preaching to the blind, the lame, and the young. (n the left, a group of Eews heatedly discuss issues among themselves. The central theme her is 3hrist's humility and mercy. 5embrandt>s genius is undisputed. He is revered as an artist of great versatility, as a master of light and shadow, and a uni$ue interpreter of the "rotestant conception of )cripture. &ecause of the esteem in which 5embrandt>s work is held, his work and style have been the focus of forgers and copyists. To counteract this, a group of scholars has launched the 5embrandt 5esearch "ro1ect, whose goal is to provide definitive identification of the hundred's of works currently attributed to 5embrandt. Audith Beyster #'1)2-'11)% was a portraitist, like Hals, her teacher. )he has depicted herself in this portrait as the artist. )he allows the viewer to evaluate her skill, which is considerable. Though she painted many sub1ects, her specialty was genre scenes with a comical image like the one in the portrait. ?eyster's elegant attire distinguishes her as a member of a well to do family. -utch Bandscape *n addition to portraiture, the ,utch avidly collected landscapes, interior scenes, and still lifes. ?andscape scenes abound in ,utch &aro$ue art. ,ue to topography and politics, the ,utch had a uni$ue relationship to the terrain, one that differed from those of other 0uropean countries. !fter gaining independence from )pain, the ,utch undertook an e tensive land reclamation pro1ect that lasted almost a century. ,ikes and drainage systems were everywhere across the landscape &ecause of these efforts, the ,utch developed a direct relationship with the land. The marshy and swampy nature of much of the land made it less desirable for large scale e ploitation, so the e tensive feudal landholding system that e isted elsewhere in 0urope never developed in the provinces. :ost ,utch families owned and worked their own farms, cultivating a feeling of closeness to the ,utch terrain. Ae bert Cuyp #'12)-'12'% produced works of careful observation and deep respect for and understanding of the ,utch landscape. A -istant Diew of -ordrecht, with a /i kmaid and 7our Cows, and Hther 7i$ures, often referred to as The ?Bar$e -ort,@ reveals 3uyp') substantial skills. The title indicates the location was important to the artist. #nlike the ideali<ed landscapes in many *talian paintings, this landscape is specific. The church in the background has been identified as @rote Herk in ,ordrecht. The dairy cows, shepherds, and milkmaid refer to a cornerstone of ,utch agriculture 9 the demand for dairy products such as butter and cheese, which increased with the growth of urban centers. Aacob Dan *uisdae #'12:-'1:2% was one of the ma1or ,utch landscape painters. *n Diew from <aar em from the -unes at H+ereen, van 5uisdael gives the viewer an overarching view of this ma1or ,utch city. The specificity of the artist's image 9 )aint &avo 3hurch in the background, with numerous windmills that refer to the land reclamation efforts, and the figures

in the foreground stretching linen to be bleached 4a ma1or industry in Haarlem6 9 endows the painting with a sense of honesty and integrity. 2et this is primarily a landscape painting. The human element is portrayed small and miniscule so as to blend into the landscape. The hori<on line is low, so the sky fills three $uarters of the picture space. The landscape is illuminated by patches of sunlight braking through the clouds. =an 5uisdael not only captured specific and historic locations in his paintings, he imbued them with a $uiet serenity that takes on an almost spiritual $uality. Aan Dermeer The ,utch were also very fond of interior paintings depicting the lives of prosperous, responsible, and cultured citi<ens. The best known and highly regarded of these was Aan Dermeer #'1;2-'1(0% of ,elft. =ermeer derived most of his income from his work and an innkeeper and art dealer. He painted no more than thirty five paintings that can be attributed to him. =ermeer's paintings were small, luminous and captivating. 7lemish artists of the 1-th century had also painted domestic interiors, but they were often occupied by those of sacred significance. *n contrast, =ermeer and his contemporaries composed, neat, $uietly opulent interiors of ,utch middle class dwellings, with men and women and children engaging in household tasks or recreation. These commonplace actions reflected the values of a comfortable domesticity that had a simple beauty. *n The Better, =ermeer ushers the viewer into a room of a well to do ,utch house. The drawn curtain and open doorway through which the viewer must peer, reinforces the viewer's status as an outsider and affirms the scene's spontaneity of the moment. The focus on the women emphasi<es her role