trsem moon

7 Lateral Dynamics

7.2 Steady State Cornering

7.2.1 Cornering Resistance
In a body xed reference frame B , Fig. 7.6, the velocity state of the vehicle can be described by 0 v cos (7.38) and 0F,B = 0 , v0C,B = v sin 0 where denotes the side slip angle of the vehicle measured at the center of gravity. The angular velocity of a vehicle cornering with constant velocity v on an at horizontal road is given by = where R denotes the radius of curvature. v , R (7.39)

a2

Fx2 Fy2

a1

C R yB v

xB

Fx1

Fy1

Figure 7.6: Cornering resistance In the body xed reference frame, linear and angular momentum result in m m v2 sin R v2 cos R = Fx1 cos Fy1 sin + Fx2 , = Fx1 sin + Fy1 cos + Fy2 , 0 = a1 (Fx1 sin + Fy1 cos ) a2 Fy2 , (7.40) (7.41) (7.42)

116

7.2 Steady State Cornering where m denotes the mass of the vehicle, Fx1 , Fx2 , Fy1 , Fy2 are the resulting forces in longitudinal and vertical direction applied at the front and rear axle, and species the average steer angle at the front axle. The engine torque is distributed by the center differential to the front and rear axle. Then, in steady state condition we obtain Fx1 = k FD and Fx2 = (1 k ) FD , (7.43)

where FD is the driving force and by k different driving conditions can be modeled: k=0 0<k<1 k=1 rear wheel drive all wheel drive front wheel drive Fx1 = 0, Fx2 = FD Fx1 k = Fx2 1k Fx1 = FD , Fx2 = 0

If we insert Eq. (7.43) into Eq. (7.40) we will get k cos + (1 k ) FD k sin FD + sin Fy1 cos Fy1 + = Fy2 = mv 2 sin , R mv 2 cos , R

(7.44)

a1 k sin FD + a1 cos Fy1 a2 Fy2 = 0 . These equations can be resolved for the driving force a2 cos sin sin cos mv 2 a1 + a2 = . k + (1 k ) cos R

FD

(7.45)

The driving force will vanish, if a2 cos sin = sin cos a1 + a2 or a2 tan = tan a 1 + a2 (7.46)

holds. This fully corresponds with the Ackermann geometry. But, the Ackermann geometry applies only for small lateral accelerations. In real driving situations, the side slip angle of a vehicle at the center of gravity is always smaller than the Ackermann side slip angle. Then, due 2 tan a driving force FD > 0 is needed to overcome the cornering resistance to tan < a1a +a2 of the vehicle.

7.2.2 Overturning Limit

The overturning hazard of a vehicle is primarily determined by the track width and the height of the center of gravity. With trucks however, also the tire deection and the body roll have to be respected., Fig. 7.7.

117

7 Lateral Dynamics

2 1 m ay h2 mg

h1

F yL FzL s/2

F yR s/2

FzR

Figure 7.7: Overturning hazard on trucks The balance of torques at the height of the track plane applied at the already inclined vehicle results in s (FzL FzR ) = m ay (h1 + h2 ) + m g [(h1 + h2 )1 + h2 2 ] , (7.47) 2 where ay describes the lateral acceleration, m is the sprung mass, and small roll angles of the axle and the body were assumed, 1 1, 2 1. On a left-hand tilt, the right tire raises
T FzR = 0,

(7.48)

whereas the left tire carries the complete vehicle weight

T FzL = mg .

(7.49)

Using Eqs. (7.48) and (7.49) one gets from Eq. (7.47) s aT h2 y T 2 = 1 T . g h1 + h2 h1 + h2 2

(7.50)

The vehicle will turn over, when the lateral acceleration ay rises above the limit aT y . Roll of axle T T and body reduce the overturning limit. The angles 1 and 2 can be calculated from the tire stiffness cR and the roll stiffness of the axle suspension.

