Introduction to Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys

-> Introduction The Aluminum Industry Aluminum Alloys Manufactured Forms Fabrication Characteristics Finishes Applications Selected References

Introduction
THE UNIQUE COMBINATIONS of properties provided by aluminum and its alloys ma e aluminum one of t!e most versatile" e#onomi#al" and attra#tive metalli# materials for a broad ran$e of uses%%from soft" !i$!ly du#tile &rappin$ foil to t!e most demandin$ en$ineerin$ appli#ations' Aluminum alloys are se#ond in use only to steels as stru#tural metals' Aluminum !as a density of only (') $*#m+" appro,imately one%t!ird as mu#! as steel -)'.+ $*#m+/' One #ubi# foot of steel &ei$!s about 012 lb3 a #ubi# foot of aluminum" only about 4)2 lb' Su#! li$!t &ei$!t" #oupled &it! t!e !i$! stren$t! of some aluminum alloys -e,#eedin$ t!at of stru#tural steel/" permits desi$n and #onstru#tion of stron$" li$!t&ei$!t stru#tures t!at are parti#ularly advanta$eous for anyt!in$ t!at moves%%spa#e ve!i#les and air#raft as &ell as all types of land% and &ater%borne ve!i#les' Aluminum resists t!e ind of pro$ressive o,idi5ation t!at #auses steel to rust a&ay' T!e e,posed surfa#e of aluminum #ombines &it! o,y$en to form an inert aluminum o,ide film only a fe& ten%milliont!s of an in#! t!i# " &!i#! blo# s furt!er o,idation' And" unli e iron rust" t!e aluminum o,ide film does not fla e off to e,pose a fres! surfa#e to furt!er o,idation' If t!e prote#tive layer of aluminum is s#rat#!ed" it &ill instantly reseal itself' T!e t!in o,ide layer itself #lin$s ti$!tly to t!e metal and is #olorless and transparent%%invisible to t!e na ed eye' T!e dis#oloration and fla in$ of iron and steel rust do not o##ur on aluminum' Appropriately alloyed and treated" aluminum #an resist #orrosion by &ater" salt" and ot!er environmental fa#tors" and by a &ide ran$e of ot!er #!emi#al and p!ysi#al a$ents' T!e #orrosion #!ara#teristi#s of aluminum are e,amined in detail in t!e arti#le 6Corrosion 7esistan#e of Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys6 in t!is Se#tion' Aluminum surfa#es #an be !i$!ly refle#tive' 7adiant ener$y" visible li$!t" radiant !eat" and ele#troma$neti# &aves are effi#iently refle#ted" &!ile anodi5ed and dar anodi5ed surfa#es #an be refle#tive or absorbent' T!e refle#tan#e of polis!ed aluminum" over a broad ran$e of &ave len$t!s" leads to its sele#tion for a variety of de#orative and fun#tional uses' Aluminum typi#ally displays e,#ellent ele#tri#al and t!ermal #ondu#tivity" but spe#ifi# alloys !ave been developed &it! !i$! de$rees of ele#tri#al resistivity' T!ese alloys are useful" for e,ample" in !i$!%tor8ue ele#tri# motors' Aluminum is often sele#ted for its ele#tri#al #ondu#tivity" &!i#! is nearly t&i#e t!at of #opper on an e8uivalent &ei$!t basis' T!e re8uirements of !i$! #ondu#tivity and me#!ani#al stren$t! #an be met by use of lon$%line" !i$!%volta$e" aluminum steel%#ored reinfor#ed transmission #able' T!e t!ermal #ondu#tivity of aluminum alloys" about 92 to :2; t!at of #opper" is advanta$eous in !eat e,#!an$ers" evaporators" ele#tri#ally !eated applian#es and utensils" and automotive #ylinder !eads and radiators' Aluminum is nonferroma$neti#" a property of importan#e in t!e ele#tri#al and ele#troni#s industries' It is nonpyrop!ori#" &!i#! is important in appli#ations involvin$ inflammable or e,plosive%materials !andlin$ or e,posure' Aluminum is also non%to,i# and is routinely used in #ontainers for food and bevera$es' It !as an attra#tive appearan#e in its natural finis!" &!i#! #an be soft and lustrous or bri$!t and s!iny' It #an be virtually any #olor or te,ture' T!e ease &it! &!i#! aluminum may be fabri#ated into any form is one of its most important assets' Often is #an #ompete su##essfully &it! #!eaper materials !avin$ a lo&er de$ree of &or ability' T!e metal #an be #ast by any met!od no&n to foundrymen' It #an be rolled to any desired t!i# ness do&n to foil t!inner t!an paper' Aluminum s!eet #an be stamped" dra&n" spun" or roll formed' T!e metal also may be !ammered or for$ed' Aluminum &ire"