as the one responsible for the tran$uility and order of the home. *n The Better, the woman of the house is not involved in cleaning and child rearing activities8 her elegant attire suggests a woman of wealth. He lute playing seems to have been interrupted by a maid, who has delivered a letter. The missive is a love letter8 =ermeer includes visual clues that would prompt this inference from a 17th century ,utch audience. The lute was a traditional symbol of the music of love, and the calm seascape on the back wall served as a symbol of love re$uited. *n the book Bo+e Emb ems, published in !msterdam in 1.BA, the author wrote, C?ove may rightly be compared to the sea, considering it changeableness.D =ermeer was a master of pictorial light. He could render space so convincingly that it appeared that the viewer was looking through a pane of glass at the actual scene. Historians are confident that =ermeer used as tools both mirrors and camera obscura, an ancestor of the modern camera based on passing light through a tiny pinhole or lens to pro1ect a image on the wall of a room or a screen. This does not mean that =ermeer simply copied the image. *nstead these aids helped him obtain results he reworked compositionally, placing his figures and the furniture of a room in a beautiful stability of $uadrilateral shapes. . This gives his design a matchless classical serenity. This $uality is enhanced by colors so true to the optical facts and so subtly modulated that they suggest =ermeer was far ahead of his time in color science. C ose e&amination of Dermeer5s paints shows that shadows are not co or ess and dark,

that ad=oinin$ co ors affect each other, and that i$ht is composed of co ors! Thus he painted ref ections off of surfaces in co ors modu ated by others nearby! =ermeer's, A e$ory of the Art of 4aintin$, depicts himself and his profession. =ermeer's back is facing the viewer. He is dressed in historical &urgundian attire and is hard at work on a painting of a model portraying the attributes of 3lio, the muse of history. The map of the provinces on the back way serves as another reference to history. The viewer is located outside the space of action. )ome art historians have suggested that the light radiating from an unseen window on the left illuminates both the model and the canvas =ermeer is painting alludes to the light of artistic inspiration. The allegorical reading of this painting was affirmed when =ermeer's window, wishing to retain this painting after the artist's death, listed it in her written claim as Cthe piece... wherein the !rt of "ainting is portrayed.D 3atiri.in$ -utch Bife Aan 3teen #'120-'1(2% provided a counterpoint to =ermeer's charm and beauty of ,utch domestic life. The 7east of 3aint Nicho as depicted a household scene of 3haos and disruption. )aint +icholas had 1ust visited this residence, and the children are in an uproar as they search there shoes for the gifts from saint +ick. )ome children are delighted, such as, the little girl clutching her gifts refusing to share. (thers are disappointed 9 the boy on the left is in tears because he received a birch rod. ! festive atmosphere reigns, which contrasts sharply with =ermeer's decorum. )teen fre$uently used children's activities as satirical comments on foolish adult behavior. The 7east of )aint +icholas can be seen as alluding to selfishness, pettiness, and 1ealousy. 3ti Bife The prosperous ,utch were proud of their accomplishments and the popularity of still life paintings, particularly images of accumulated material wealth, reflected pride. These beautifully crafted images are both scientific in their optical accuracy and poetic in their beauty and lyricism. Danitas 3ti Bife by 4ieter C aes. #'02(I2:-'11)% reveals the pride ,utch citi<ens had in their material possessions, presented as if strewn across a table top or dresser. This pride is tempered by the ever present morality and humility central to the 3alvinist faith. Thus, while appreciating and en1oying the beauty and value of the ob1ects depicted, the viewer is reminded of life's transience. This reminder consists of references to death. "aintings with such features are called Danitas paintings8 each feature is referred to as a memento mori! *n Danitas 3ti Bife, references to mortality include a skull, timepiece, tipped glass and cracked walnut. !ll suggest the passage of time or a presence has disappeared8 something or someone was here and now is gone. 3laes< emphasi<ed the element of time and showed his great skill by including a self portrait reflected in the glass ball on the left. &ut in an apparent challenge to the message of inevitable morality the =anitas paintings convey, the portrait serves to immortali<e the sub1ect 9 in this case the artist himself.