118

7.2 Steady State Cornering If the vehicle drives straight ahead, the weight of the vehicle will be equally distributed to both sides 1 stat stat (7.51) FzR = FzL = mg . 2 With T stat FzL = FzL + Fz (7.52) and Eqs. (7.49), (7.51), one obtains for the increase of the wheel load at the overturning limit Fz = Then, the resulting tire deection follows from Fz = cR r , where cR is the radial tire stiffness. Because the right tire simultaneously rebounds with the same amount, for the roll angle of the axle mg 2 r T T = (7.55) 2 r = s 1 or 1 = s s cR holds. In analogy to Eq. (7.47) the balance of torques at the body applied at the roll center of the body yields cW 2 = m ay h2 + m g h2 (1 + 2 ) , (7.56) where cW names the roll stiffness of the body suspension. In particular, at the overturning limit ay = aT y aT mgh2 mgh2 y T 2 = + T (7.57) g cW mgh2 cW mgh2 1 applies. Not allowing the vehicle to overturn already at aT y = 0 demands a minimum of roll min stiffness cW > cW = mgh2 . With Eqs. (7.55) and (7.57) the overturning condition Eq. (7.50) reads as (h1 + h2 ) aT aT 1 1 s 1 1 y y h2 , = (h1 + h2 ) h2 g 2 cR g cW 1 cW 1 cR (7.58) (7.54) 1 mg . 2 (7.53)

where, for abbreviation purposes, the dimensionless stiffnesses cR c R = mg s and c W = cW m g h2 (7.59)

have been used. Resolved for the normalized lateral acceleration aT y = g s 2 1 c R (7.60)

h2 h1 + h2 + cW 1

119

7 Lateral Dynamics

0.6 0.5

overturning limit ay

20

roll angle =T 1+2

15 0.4 0.3 0.2 5 0.1 0 0 10 20 normalized roll stiffness c W * 0 0 10 20 normalized roll stiffness c W * 10

Figure 7.8: Tilting limit for a typical truck at steady state cornering remains. At heavy trucks, a twin tire axle may be loaded with m = 13 000 kg . The radial stiffness of one tire is cR = 800 000 N/m, and the track width can be set to s = 2 m. The values h1 = 0.8 m and h2 = 1.0 m hold at maximal load. These values produce the results shown in Fig. 7.8. Even with a rigid body suspension c W , the vehicle turns over at a lateral acceleration of ay 0.5 g . Then, the roll angle of the vehicle solely results from the tire deection. At a normalized roll stiffness of c W = 5, the overturning limit lies at ay 0.45 g and so reaches already 90% of the maximum. The vehicle will turn over at a roll angle of = 1 + 2 10 then.

7.2.3 Roll Support and Camber Compensation

When a vehicle drives through a curve with the lateral acceleration ay , centrifugal forces will be applied to the single masses. At the simple roll model in Fig. 7.9, these are the forces mA ay and mR ay , where mA names the body mass and mR the wheel mass. Through the centrifugal force mA ay applied to the body at the center of gravity, a torque is generated, which rolls the body with the angle A and leads to an opposite deection of the tires z1 = z2 . At steady state cornering, the vehicle forces are balanced. With the principle of virtual work W = 0 , the equilibrium position can be calculated. At the simple vehicle model in Fig. 7.9 the suspension forces FF 1 , FF 2 and tire forces Fy1 , Fz1 , Fy2 , Fz2 , are approximated by linear spring elements with the constants cA and cQ , cR . The work (7.61)

120

7.2 Steady State Cornering

b/2 zA mA a y FF2 h0 mR a y r0 z2 S2 Q2 Fy2 y2 F y2 2 mR a y SA A yA FF1 z1 S1 Q1 F z1 y1 F y1 1 b/2

Figure 7.9: Simple vehicle roll model W of these forces can be calculated directly or using W = V via the potential V . At small deections with linearized kinematics one gets W = mA ay yA mR ay (yA + hR A + y1 )2 mR ay (yA + hR A + y2 )2 1 c z2 2 A 1
1 2 2 cA z2

c (z1 z2 )2 1 2 S c (yA + h0 A + y1 + r0 1 )2 1 2 Q
b c zA + 2 A + z1 1 2 R 2 1 2