dra&n from rolled rod" may be stranded into #able of any desired si5e and type' T!ere is almost no limit to t!e different profiles -s!apes/ in &!i#! t!e metal #an be e,truded'

The Aluminum Industry

Primary Production. All aluminum produ#tion is based on t!e Hall%H<roult pro#ess' Alumina refined from bau,ite

is dissolved in a #ryolite bat! &it! various fluoride salt additions made to #ontrol bat! temperature" density" resistivity" and alumina solubility' An ele#tri#al #urrent is t!en passed t!rou$! t!e bat! to ele#troly5e t!e dissolved alumina &it! o,y$en formin$ at and rea#tin$ &it! t!e #arbon anode" and aluminum #olle#tin$ as a metal pad at t!e #at!ode' T!e separated metal is periodi#ally removed by sip!on or va#uum met!ods into #ru#ibles" &!i#! are t!en transferred to #astin$ fa#ilities &!ere remelt or fabri#atin$ in$ots are produ#ed' T!e ma=or impurities of smelted aluminum are iron and sili#on" but 5in#" $allium" titanium" and vanadium are typi#ally present as minor #ontaminants' Internationally" minimum aluminum purity is t!e primary #riterion for definin$ #omposition and value' In t!e United States" a #onvention for #onsiderin$ t!e relative #on#entrations of iron and sili#on as t!e more important #riteria !as evolved' 7eferen#e to $rades of unalloyed metal may t!erefore be by purity alone" for e,ample" 11')2; aluminum" or by t!e met!od san#tioned by t!e Aluminum Asso#iation in &!i#! standardi5ed >xxx $rades !ave been establis!ed' In t!e latter #ase" t!e di$its follo&in$ t!e letter > refer to t!e ma,imum de#imal per#enta$es of sili#on and iron" respe#tively' ?or e,ample" >42(2 is unalloyed smelter%produ#ed metal #ontainin$ no more t!an 2'42; Si and no more t!an 2'(2; ?e' >292: is a $rade t!at #ontains no more t!an 2'29; Si and no more t!an 2'2:; ?e' Common > $rades ran$e from >2(2( to >49+9" ea#! of &!i#! in#orporates additional impurity limits for #ontrol purposes' 7efinin$ steps are available to attain mu#! !i$!er levels of purity' >urities of 11'11; are a#!ieved t!rou$! fra#tional #rystalli5ation or Hoopes #ell operation' T!e latter pro#ess is a t!ree%layer ele#trolyti# pro#ess &!i#! employs molten salt of $reater density t!an pure molten aluminum' Combinations of t!ese purifi#ation te#!ni8ues result in 11'111; purity for !i$!ly spe#iali5ed appli#ations'
Secondary Aluminum. Aluminum re#overed from s#rap -se#ondary aluminum/ !as been an important #ontributor