"i em Ja f #'1'2-'12;% in his painting, 3ti Bife with a Bate /in$ 9in$er Aar, reveals both the wealth ,utch citi<ens had accrued and the e $uisite skills 9 both technical and aesthetic 9 of ,utch &aro$ue artists. Half was enamored by the lustrous sheen of fabric highlights glinting off reflective surfaces. His works present an array of ornamental ob1ects, such as =enetian and ,utch glassware and the silver dish. Half's inclusion of the watch, :editerranean peach, and peeled lemon suggests these works, despite their opulence, served as vanitas paintings. *n )till ?ife, Half also highlighted the e pensiveness of ,utch :aritime trade through his depiction of the *ndian floral carpet and the 3hinese 1ar used to store ginger 4a lu ury item6. ?ike still life paintings, flower paintings were prominent in ,utch &aro$ue art. &ecause he did not live long, flowers often appeared in vanitas paintings. However, floral painting as its own genre also flourished. !mong its leading practitioners was *ache *uysch #'11;-'(0)%! 5uysch's father was a professor of botany and anatomy, which may account for he interest in and knowledge of plants and insects. )he ac$uired an international reputation for he lush paintings such as 7 ower 3ti Bife! *n this image the lavish floral arrangement is so full of blossoms they seem to be spilling out f the vase. 5uysch carefully constructed her paintings. Here, she positioned the flowers so that they create a diagonal running from the upper right to the lower left and it offsets the opposing diagonal of the back edge of the table. 5uysch became famous for her floral paintings and still lifes. 7rom 17;89171. she served as court painter to the elector of "alatine in ,usseldorf, @ermany. ,utch &aro$ue art has a uni$ue character that sets it apart from *talian &aro$ue in many ways. The appeal of ,utch &aro$ue art lies in both its beauty and serenity, as well as, in the insights it provides into 3alvinist ,utch life and history.

7rance
The history of 7rance during the &aro$ue period is essentially the culmination of increasing monarchial authority that had been developing for centuries. This consolidation of power was embodied in Hing ?ouis K*= 41..19171-6, whose obsessive control determined the direction of 7rench &aro$ue society and culture. !lthough its economy was not as e pansive as that of the ,utch 5epublic, 7rance became the largest and most powerful 0uropean country in the 17th century. 5eligious conflicts caused great tension throughout the 1.th and 17th centuries. !fter the 5eformation, "rotestants in 7rance challenged royal authority, which results in a se$uence of religious wars between 3atholics and "rotestants. *n 1-%8, Hing Henry *= 41-8%91.1;6, issued the 0dict of +antes, which in effect decreed religious tolerance. ,espite this edict, "rotestants eventually were driven from the country. *n the early part of the century, the appeal of 5ome enticed many 7rench artists to study there. 7ascination with both ancient 5oman and *talian 5enaissance cultures accounted for 5ome's allure. Nicho as 4oussin #'024-'110%, born in +ormandy, spent most of his life in 5ome.

There, inspired by its monuments and countryside, he produced his grandly severe and regular canvases modeled on the work of Titian and 5aphael. He also carefully worked out a theoretical e planation of his method, and was ultimately responsible for establishing classical painting as an important manifestation in 7rench &aro$ue art. "oussin's Et in Arcadia E$o #,, Too, in Arcadia, or E+en in Arcadia, , Fam presentG%6 was informed by 5aphael's rational order and stability and by anti$ue statuary. ?andscape, for which "oussin became very fond, provides the setting for the picture. The foreground is dominated by three shepherds, living in the idyllic land of !rcadia, who spell out an enigmatic inscription on a tomb as a statues$ue female figure $uietly places her hand on the shoulder of one of them. )he may be the spirit, reminding these mortals, as does the inscription, that death is found even in !rcadia, supposedly a place of 0denic bliss. The countless draped female statues surviving in *taly since 5oman times supplied the models for this figure. The youth with one foot resting on a boulder is modeled on @reco 5oman statues of +eptune, the sea god leaning on his trident. The compact balanced grouping of the figures and the light, reserved, mournful, mood set the tone for "oussin's art in its later phase. ,n notes for an intended treatise on paintin$, 4oussin out ined the ?$rand manner@ of c assicism, of which he became a eadin$ e&ponent in *ome! Artists must first of a choose $reat sub=ects! ?The first requirement, fundamenta to a others, is that the sub=ect and the narrati+e be $randiose, such as batt es, heroic actions, and re i$ious themes!@ /inute detai s shou d be a+oided, as we as a ? ow@ sub=ects, such as $enre ?Those who choose base sub=ects find refu$e in them because of feeb eness of their ta ents!@ C ear y, these directi+es ru e out a $ood dea of decorati+e art, as we as the $enre scenes that were popu ar in the -utch *epub ic! 4oussin represents a theoretica tradition in "estern art that $oes back to the Ear y *enaissance! ,t asserts that a $ood art must be the resu t of $ood =ud$ment6 a =ud$ment based on know ed$e! ,n this way, art can achie+e correctness and propriety, two of the fa+orite characteristics of the c assici.in$ artist or architect! 4oussin praised the ancient 9reeks who ?produced mar+e ous effects@ with their musica ?modes!@ <e obser+ed that the word ?mode@ rea y means the system, or the measure and form which we use in makin$ somethin$! ,t constrains us not to pass the imits6 it compe s us to emp oy a certain e+enness and moderation in a thin$s!@ 3uch e+enness and moderation are the +ery essence of 7rench c assica doctrine! ,n the a$e of Bouis K,D, scho ars preached this doctrine as much for iterature and music as for art and architecture! !mong "oussin's finest works is Buria of 4hocion! !s was typical, "oussin carefully chose his sub1ect from the literature of classical anti$uity. His source was "lutarch's Bife of 4hocion, a biography of the distinguished !thenian general whom his compatriots un1ustly put to death for treason. 0ventually the state gave him a public funeral and memoriali<ed him. *n the foreground, the hero's body is being taken away, his burial on !thenian soil initially forbidden.