(7.62) cQ (yA + h0 A + y2 + r0 2 )2
2

1 2

b cR zA 2 A + z2

where the abbreviation hR = h0 r0 has been used, and cS describes the spring constant of the anti roll bar, converted to the vertical displacement of the wheel centers. The kinematics of the wheel suspension are symmetrical. With the linear approaches y y z1 , 1 = 1 and y2 = z2 , 2 = 2 z z z z the work W can be described as a function of the position vector y1 = y = [ yA , zA , A , z1 , z2 ]T . Due to W = W (y ) the principle of virtual work Eq. (7.61) leads to W = W y = 0 . y (7.66) (7.65) (7.63)

(7.64)

121

7 Lateral Dynamics Because of y = 0, a system of linear equations in the form of Ky = b results from Eq. (7.66). The matrix K and the vector b are given by y Q y Q 2 cQ 0 2 cQ h0 c z cQ z Q 0 2 c 0 c c R R R Q Q y y b b K = 2 cQ h0 0 c c + h c c h c R 0 Q R 0 Q 2 z 2 z Q y yQ c b cR c + h c c + c + c c R 0 Q S R S z Q A 2 z y Q y Q b cS cA + cS + cR z cQ cR 2 cR h0 z cQ and mA + 2 mR 0 (m1 + m2 ) hR mR y/z mR y/z (7.67)

(7.68)

b = y Q y = + r0 , z z z

ay . b 2
2

(7.69)

The following abbreviations have been used: c A = cA + cQ y z

2

c = 2 cQ h2 0 + 2 cR

(7.70)

The system of linear equations Eq. (7.67) can be solved numerically, e.g. with MATLAB. Thus, the inuence of axle suspension and axle kinematics on the roll behavior of the vehicle can be investigated.
a) A b) A

2
roll center

1 0

roll center

2 0

Figure 7.10: Roll behavior at cornering: a) without and b) with camber compensation If the wheels only move vertically to the body at jounce and rebound, at fast cornering the wheels will be no longer perpendicular to the track Fig. 7.10 a. The camber angles 1 > 0 and 2 > 0 result in an unfavorable pressure distribution in the contact area, which leads to a reduction of the maximally transmittable lateral forces. Thus, at more sportive vehicles axle

122

7.2 Steady State Cornering kinematics are employed, where the wheels are rotated around the longitudinal axis at jounce and rebound, 1 = 1 (z1 ) and 2 = 2 (z2 ). Hereby, a camber compensation can be achieved with 1 0 and 2 0. Fig. 7.10 b. By the rotation of the wheels around the longitudinal axis on jounce and rebound, the wheel contact points are moved outwards, i.e against the lateral force. By this, a roll support is achieved that reduces the body roll.

7.2.4 Roll Center and Roll Axis

roll axis roll center front

roll center rear

Figure 7.11: Roll axis The roll center can be constructed from the lateral motion of the wheel contact points Q1 and Q2 , Fig. 7.10. The line through the roll center at the front and rear axle is called roll axis, Fig. 7.11.

7.2.5 Wheel Loads

+TT -TT

PR0+P PF0+P PF0-P

PR0-P PF0+PF

PR0+PR PF0-PF

PR0-PR

Figure 7.12: Wheel loads for a exible and a rigid chassis The roll angle of a vehicle during cornering depends on the roll stiffness of the axle and on the position of the roll center. Different axle layouts at the front and rear axle may result in different roll angles of the front and rear part of the chassis, Fig. 7.12.

123

7 Lateral Dynamics On most passenger cars the chassis is rather stiff. Hence, front and rear part of the chassis are forced by an internal torque to an overall chassis roll angle. This torque affects the wheel loads and generates different wheel load differences at the front and rear axle. Due to the degressive inuence of the wheel load to longitudinal and lateral tire forces the steering tendency of a vehicle can be affected.

7.3 Simple Handling Model

7.3.1 Modeling Concept
x0

a2 a1 Fy2 x2 v yB C y2

y0

Fy1 x1

xB y1

Figure 7.13: Simple handling model The main vehicle motions take place in a horizontal plane dened by the earth-xed frame 0, Fig. 7.13. The tire forces at the wheels of one axle are combined to one resulting force. Tire torques, rolling resistance, and aerodynamic forces and torques, applied at the vehicle, are not taken into consideration.