to t!e total metal supply for many years' Ne& s#rap is defined as t!at $enerated by plants ma in$ end produ#ts" &!ereas old s#rap is t!at re#overed from metal t!at !as been previously used by #onsumers' In addition" #onsiderable amounts of s#rap $enerated at various sta$es of mill pro#essin$ are re#y#led' T!e in#reased #on#ern &it! and e#onomi# impli#ations of ener$y supply in re#ent years !ave fo#used even more attention on re#y#lin$ of aluminum be#ause of its ener$y%intensive nature' T!e ener$y re8uired to remelt se#ondary aluminum preparatory to fabri#ation for reuse is only 9; of t!at re8uired to produ#e ne& aluminum' Conse8uently" re#y#lin$ is in#reasin$' In parti#ular" re#overy of used aluminum bevera$e #ontainers !as multiplied many times in t!e last (2 years' In 411:" some .1+ t!ousand metri# tons of used bevera$e #ans &ere #olle#ted in t!e United States' T!is #onstitutes :+'9; of #an s!ipments' In some #ountries" for e,ample S&eden" re#y#lin$ rates e,#eedin$ .2; are a#!ieved' ?or some uses" se#ondary aluminum alloys may be treated to remove #ertain impurities or alloyin$ elements' C!ief amon$ t!e alloyin$ elements removed is ma$nesium" &!i#! is fre8uently present in $reater amounts in se#ondary metal t!an in t!e alloys to be produ#ed from it' Ma$nesium is usually removed by flu,in$ &it! #!lorine $as or !alide salts' More detailed information on se#ondary re#overy of aluminum is in#luded in t!e Se#tion 67e#y#lin$ and @ife% Cy#le Analysis6 in t!is Handboo '
Production and Markets. Aorld produ#tion of primary aluminum totaled (2":)2 t!ousand metri# tons in 411:'

Over t!e de#ade 41.:%411:" &orld produ#tion in#reased at an annual $ro&t! rate of ('4;' T!e United States a##ounted for 4)'+; of t!e &orldBs 411: produ#tion &!ile t!e European Union a##ounted for 42');' Ot!er European #ountries" in#ludin$ former members of t!e Union of Soviet So#ialist 7epubli#s" a##ounted for (2');' T!e remainin$ produ#tion in#ludes Asia -4)'9;/" Canada -44;/" @atin Ameri#a -1'.;/" O#eania -.;/" and Afri#a -9;/' T!e total United States supply in 411: &as 1"0+0 t!ousand metri# tons' Sin#e 41.:" t!e total supply !as e,panded at an avera$e of +':; a year' In 411:" primary produ#tion a##ounted for +)'1; of t!e total supply" imports ()'+;" and se#ondary re#overy +0'.;'

S!eet" plate" and foil #onstitute t!e ma=or s!are of total U'S' aluminum produ#t s!ipments" follo&ed by in$ot for #astin$s" e,port" and ot!er uses' A per#enta$e distribution of ma=or aluminum produ#ts is presented belo&C

Product form S!eet" plate" and foil In$ot E,trusions and tube Ot!er
-a/

Distribution, % 94'+ (:'0 40'1 )'0

Sour#eC T!e Aluminum Asso#iation In#'

-a/ In#ludes #ondu#tor -+'2;/3

rod" bar" and &ire -(');/3 for$in$s and impa#ts -4'4;/3 and po&der -2':;/'