The two massive bearers and the bier are starkly isolated in a great landscape that throws them into solitary relief, elo$uently e pressive of the hero abandoned in death. The landscape's interlocking planes slope upward to the lighted sky at the left. *ts carefully arranged terraces bear slowly moving streams, shepherds and their flocks' and' in the distance, whole assemblies of solid geometric structures 4temples, towers, walls, villas, and a central grand sarcophagus6. The skies are untroubled, and the light is even and revealing of form. The trees are few and carefully arranged, like curtains drawn back to reveal a natural setting carefully cultivated for a single human action. #nlike van 5uisdael's Diew of <aar em, this scene was not intended to represent a particular place and time. *t was "oussin's construction of an idea of a noble landscape to frame a noble theme. The 4hocion landscape is nature subordinated to a rational plan. The art of C aude Borrain #'1))-'1:2%, was described as a softer version of the disciplined rational art of "oussin, with its sophisticated revelation of the geometry of landscape. #nlike the figures in "oussin's paintings, those in 3laude's landscape tell no dramatic story, point out no moral, and praise no hero. The often appear as an e cuse to do a landscape itself. 7or 3laude, painting involved essentially one theme 9 the beauty of a broad sky suffused with the golden light of dawn or sunset glowing through a ha<y atmosphere and reflecting brilliantly off rippling water. The sub1ect of his work often remains grounded in classical anti$uity, as seen in Bandscape with Catt e and 4easants! The figures on the right chat in animated fashion, on the left cattle rela contentedly. *n the middle ground cattle amble away slowly. The fore, middle, and background recede in orderliness until all forms dissolve into a luminous mist. !tmospheric and linear perspective reinforce each other to turn a vista into a typical 3laudian vision, an ideal classical world bathed in sunlight in infinite space. 0ven though there are many classical features in the landscape, 3laude, like the ,utch painters, studied the actual light and the atmospheric nuances of nature. He recorded carefully in hundreds of sketchbooks the 5oman countryside, its gentle terrain accented by stone pines, cypresses, and poplars, and by the ever present 5oman ruins. he made these fundamental elements in his compositions. Travelers could understand the pictures$ue beauties of the outskirts of 5ome in 3laudian landscapes. 3laude preferred, and convincingly represented, the sun's rays as they gradually illuminated the morning sky or, with their dying glow, set the pensive mood of evening. He matched the moods of nature with those of human sub1ect's. C aude5s infusion of nature with human fee in$ and his decomposition of nature in a ca m equi ibrium $reat y appea ed to the andscape painters of the ':th and '2th centuries! Bouis Be /ain !lthough classicism was an important presence in 7rench art in the 17th and early 18th centuries, not all artists went that direction. Bouis Be Nain #'02;-'14:%, bears comparison to the ,utch. )ub1ects that in ,utch paintings were opportunities for boisterous good humor were

treated with somber stillness by the 7rench. 7ami y of Country 4eop e e presses the grave dignity of a family close to the soil, one made stoic and resigned by hardship. The peasant's lot, never easy, was miserable during the time ?e +ain painted. The constant warfare 47amily was painted during the Thirty 2ear's War6 took its toll on 7rance. The anguish and frustration of the peasantry, suffered from the cruel depredations of unruly armies living off the country, often broke out in violent revolts that were savagely repressed. The family however is pious, docile, and calm. &ecause ?e +ain depicted peasants with dignity and subservience, despite their harsh living conditions, some scholars have suggested that he intended to please wealthy urban patrons with these paintings. Aacques Ca ot #'022-'1;0% conveyed a sense of military life of the times in a series of etchings called /iseries of "ar! 3allot worked almost e clusively in etching, and was widely influential in his own time and since. *n the Bar$e /iseries of "ar series, he coolly observed the details of life and death, presenting without comment images based on events he must have seen in the wars in ?orraine. He depicted a mass e ecution by hanging in <an$in$ Tree! The unfortunates are thieves 4identified by the te t on the bottom6. Ca ot5s Large Miseries of War was amon$ the first rea istic pictoria records of the horrors of armed conf ict! 9eor$es -e Ba Tour &ecause of the prominence of religious issues and the value 3atholics placed on the didactic capabilities of art, religious art did have a presence in 7rance. 