7.3.2 Kinematics
The vehicle velocity at the center of gravity can be expressed easily in the body xed frame xB , yB , zB v cos (7.71) vC,B = v sin , 0

where denotes the side slip angle, and v is the magnitude of the velocity.

124

7.3 Simple Handling Model The velocity vectors and the unit vectors in longitudinal and lateral direction of the axles are needed for the computation of the lateral slips. One gets v cos sin cos (7.72) ex1 ,B = sin , ey1 ,B = cos , v01,B = v sin + a1 0 0 0 and ex2 ,B 1 = 0 , 0 0 = 1 , 0 v cos , = v sin a2 0

ey2 ,B

v02,B

(7.73)

where a1 and a2 are the distances from the center of gravity to the front and rear axle, and denotes the yaw angular velocity of the vehicle.

7.3.3 Tire Forces

Unlike with the kinematic tire model, now small lateral motions in the contact points are permitted. At small lateral slips, the lateral force can be approximated by a linear approach Fy = cS sy , (7.74)

where cS is a constant depending on the wheel load Fz , and the lateral slip sy is dened by Eq. (3.61). Because the vehicle is neither accelerated nor decelerated, the rolling condition is fullled at each wheel (7.75) rD = eT x v 0P . Here, rD is the dynamic tire radius, v0P the contact point velocity, and ex the unit vector in longitudinal direction. With the lateral tire velocity vy = eT y v 0P and the rolling condition Eq. (7.75), the lateral slip can be calculated from eT y v 0P sy = T , | ex v0P | (7.77) (7.76)

with ey labeling the unit vector in the lateral direction direction of the tire. So, the lateral forces are given by Fy1 = cS 1 sy1 ; Fy2 = cS 2 sy2 . (7.78)

7.3.4 Lateral Slips

With Eq. (7.73), the lateral slip at the front axle follows from Eq. (7.77): sy 1 = + sin (v cos ) cos (v sin + a1 ) . | cos (v cos ) + sin (v sin + a1 )| (7.79)

125

8 Driving Behavior of Single Vehicles

8.1 Standard Driving Maneuvers
8.1.1 Steady State Cornering
The steering tendency of a real vehicle is determined by the driving maneuver called steady state cornering. The maneuver is performed quasi-static. The driver tries to keep the vehicle on a circle with the given radius R. He slowly increases the driving speed v and, with this also 2 until reaching the limit. Typical results are displayed in the lateral acceleration due ay = v R Fig. 8.1.
80 4

40

side slip angle [deg] wheel loads [kN] 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 lateral acceleration [g]

60 steer angle [deg]

20

-2

0 4

-4 6 5

roll angle [deg]

4 3 2 1

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 lateral acceleration [g]

Figure 8.1: Steady state cornering: rear-wheel-driven car on R = 100 m In forward drive the vehicle is understeering and thus stable for any velocity. The inclination in the diagram steering angle versus lateral velocity decides about the steering tendency and stability behavior.

136

8.1 Standard Driving Maneuvers The nonlinear inuence of the wheel load on the tire performance is here used to design a vehicle that is weakly stable, but sensitive to steer input in the lower range of lateral acceleration, and is very stable but less sensitive to steer input in limit conditions. With the increase of the lateral acceleration the roll angle becomes larger. The overturning torque is intercepted by according wheel load differences between the outer and inner wheels. With a sufciently rigid frame the use of an anti roll bar at the front axle allows to increase the wheel load difference there and to decrease it at the rear axle accordingly. Thus, the digressive inuence of the wheel load on the tire properties, cornering stiffness and maximum possible lateral force, is stressed more strongly at the front axle, and the vehicle becomes more under-steering and stable at increasing lateral acceleration, until it drifts out of the curve over the front axle in the limit situation. Problems occur at front driven vehicles, because due to the demand for traction, the front axle cannot be relieved at will. Having a sufciently large test site, the steady state cornering maneuver can also be carried out at constant speed. There, the steering wheel is slowly turned until the vehicle reaches the limit range. That way also weakly motorized vehicles can be tested at high lateral accelerations.