In de#reasin$ order of #urrent mar et si5e" t!e ma=or appli#ation #ate$ories are transportation -()':;/" #ontainers and pa# a$in$ -(('.;/" buildin$ and #onstru#tion -4+');/" e,ports -4+'9;/" ele#tri#al -)'2;/" #onsumer durables -:':;/" ma#!inery and e8uipment -9'1;/" and ot!ers -('1;/' Aluminum Alloys
T!e me#!ani#al" p!ysi#al" and #!emi#al properties of aluminum alloys depend upon #omposition and mi#rostru#ture' T!e addition of sele#ted elements to pure aluminum $reatly en!an#es its properties and usefulness' Be#ause of t!is" most appli#ations for aluminum utili5e alloys !avin$ one or more elemental additions' T!e ma=or alloyin$ additions used &it! aluminum are #opper" man$anese" sili#on" ma$nesium" and 5in#' T!e total amount of t!ese elements #an #onstitute up to 42; of t!e alloy #omposition -all per#enta$es $iven in &ei$!t per#ent unless ot!er&ise noted/' Impurity elements are also present" but t!eir total per#enta$e is usually less t!an 2'49; in aluminum alloys' It is #onvenient to divide aluminum alloys into t&o ma=or #ate$oriesC &rou$!t #ompositions and #ast #ompositions' A furt!er differentiation for ea#! #ate$ory is based on t!e primary me#!anism of property development' Many alloys respond to t!ermal treatment based on p!ase solubilities' T!ese treatments in#lude solution !eat treatment" 8uen#!in$" and pre#ipitation" or a$e" !ardenin$' ?or eit!er #astin$ or &rou$!t alloys" su#! alloys are des#ribed as !eat treatable' A lar$e number of ot!er &rou$!t #ompositions rely instead on &or !ardenin$ t!rou$! me#!ani#al redu#tion" usually in #ombination &it! various annealin$ pro#edures for property development' T!ese alloys are referred to as &or !ardenin$' Some #astin$ alloys are essentially not !eat treatable and are used only in as%#ast or in t!ermally modified #onditions unrelated to solution or pre#ipitation effe#ts' Cast and &rou$!t alloy nomen#latures !ave been developed' T!e Aluminum Asso#iation system is most &idely re#o$ni5ed in t!e United States' T!eir alloy identifi#ation system employs different nomen#latures for &rou$!t and #ast alloys" but divides alloys into families for simplifi#ation -see t!e arti#le 6Alloy and Temper Desi$nation Systems for Aluminum6 in t!is Se#tion for details/' ?or &rou$!t alloys a four%di$it system is used to produ#e a list of &rou$!t #omposition families as follo&sC

4xxxC Controlled unalloyed -pure/ #omposition" used primarily in t!e ele#tri#al and #!emi#al industries (xxxC Alloys in &!i#! #opper is t!e prin#ipal alloyin$ element" alt!ou$! ot!er elements" notably ma$nesium" may be spe#ified' (xxx%series alloys are &idely used in air#raft &!ere t!eir !i$! stren$t! -yield stren$t!s as !i$! as 099 M>a" or :: si/ are valued' +xxxC Alloys in &!i#! man$anese is t!e prin#ipal alloyin$ element" used as $eneral%purpose alloys for ar#!ite#tural appli#ations and various produ#ts 0xxxC Alloys in &!i#! sili#on is t!e prin#ipal alloyin$ element" used in &eldin$ rods and bra5in$ s!eet 9xxxC Alloys in &!i#! ma$nesium is t!e prin#ipal alloyin$ element" used in boat !ulls" $an$plan s" and ot!er produ#ts e,posed to marine environments :xxxC Alloys in &!i#! ma$nesium and sili#on are t!e prin#ipal alloyin$ elements" #ommonly used for ar#!ite#tural e,trusions )xxxC Alloys in &!i#! 5in# is t!e prin#ipal alloyin$ element -alt!ou$! ot!er elements" su#! as #opper" ma$nesium" #!romium" and 5ir#onium" may be spe#ified/" used in air#raft stru#tural #omponents and

ot!er !i$!%stren$t! appli#ations' T!e )xxx series are t!e stron$est aluminum alloys" &it! yield stren$t!s 922 M>a - )+ si/ possible' .xxxC Alloys #!ara#teri5in$ mis#ellaneous #ompositions' T!e .xxx series alloys may #ontain appre#iable amounts of tin" lit!ium" and*or iron' 1xxxC 7eserved for future use