9eor$es -e Ba Tour #'02;'102% was well known for his religious imagery. His work suggests influence by 3aravaggio that he may have learned of from the ,utch school of #trecht. His Adoration of the 3hepherds makes use of the night setting favored by that school. ! group of humble men and women, coarsely clad, gather in a prayerful vigil around a luminous baby Eesus. With out the title this appears as a genre piece of peasant life. +othing in the figures distinguishes them as the Holy sub1ects8 no halos, angels, or stately architecture. The light is not spiritual, but material, coming from a candle. ?a Tour eliminated the dogmatic significance and traditional iconography of the *ncarnation. )till these people reverently contemplate something they regard as holy. *t is clear that the painting is readable to the devout of any religious bent whether they know the central mystery of the 3hristian faith or not. The supernatura ca m that per+ades this picture is characteristic if Ba Tour5s work! <e achie+ed this by e iminatin$ motion and emoti+e $esture #on y the i$ht is dramatic%, by suppressin$ surface detai and by simp ifyin$ body +o umes! These sty istic traits are amon$ those associated with c assica art based on c assica princip es! 3e+era apparent y contrary e ements meet in the work of Ba Tour6 c assica composure, fer+ent spiritua ity, and $enre rea ism!

"erhaps the preeminent patron of the period was Hing ?ouis K*=. He was a master at political strategy and propaganda. He promoted his rule as divine right 4belief in a king's absolute power as @od's will6, rendered ?ouis8 authority incontestable. )o full of himself was he that he adopted the nickname le Roi Soleil #the 3un Jin$%! ?ike the sun, ?ouis was the center of the universe. ?ouis was a control freak. His desire to control e tended to all realms of 7rench life, even art. ?ouis and his principal advisor, Eean &aptiste 3olbert 41.1%91.8B6, were determined to organi<e art and architecture in the service of the state. +o pains were spared to raise great symbols and monuments to the king's absolute power. The efforts to regulari<e taste were furthered by the foundation of the *oya Academy of 4aintin$ and 3cu pture in 1.A8, which served to accelerate the establishment of 7rench classical style. The portrait of Bouis K,D by <yacinthe *i$aud #'102-'(4;% conveys the image of an absolute monarch. The king was .B when this work was painted looks at the viewer with haughtiness and arrogance. Though only five9foot, four inches, ?ouis is portrayed as looking down at his sub1ects. ?ouis was insistent that the best artists be used to serve his needs. To accomplish this he maintained a workshop of artists that speciali<ed in things such as faces, fabric, architecture, landscapes, armor and fur. Thus, many of the king's portrait were group efforts. The New Hfficia 7rench Taste The first building pro1ect ?ouis and 3olbert undertook was the closing of the east side of the ?ouvre court left incomplete by ?escot in the 1.th century. &ernini was summoned from *taly to submit plans but his design was re1ected when he wanted to tear everything and start over. He left in high indignation. *nstead the east facade was collaboration among C aude 4errau t #'1';-'1::%, Bouis Be Dau #'1'2-'1()%, and Char es Be Brun #'1'2-'12)%! The design is a brilliant synthesis of 7rench and *talian classical elements, culminating in a new and definitive formula. The 7rench pavilion system was maintained. The central pavilion is in the form of a classical temple front, and a giant colonnade of paired columns, resembling the columned flanks of a temple folded out like wings, is contained by the two salient pavilions at both ends. The whole is mounted on a stately basement, or podium. The designers favored an even roofline, balustraded and broken only by the central pediment, over the traditional 7rench pyramidal roof. The emphatically hori<ontal sweep of the facade brushed aside all memory of @othic verticality. *ts stately proportions and monumentality were both an e pression of the new official 7rench taste and a symbol of centrally organi<ed authority. Dersai es Work of the ?ouvre hardly had begun when ?ouis K*= decided to convert a royal hunting lodge at =ersailles, a few miles outside of "aris, into a great palace. ! veritable army of architects, decorators, sculptors, painters, and landscape architects was assembled under the general management of 3harles ?e &run, a former student of "oussin. *n their hands, the conversion of