8.1.2 Step Steer Input

The dynamic response of a vehicle is often tested with a step steer input. Methods for the calculation and evaluation of an ideal response, as used in system theory or control technics, can not be used with a real car, for a step input at the steering wheel is not possible in practice. A real steering angle gradient is displayed in Fig. 8.2.
40 steering angle [deg]

30

20

10

0.2

0.4 0.6 time [s]

0.8

Figure 8.2: Step Steer Input Not the angle at the steering wheel is the decisive factor for the driving behavior, but the steering angle at the wheels, which can differ from the steering wheel angle because of elasticities, friction inuences, and a servo-support. At very fast steering movements, also the dynamics of the tire forces plays an important role. In practice, a step steer input is usually only used to judge vehicles subjectively. Exceeds in yaw velocity, roll angle, and especially sideslip angle are felt as annoying.

137

8 Driving Behavior of Single Vehicles

0.6 0.5 lateral acceleration [g] yaw velocity [deg/s] side slip angle [deg] 0 2 4 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 3 2.5 roll angle [deg] 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 1 0.5 0 -0.5 -1 -1.5 -2 0 2 4

[t]

Figure 8.3: Step Steer: Passenger Car at v = 100 km/h The vehicle under consideration behaves dynamically very well, Fig. 8.3. Almost no overshoots occur in the time history of the roll angle and the lateral acceleration. However, small overshoots can be noticed at yaw the velocity and the sideslip angle.

8.1.3 Driving Straight Ahead

8.1.3.1 Random Road Prole The irregularities of a track are of stochastic nature. Fig. 8.4 shows a country road prole in different scalings. To limit the effort of the stochastic description of a track, one usually employs simplifying models. Instead of a fully two-dimensional description either two parallel tracks are evaluated z = z (x, y ) z1 = z1 (s1 ) , and z2 = z2 (s2 ) (8.1) or one uses an isotropic track. The statistic properties are direction-independent at an isotropic track. Then, a two-dimensional track can be approximated by a single random process z = z (x, y ) z = z (s) ; (8.2)

138

8.1 Standard Driving Maneuvers

0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01 0 -0.01 -0.02 -0.03 -0.04 -0.05 0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Figure 8.4: Track Irregularities A normally distributed, stationary and ergodic random process z = z (s) is completely characterized by the rst two expectation values, the mean value 1 mz = lim s 2s and the correlation function 1 Rzz ( ) = lim s 2s
s s

z (s) ds
s

(8.3)

z (s) z (s ) ds .
s

(8.4)

A vanishing mean value mz = 0 can always be achieved by an appropriate coordinate transformation. The correlation function is symmetric, Rzz ( ) = Rzz ( ) , and 1 Rzz (0) = lim s 2s describes the variance of zs . Stochastic track irregularities are mostly described by power spectral densities (abbreviated by psd). Correlating function and the one-sided power spectral density are linked by the Fouriertransformation Rzz ( ) =
0 s

(8.5)

z (s)
s

ds

(8.6)

Szz () cos( ) d

(8.7)

where denotes the space circular frequency. With Eq. (8.7) follows from Eq. (8.6)

Rzz (0) =
0

Szz () d .

(8.8)

139

8 Driving Behavior of Single Vehicles Thus, the psd gives information, how the variance is compiled from the single frequency shares. The power spectral densities of real tracks can be approximated by the relation Szz () = S0 0
w

(8.9)

where the reference frequency is xed to 0 = 1 m1 . The reference psd S0 = Szz (0 ) acts as a measurement for unevennes and the waviness w indicates, whether the track has notable irregularities in the short or long wave spectrum. At real tracks, the reference-psd S0 lies within the range from 1 106 m3 to 100 106 m3 and the waviness can be approximated by w = 2. 8.1.3.2 Steering Activity
highway: S 0=1*10 1000
-6

m ; w=2 1000

country road: S0=2*10

-5

m ; w=2

500

500

-2

[deg] 2

-2

[deg] 2

Figure 8.5: Steering activity on different roads A straightforward drive upon an uneven track makes continuous steering corrections necessary. The histograms of the steering angle at a driving speed of v = 90 km/h are displayed in Fig. 8.5. The track quality is reected in the amount of steering actions. The steering activity is often used to judge a vehicle in practice.