Arou$!t alloys t!at #onstitute !eat%treatable -pre#ipitation%!ardenable/ aluminum alloys in#lude t!e ( xxx" :xxx" )xxx" and some of t!e .xxx alloys' T!e various #ombinations of alloyin$ additions and stren$t!enin$ me#!anisms used for &rou$!t aluminum alloys are s!o&n in Table 4' T!e stren$t! ran$es a#!ievable &it! various #lasses of &rou$!t alloys are $iven in Table (' More detailed information on t!e stren$t!enin$ me#!anisms asso#iated &it! aluminum alloys #an be found in t!e arti#le 6>!ysi#al Metallur$y of Aluminum Alloys6 in t!is Se#tion'
Table 1 Classification of wrought aluminum alloys according to their strengthening mechanism
Alloy system Aluminum series Work-hardenable alloys >ure Al Al%Mn Al%Si Al%M$ Al%?e Al%?e%Ni Al%Cu Al%Cu%M$ Al%Cu%@i Al%M$%Si Al%En Al%En%M$ Al%En%M$%Cu Al%@i%Cu%M$ 4xxx +xxx 0xxx 9xxx .xxx .xxx (xxx (xxx (xxx :xxx )xxx )xxx )xxx .xxx

Precipitation-hardenable alloys

Table 2 Strength ranges of various wrought aluminum alloys

Aluminum Association series 4xxx (xxx (xxx +xxx 0xxx 9xxx 9xxx :xxx )xxx )xxx .xxx Al Type of alloy composition Tensile strength range MPa ksi )2%4)9 42%(9 4)2%+42 (9%09 +.2%9(2 99%)9 402%(.2 (2%02 402%(.2 (2%02 (.2%+.2 02%99 492%+.2 ((%99 +.2%9(2 99%)9 9(2%:(2 )9%12 (.2%9:2 02%.2

Strengthening method Cold &or

Al%Cu%M$ -4%('9; Cu/ Heat treat Al%Cu%M$%Si -+%:; Cu/ Heat treat Al%Mn%M$ Al%Si Al%M$ -4%('9; M$/ Al%M$%Mn -+%:; M$/ Al%M$%Si Al%En%M$ Al%En%M$%Cu Al%@i%Cu%M$ Cold &or Cold &or Cold &or Heat treat Heat treat Heat treat Heat treat

Cold &or -some !eat treat/ 429%+92 49%92

Castin$ #ompositions are des#ribed by a t!ree%di$it system follo&ed by a de#imal value' T!e de#imal '2 in all #ases pertains to #astin$ alloy limits' De#imals '4" and '( #on#ern in$ot #ompositions" &!i#! after meltin$ and pro#essin$ s!ould result in #!emistries #onformin$ to #astin$ spe#ifi#ation re8uirements' Alloy families for #astin$ #ompositions in#lude t!e follo&in$C

4xx.xC Controlled unalloyed -pure/ #ompositions" espe#ially for rotor manufa#ture (xx.xC Alloys in &!i#! #opper is t!e prin#ipal alloyin$ element' Ot!er alloyin$ elements may be spe#ified' +xx.xC Alloys in &!i#! sili#on is t!e prin#ipal alloyin$ element' T!e ot!er alloyin$ elements su#! as #opper and ma$nesium are spe#ified' T!e +xx.x series #omprises nearly 12; of all s!aped #astin$s produ#ed' 0xx.xC Alloys in &!i#! sili#on is t!e prin#ipal alloyin$ element' 9xx.xC Alloys in &!i#! ma$nesium is t!e prin#ipal alloyin$ element' :xx.xC Unused )xx.xC Alloys in &!i#! 5in# is t!e prin#ipal alloyin$ element' Ot!er alloyin$ elements su#! as #opper and ma$nesium may be spe#ified' .xx.xC Alloys in &!i#! tin is t!e prin#ipal alloyin$ element'