a simple hunting lodge into the palace of =ersailles became the greatest architectural pro1ect of the age 9 a defining statement of 7rench &aro$ue style and an undeniable symbol of ?ouis K*='s power and ambition. "lanned on a gigantic scale, the pro1ect not only called for a large palace flanking a vast park but also for the construction of a satellite city to house court and government officials, military and guard detachments, courtiers, and servants 4undoubtedly to keep them all under the king's close supervision. The town was laid out to the 0ast of the palace along three radial avenues that converge on the palace structure itself8 their a es, in a symbolic assertion of the king's absolute power, intersected in the king's bedroom. This room was actually an audience room, a state chamber. The palace itself was more than a $uarter mile long and was placed at right angles to the dominant 0ast9West a is that runs through the city and park. 3areful attention was paid to each detail of an e tremely rich decoration of the palace's interior. The architects and decorators designed everything from wall paintings to doorknobs, to reinforce the splendor of =ersailles and to e hibit the very finest sense of artisanship. (ut of the hundred's of rooms in the palace, the most famous is the 9a erie des 9 aces, or <a of /irrors, designed by Au es <ardouin-/ansart #'141-'():% and Char es Ba Brun! This hall overlooks the park from the second floor and e tends along most the width of the central block. !lthough deprived of its original sumptuous furniture, which included gold and silver chairs and be1eweled trees, the @alerie des @laces retains much of its splendor today. *ts tunnel9like $uality is alleviated by hundreds of mirrors, set into the wall opposite the windows that illusionistically e tend the width of the room. The mirror, the ultimate source of illusion, was a favorite element of &aro$ue interior design. *t also enhanced the da<<ling e travagance of the great festivals ?ouis K*= was so fond of hosting. The park of =ersailles designed by Andre Be Notre #'1';-'())%, must rank amon$ the wor d5s $reatest artwork in both si.e and concept! Here an entire forest was transformed into a park. !lthough the geometric plan may appear stiff and formal, the park in fact offers an almost unlimited variety of vistas. The formal gardens near the palace provide a rational transition from the architectural forms to the natural ones. 7or the @rotto of Thetis in the garden at =ersailles, 7rancois 9irardon #'12:-'('0% desi$ned Apo o Attended by Nymphs! &oth stately and graceful, the nymphs have a compelling charm as they minister to !pollo at the end of the day. The three n nymphs in the background are the work of Thomas 5egnaudin 41.//917;.6. @reco95oman sculpture influenced the design of the figures, while "oussin's figure compositions inspired the sculpture's arrangement. The depiction of !pollo as a reference to ?ouis K*= as the C@od of the )unD was bound to assure acceptance at court. !fter ?e =au's death, Au es <ardouin /ansart, a grand nephew of 7rancois :ansart, completed the garden facade of =ersailles palace and in 1.%8 received a commission to add a

5oyal 3hapel to the comple . The chapel's interior is essentially a rectangular building with an apse as high as the nave, giving the central space a curved &aro$ue $uality. ?arge clerestory windows allow light to enter the interior, illuminating the precisely chiseled details. "ier supported arcades carry a ma1estic row of 3orinthian columns that define the royal gallery. The decoration is restrained. The illusionistic ceiling decorations, added in 17;8917;% by Antoine Coype #'11'-'(22%, suggest the drama and comple ity of &aro$ue art. As a symbo of power and abso utism, Dersai es is unsurpassed! ,t a so e&presses, in the most monumenta terms of its a$e, the rationa istic creed - based on scientific ad+ances that a know ed$e must be systematic and a science must be the consequence of the inte ect imposed on matter! The who e stupendous desi$n of Dersai es proud y proc aims the mastery of human inte i$ence #and Bouis K,D% o+er the disorder iness of nature! !nother of Hardouin9:ansart's masterworks the E$ ise de -ome, Church of the ,n+a ides in "aris, also makes reference to *talian &aro$ue architecture. !n intricately composed domed s$uare of great scale, the church is attached to the veteran's hospital ?ouis K*= set up for disabled soldiers of his many wars. Two firmly separated levels, the upper one pedimented, composes the frontispiece. The grouping of the orders and of the bays they frame is like *talian &aro$ue. The compact facade is low and narrow in relation to the vast drum and dome, seeming to serve simply as a base for them. The conspicuous dome is overpowering and like *talian &aro$ue in its dramatic magnitude. The dome is built of three shells8 the lowest is cut off so that a visitor to the interior looks up through it to the one above, which is painted illusionistically with the apotheosis #deification% of )aint ?ouis, patron of 7rance. The second dome, filled with light from hidden windows in the third, outermost dome, creates an impression of the open limitless space and brightness of the heavens. &elow, the buildings interior is only dimly illuminated. En$ and The absolute authority of the monarchy that prevailed in 7rance was not found in 0ngland. 