8.2 Coach with different Loading Conditions

8.2.1 Data
The difference between empty and laden is sometimes very large at trucks and coaches. In the table 8.1 all relevant data of a travel coach in fully laden and empty condition are listed. The coach has a wheel base of a = 6.25 m. The front axle with the track width sv = 2.046 m has a double wishbone single wheel suspension. The twin-tire rear axle with the track widths i so h = 2.152 m and sh = 1.492 m is guided by two longitudinal links and an a-arm. The airsprings are tted to load variations via a niveau-control.

140

8.2 Coach with different Loading Conditions

vehicle empty fully laden

mass [kg ] 12 500

center of gravity [m] 3.800 | 0.000 | 1.500

inertias [kg m2 ] 12 500 0 0 0 155 000 0 0 0 155 000 15 400 0 250 0 200 550 0 250 0 202 160

18 000

3.860 | 0.000 | 1.600

Table 8.1: Data for a laden and empty coach

10 5 0 -5 -10 -1 0 steer angle [deg] 1

Figure 8.6: Roll steer: - - front, rear

8.2.2 Roll Steering

While the kinematics at the front axle hardly cause steering movements at roll motions, the kinematics at the rear axle are tuned in a way to cause a notable roll steering effect, Fig. 8.6.

8.2.3 Steady State Cornering

Fig. 8.7 shows the results of a steady state cornering on a 100 m-Radius. The fully occupied vehicle is slightly more understeering than the empty one. The higher wheel loads cause greater tire aligning torques and increase the degressive wheel load inuence on the increase of the lateral forces. Additionally roll steering at the rear axle occurs. Both vehicles can not be kept on the given radius in the limit range. Due to the high position of the center of gravity the maximal lateral acceleration is limited by the overturning hazard. At the empty vehicle, the inner front wheel lift off at a lateral acceleration of ay 0.4 g . If the vehicle is fully occupied, this effect will occur already at ay 0.35 g .

suspension travel [cm]

141

8 Driving Behavior of Single Vehicles

steer angle 250 200 [m] 150 100 50 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 lateral acceleration a y [g] wheel loads [kN] 100 100
LW

[deg] 200 150 100 50 0 -100

vehicle course

0 [m]

100

wheel loads [kN]

50

50

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 lateral acceleration a y [g]

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 lateral acceleration a y [g]

Figure 8.7: Steady State Cornering: Coach - - empty, fully occupied

lateral acceleration a y [g] 0.4 0.3 0.2 4 0.1 0 2 0 2 4 6 8 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 8 6 yaw velocity

Z [deg/s]

roll angle 8

[deg]
2

side slip angle

[deg]

6 4 2 0

1 0 -1 -2 0 2 4 [s] 6 8 0 2 4 [s] 6 8

Figure 8.8: Step steer input: - - coach empty, coach fully occupied

142

8.3 Different Rear Axle Concepts for a Passenger Car

8.2.4 Step Steer Input

The results of a step steer input at the driving speed of v = 80 km/h can be seen in Fig. 8.8. To achieve comparable acceleration values in steady state condition, the step steer input was done at the empty vehicle with = 90 and at the fully occupied one with = 135 . The steady state roll angle is 50% larger at the fully occupied bus than at the empty one. By the niveau-control, the air spring stiffness increases with the load. Because the damper effect remains unchanged, the fully laden vehicle is not damped as well as the empty one. This results in larger overshoots in the time histories of the lateral acceleration, the yaw angular velocity, and the sideslip angle.

8.3 Different Rear Axle Concepts for a Passenger Car

A medium-sized passenger car is equipped in standard design with a semi-trailing rear axle. By accordingly changed data this axle can easily be transformed into a trailing arm or a single wishbone axis. According to the roll support, the semi-trailing axle realized in serial production represents a compromise between the trailing arm and the single wishbone, Fig. 8.9, .
10 vertical motion [cm] 5 0 -5 -10 -5 0 lateral motion [cm] 5

Figure 8.9: Rear axle: semi-trailing arm, - - single wishbone, trailing arm The inuences on the driving behavior at steady state cornering on a 100 m radius are shown in Fig. 8.10. Substituting the semi-trailing arm at the standard car by a single wishbone, one gets, without adaption of the other system parameters a vehicle oversteering in the limit range. Compared to the semi-trailing arm the single wishbone causes a notably higher roll support. This increases the wheel load difference at the rear axle, Fig. 8.10. Because the wheel load difference is simultaneously reduced at the front axle, the understeering tendency is reduced. In the limit range, this even leads to an oversteering behavior. The vehicle with a trailing arm rear axle is, compared to the serial car, more understeering. The lack of roll support at the rear axle also causes a larger roll angle.