1xx.xC Unused Heat%treatable #astin$ alloys in#lude t!e (xx" +xx" and )xx series' Manufactured Forms
Commercial wrought aluminum products are divided into five ma=or #ate$ories based on produ#tion met!od

as &ell as $eometri# #onfi$uration' T!ese #ate$ories are -a/ flat rolled produ#ts -s!eet" plate and foil/3 -b/ rod" bar and &ire3 -#/ tubular produ#ts3 -d/ s!apes3 and -e/ for$in$s' In t!e aluminum industry" rod" bar" &ire" and tubular produ#ts and s!apes are termed 6mill6 produ#ts" as t!ey are in t!e steel industry" even t!ou$! t!ey often are produ#ed by e,trusion rat!er t!an by rollin$' Aluminum for$in$s usually are not #lassified as 6mill produ#ts6 but as 6en$ineered produ#ts'6 En$ineered produ#ts are t!ose desi$ned for one spe#ifi# appli#ation in #ontrast to 6off%t!e%s!elf6 produ#ts su#! as standard si5es of s!eet" plate" rod" bar" &ire" tube" pipe" and standard stru#tural s!apes' T!ese standard items may be available from distributors' En$ineered &rou$!t produ#ts in#lude spe#ial e,truded s!apes" die for$in$s" !and for$in$s" impa#ts" and spe#ial si5es of standard produ#ts' More detailed information on aluminum mill and en$ineered &rou$!t produ#ts #an be found in t!e arti#le 6Aluminum Arou$!t >rodu#ts6 in t!is Se#tion'
Aluminum alloy engineered castings, desi$ned for spe#ifi# purposes" are produ#ed in a $reat variety of s!apes

and si5es by pressure%die" permanent%mold" $reen% and dry%sand" investment" and plaster #astin$' >ro#ess variations in#lude va#uum" lo&%pressure" #entrifu$al" and pattern%related pro#esses su#! as lost foam -ea#! of t!e aforementioned foundry met!ods are des#ribed in t!e Se#tion 6Castin$6 in t!is Handboo /' Table + provides s!ipment statisti#s for aluminum #astin$s' Transportation is t!e leadin$ mar et" and t!e trend to&ard in#reasin$ use in automotive appli#ations is in#reasin$ t!e importan#e of #astin$s in t!e total industry pi#ture'
Table 3 Shipments of aluminum castings by type in 1996
Shipments a!, Percentage "#$ kg "#$ lb! of total 42):'4 -(+)('+/ 49+'1 -++1'0/ .)'1 -41+'1/ "%$$&' '""'&$! 9)') (1'0 .'( 0') "##

Type of casting Die #astin$s Sand #astin$s Ot!ers Total

>ermanent mold and semipermanent mold #astin$s 90.'0 -4(21'4/

Sour#eC T!e Aluminum Asso#iation In#'

-a/ 7ounded values may not add up to t!e totals s!o&n'

Die #astin$s $enerally are not !eat treated' T!ose produ#ed by t!e ot!er pro#esses may or may not be !eat treated" dependin$ on t!eir intended appli#ations" and alloy sele#tion is affe#ted by bot! t!e #astin$ pro#ess and &!et!er or not

!eat treatment is to be applied' T!e most popular alloys differ from t!ose used in produ#in$ &rou$!t produ#ts #!iefly in t!eir !i$!er sili#on #ontents' T!e #!oi#e of #astin$s over ot!er produ#t forms is often based on net s!ape #onsiderations' 7einfor#in$ ribs" internal passa$e&ays" and #omple, desi$n features" &!i#! &ould be #ostly to ma#!ine in a part made from a &rou$!t produ#t" #an often be #ast by appropriate pattern and mold or die desi$n' >remium en$ineered #astin$s display e,treme inte$rity" #lose dimensional toleran#es" and #onsistently #ontrolled me#!ani#al properties in t!e upper ran$e of e,istin$ !i$!%stren$t! #apabilities for sele#ted alloys and tempers' More detailed information on aluminum #astin$s is in#luded in t!e arti#le 6Aluminum ?oundry >rodu#ts6 in t!is Se#tion'
Powder metallurgy P!M" parts are formed by various pro#esses' ?or less demandin$ appli#ations" metal