3ommon ?aw and the "arliament kept royal power in check. *n the 17th and 18th centuries 0ngland e perienced the development of both limited monarchy and constitutionalism. The religious conflicts of the continent were not as contentious. The religious affiliations of the 0nglish included 3atholicism, !nglicanism, "rotestantism,, and "uritanism 4the 0nglish version of 3alvinism6. 0ngland took advantage of the opportunities offered by overseas trade that the ,utch did. 0ngland being an island country possessed a great navy. 0nglish &aro$ue art does not have the focused character of either ,utch or *talian &aro$ue art. The one area of cultural production in which 0ngland made great strides was architecture, much of it incorporating classical elements. The revolution in 0nglish building was primarily the work of one man, ,ndi$o Aones #'0(;'102%, Architect to Jin$ Aames , and Char es ,! Eones spent considerable time in *taly. He

greatly admired the classical authority and restraint of "alladio's structures and studied his architectural treatise. Eones took many of "alladio's basic design principles and applied them to his own work. The nature of this achievement is evident in the buildings he designed for his royal patrons, among them the Banquetin$ <ouse at "hiteha in ?ondon. 7or this structure, a symmetrical block of great clarity and dignity, Eones superimposed two orders, using columns in the center and pilasters near the ends. The balustraded roof line, uninterrupted in its hori<ontal sweep, predates the ?ouvre's facade by A; years. While influenced by "alladio, Eones did not 1ust copy him. 7or two centuries his influence was almost as authoritative in 0nglish architecture as was that of "alladio. Eones interior at Whitehall is adorned with several important 5ubens paintings. #ntil almost the present, the dominant feature of the ?ondon skyline was the ma1estic dome of 3aint 4au 5s Cathedra , the work of 0ngland's most renowned architect Christopher "ren #'1;2-'(2;%, who was a mathematical @enius and skilled engineer whose work won *saac +ewton's praise. Wren was appointed professor of astronomy in ?ondon at age /-. :ath led to architecture and 3harles ** asked Wren to prepare a plan for restoring the old @othic church of )aint "aul. When proposed to remodel the building based on 5oman structures. Within a few months the @reat 7ire of ?ondon, which destroyed the old structure and many other churches in 1..., gave Wren the opportunity to rebuild )aint "aul as well as other churches. Wren was influenced by *ndigo Eones, 7rench architecture from a trip there, and *talian &aro$ue from prints. He harmoni<ed "alladian, 7rench, and *talian &aro$ue features in )aint "aul's. "ren5s work ser+ed as prototypes for ater bui din$s in both En$ and and in co onia America! Bater Baroque Art of the Ear y ':th Century En$ and *n 17;-, while )aint "eter's was being completed, the &ritish government commissioned a monumental palace in ( fordshire, &lenheim, for Eohn 3hurchill duke of :arlborough. The palace was a reward for 3hurchill's military victory over the 7rench in 17;A at the &attle of &lenheim during the War for )panish )uccession. ,esigned by Aohn Danbru$h #'114-'(21%, B enheim was one of the largest of the splendid country houses built during the period of prosperity resulting from @reat &ritain>s e pansion into the +ew World. !t the time, a small group of architects associated with the aging )ir 3hristopher Wren was responsible for briefly returning *talian &aro$ue comple ity to favor over the streamlined "alladian classicism of *ndigo Eones. =anbrugh was the best known of this group. &lenheim recalls *talian &aro$ue architecture. The design demonstrates =anbrugh's love of variety and contrast, tempered by his ability to create focus areas such as those found fre$uently in 17th century architecture. The tremendous forecourt, the hugely pro1ecting pavilions and the e tended colonnades simultaneously recall )aint "eter's and =ersailles. &aro$ue architects often sacrificed convenience for dramatic effect. =anbrugh placed the kitchen some /;; feet from the ma1estic dining salon. His architecture pleased his patrons in the beginning, but even before &lenheim was completed, critics condemned what they considered its ponderous and bi<arre $ualities.