143

8 Driving Behavior of Single Vehicles

steer angle 100

LW

[deg] 5 4 3 2 1 0

roll angle

[Grad]

50

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

wheel loads front [kN] 6 4 2 0 6 4 2 0

wheel loads rear [kN]

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 lateral acceleration a y [g]

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 lateral acceleration a y [g]

Figure 8.10: Steady state cornering, semi-trailing arm, - - single wishbone, trailing arm

144

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148

Index Lateral force distribution, 34 Lateral slip, 33 Lateral velocity, 25 Lift off, 113 Linear Model, 152 Loaded radius, 17, 25 Longitudinal force, 11, 32 Longitudinal force characteristics, 33 Longitudinal force distribution, 33 Longitudinal slip, 32 Longitudinal velocity, 25 Model, 39 Normal force, 11 Pneumatic trail, 34 Radial damping, 28 Radial direction, 17 Radial Stiffness, 147 Radial stiffness, 28 Rolling resistance, 11, 30 Rolling resistance coefcient, 30 Self aligning torque, 11, 34 Sliding velocity, 34 Static radius, 17, 25, 27 Tilting torque, 11 Track normal, 17, 19 Transport velocity, 26 Tread deection, 31 Tread particles, 31 Unloaded radius, 25 Vertical force, 27 Wheel load inuence, 36 Tire Model Kinematic, 135 Linear, 160 TMeasy, 39 Toe angle, 4 Toe-in, 4 Toe-out, 4 Torsion bar, 82 Track, 16 Track Curvature, 140 Track Radius, 140 Track Width, 135, 147 Tracknormal, 4 Trailer, 138, 141 Understeer, 158 Vehicle, 2 Vehicle comfort, 97 Vehicle dynamics, 1 Vehicle Model, 119, 129, 138, 147, 151 Vehicle model, 97, 115 Vertical dynamics, 97 Virtual Work, 147 Waviness, 167 Wheel Base, 135 Wheel camber, 5 Wheel load, 11 Wheel Loads, 119 Wheel rotation axis, 4 Wheel Suspension Semi-Trailing Arm, 170 Single Wishbone, 170 Trailing Arm, 170 Wheel suspension Central control arm, 79 Double wishbone, 78 McPherson, 78 Multi-Link, 78 Semi-trailing arm, 79 SLA, 79 Yaw Angle, 141 Yaw angle, 138 Yaw Velocity, 152

iii

Index Ljapunov equation, 109 Load, 3 Maximum Acceleration, 122, 123 Maximum Deceleration, 122, 124 Natural frequency, 101 Optimal Brake Force Distribution, 126 Optimal damping, 106, 111 Chassis, 107 Wheel, 107 Optimal Drive Force Distribution, 126 Oversteer, 158 Overturning Limit, 144 Parallel Tracks, 165 Pinion, 80 Pivot pole, 135 Power Spectral Density, 166 Quarter car model, 112, 115 Rack, 80 Random Road Prole, 165 Rear Wheel Drive, 123, 144 Reference frames Ground xed, 4 Inertial, 4 Vehicle xed, 4 Relative damping rate, 102 Ride comfort, 108 Ride safety, 108 Road, 16 Roll Axis, 150 Roll Center, 150 Roll Steer, 168 Roll Stiffness, 146 Roll Support, 147, 150 Rolling Condition, 152 Safety, 97 Side Slip Angle, 135, 159 Sky hook damper, 111 Space Requirement, 136 Spring rate, 103 Stability, 154 Stabilizer, 83 State Equation, 154 State matrix, 113 State vector, 113 Steady State Cornering, 143, 163, 168 Steer box, 80 Steering Activity, 167 Steering Angle, 140 Steering box, 81 Steering lever, 81 Steering offset, 8, 9 Steering system Drag link steering system, 81 Lever arm, 80 Rack and pinion, 80 Steering Tendency, 151, 157 Step Steer Input, 164, 170 Suspension model, 97 Suspension spring rate, 103 System response, 87 Tilting Condition, 122 Tire Bore torque, 11, 46 Camber angle, 17 Camber inuence, 43 Characteristics, 39 Circumferential direction, 17 Composites, 10 Contact forces, 11 Contact patch, 11 Contact point, 16 Contact point velocity, 24 Contact torques, 11 Deection, 20 Deformation velocity, 25 Development, 10 Dynamic offset, 34 Dynamic radius, 26 Dynamics, 49 Friction coefcient, 37 Lateral direction, 17 Lateral force, 11 Lateral force characteristics, 34