9ermany *talian &aro$ue influenced the ecclesiastical architecture of )outhern @ermany and !ustria. (ne of the most splendid @erman buildings is the pilgrimage church of Dier.ehnhei i$en #fourteen saints% designed by Ba thasar Neumann #'1:(-'(0;% and built near )taffelstein. +eumann traveled to !ustria and +orthern *taly and studied in "aris before returning home to become one of the most active architects in his native land. +umerous large windows in the richly decorated and continuous walls flood the interior of =ier<ehnheiligen with a bright, even and cheerful light. The sanctuary e hibits a vivacious play of architectural fantasy that retains the *talian &aro$ue's dynamic energy but banishes all its dramatic $ualities. The comple ity of the church is seen in it's ground plan, which has been called one of the most ingenious pieces of architectural design ever conceived. The straight lines have deliberately been removed. The composition is made up of tangent ovals and circles, achieving a very different effect with in the traditional outlines of a @othic church 4apse, transept, nave, and western towers6. #ndulating space is in continuous motion, creating unlimited vistas bewildering in their variety and effect. The church is a brilliant ensemble of architecture, painting, and sculpture, and music, dissolving the boundaries of the arts in a visionary unity. The desire to achieve the unity of various artistic mediums propelled architects and artists in @ermany and !ustria to further e plore the illusionistic capabilities of each medium. E$id 8uirin Asam #'122-'(0)% created the group Assumption of the Dir$in for the space above the altar in the monastery church at 5ohr, @ermany. !sam designed the church in collaboration with his brother Cosmas -amian Asam #'1:1- '(;2%! *nfluenced by ?ate &aro$ue architecture they saw on a trip to 5ome, the brothers returned to @ermany with a feel for illusionistic spectacle. The miraculous is made real before the viewer's eyes, a spiritual vision materially visible. The =irgin is effortlessly borne aloft by angels, soaring to the glowing paradise above her, while the apostolic witness's gesticulate in astonishment around her vacant tomb. The figures ascending to Heaven have gilded details that set them apart from those remaining on earth. The setting is a lu uriously ornamented theater. The scene is pure opera 9 an art perfected in the 18th century and very popular. Her sculpture dissolves into painting, theater, and music. *ts mass is rendered weightless, its compact composition broken up and diffused. ,ta y The ceilings of ?ate &aro$ue palaces sometimes became painted festivals for the imagination. The master of such works, 9iambattista Tiepo o #'121-'(()%, was the ast $reat ,ta ian painter unti the 2)th century to ha+e internationa impact! (f =enetian origin, Tiepolo worked for patrons in !ustria, @ermany, and )pain, as well as *taly. His bright cheerful colors and rela ed compositions were ideally suited to ?ate &aro$ue architecture. The Apotheosis of

the 4isani 7ami y, a ceiling fresco in the =illa "isani at )tra in +orthern *taly, shows airy figures fluttering through the vast sunlit skies and fleecy clouds, their forms making dark accents against the brilliant light of high noon. !s the title indicates, "isani family members are elevated here to the rank of gods in a heavenly scene that recalls the ceiling paintings of 3orreggio and "o<<o. While retaining 17th century illusionistic tendencies, Tiepolo softened the rhetoric and created pictorial schemes of great elegance and grace, unsurpassed for their sheer effectiveness as decor. Conc usion The art produced in the 17th and early 18th centuries was truly diverse, making the comprehensive summary of the &aro$ue period impossible. 0ach country encountered a different set of historical challenges, and even within country boundaries a wide variety of forms emerged. ,rama and comple ity were hallmarks of *talian &aro$ue art, ,utch &aro$ue art was characteri<ed to a greater degree by restrained genre scenes, still life's, and portraits produced for a growing class of merchant patrons. ,espite the period's lack of consistency in artistic development, its legacy was lasting. :any of the concerns of 17th and early 18th century artists, such as, direct observation, emotional intensity, and manipulation of light and color, laid the foundation for two styles that emerged in the late 18th century, +eoclassicism and 5omanticism. 7urther the influence of such artists as 3aravaggio, &ernini, =ela<$ue<, 5ubens, 5embrandt, and =ermeer, among many others resonates in art to the present day.