ii

Index
Ackermann Geometry, 135 Ackermann Steering Angle, 135, 158 Aerodynamic Forces, 121 Air Resistance, 121 Air spring, 83 All Wheel Drive, 144 Anti Dive, 134 Anti Roll Bar, 148 Anti Squat, 134 Anti-Lock-Systems, 128 Anti-roll bar, 83 Axle Kinematics, 134 Axle kinematics Double wishbone, 7 McPherson, 7 Multi-link, 7 Axle Load, 120 Axle suspension Solid axle, 78 Twist beam, 79 Bend Angle, 142 Bend angle, 139 Brake Pitch Angle, 129 Brake Pitch Pole, 134 Camber angle, 5, 17 Camber Compensation, 147, 150 Camber slip, 44 Caster, 8, 9 Climbing Capacity, 122 Coil spring, 82 Comfort, 97 Contact point, 18 Cornering Resistance, 143, 144 Cornering stiffness, 34 Critical velocity, 157 Curvature Gradient, 140 Damping rate, 101 Disturbance-reaction problems, 108 Disturbing force lever, 8 Down Forces, 121 Downhill Capacity, 122 Drag link, 80, 81 Drive Pitch Angle, 129 Driver, 2 Driving Maximum Acceleration, 123 Driving safety, 97 Dynamic Axle Load, 120 Dynamic force elements, 87 Dynamic Wheel Loads, 119 Eigenvalues, 154 Environment, 3 First harmonic oscillation, 87 Fourier-approximation, 88 Frequency domain, 87 Friction, 122 Front Wheel Drive, 123, 144 Generalized uid mass, 94 Grade, 120 Hydro-mount, 93 Kingpin, 7 Kingpin Angle, 8 Lateral Acceleration, 147, 158 Lateral Force, 152 Lateral Slip, 152 Leaf spring, 82, 83

1.2 Denitions
xF yF + toe-in xF yF toe-out

Figure 1.2: Toe-in and Toe-out For minimum tire wear and power loss, the wheels on a given axle of a car should point directly ahead when the car is running in a straight line. Excessive toe-in or toe-out causes the tires to scrub, since they are always turned relative to the direction of travel. Toe-in improves the directional stability of a car and reduces the tendency of the wheels to shimmy.

1.2.3 Wheel Camber

Wheel camber is the angle of the wheel relative to vertical, as viewed from the front or the rear of the car, Fig. 1.3. If the wheel leans away from the car, it has positive camber; if it leans in
+ positive camber + negative camber

zF en yF

zF en yF

Figure 1.3: Positive camber angle towards the chassis, it has negative camber. The wheel camber angle must not be mixed up with the tire camber angle which is dened as the angle between the wheel center plane and the local track normal en . Excessive camber angles cause a non symmetric tire wear. A tire can generate the maximum lateral force during cornering if it is operated with a slightly negative tire camber angle. As the chassis rolls in corner the suspension must be designed such that the wheels performs camber changes as the suspension moves up and down. An ideal suspension will generate an increasingly negative wheel camber as the suspension deects upward.

1.2.4 Design Position of Wheel Rotation Axis

The unit vector eyR describes the wheel rotation axis. Its orientation with respect to the wheel carrier xed reference frame can be dened by the angles 0 and 0 or 0 and 0 , Fig. 1.4. In