po&der is #ompressed in a s!aped die to produ#e $reen #ompa#ts" and t!en t!e #ompa#ts are sintered -diffusion bonded/ at elevated temperature under prote#tive atmosp!ere' Durin$ sinterin$" t!e #ompa#ts #onsolidate and stren$t!en' T!e density of sintered #ompa#ts may be in#reased by re%pressin$ t!e >*M #ompa#t' 7e%pressin$ may be follo&ed by resinterin$" &!i#! relieves stresses indu#ed by #old &or and may furt!er #onsolidate t!e stru#ture' By pressin$ and sinterin$ only" parts !avin$ densities of $reater t!an .2; t!eoreti#al density #an be produ#ed' By re% pressin$" &it! or &it!out resinterin$" parts of 12; t!eoreti#al density or more #an be produ#ed' ?or more demandin$ appli#ations" su#! as aerospa#e parts or #omponents re8uirin$ en!an#ed resistan#e to stress% #orrosion #ra# in$" rapidly solidified or me#!ani#ally attrited aluminum po&ders are #onsolidated by more advan#ed te#!ni8ues t!at result in #lose to 422; of t!eoreti#al density' T!ese #onsolidation met!ods in#lude !ot isostati# pressin$" for$in$" rollin$" e,trusion" ultra%!i$! strain rate -dynami#/ #ompa#tion" and spray deposition te#!ni8ues' Usin$ advan#ed >*M pro#essin$ met!ods" alloys t!at #annot be produ#ed t!rou$! #onventional in$ot metallur$y met!ods are routinely manufa#tured' More detailed information on aluminum >*M pro#essin$ is in#luded in t!e arti#le 6Aluminum >o&der Metallur$y >rodu#ts6 in t!is Se#tion'
Metal#matri$ composites MMCs" basi#ally #onsist of a nonmetalli# reinfor#ement in#orporated into a metalli#

matri,' T!e #ombination of li$!t &ei$!t" #orrosion resistan#e" and useful me#!ani#al properties" &!i#! !as made aluminum alloys so popular" lends itself &ell to aluminum MMCs' T!e meltin$ point of aluminum is !i$! enou$! to satisfy many appli#ation re8uirements" yet is lo& enou$! to render #omposite pro#essin$ reasonably #onvenient' Aluminum #an also a##ommodate a variety of reinfor#in$ a$ents' 7einfor#ements" #!ara#teri5ed as eit!er #ontinuous or dis#ontinuous fibers" typi#ally #onstitute (2 vol; or more of t!e #omposite' T!e family of aluminum MMC reinfor#ements in#ludes #ontinuous boron3 aluminum o,ide3 sili#on #arbide and $rap!ite fibers3 and various parti#les" s!ort fibers" and &!is ers' T!e pro#essin$ and properties of MMCs are des#ribed in t!e Se#tion 6Spe#ial%>urpose Materials6 in t!is Handboo

Fa%rication Characteristics
T!is se#tion briefly revie&s importan#e #onsiderations in t!e ma#!inin$" formin$" for$in$" and =oinin$ of aluminum alloys' Additional information is in#luded in t!e Se#tions in t!is Handboo t!at deal &it! spe#ifi# fabri#ation pro#esses' Table 0 summari5es t!e fabri#ation #!ara#teristi#s of #ommonly used &rou$!t $rades or alloys'
Table 4 Comparative fabrication characteristics of wrought aluminum alloys

Weldability b! Alloy 4292 O H4( H40 H4: H4. 42:2 O H4( H40 H4: H4. 4422 O H4( H40 H4: H4. 4409 O H4( H40 H4: H4. 4411 O H4( H40 H4: H4. 4+92 O H4(" H444 H40" H(0 H4:" H(: H4. (244 T+ T0" T094 T. (240 O T+" T0" T094 T:" T:94" T:942" T:944 (2(0 O T0" T+" T+94" T+942" T+944 T+:4 T: T.:4" T.4" T.94" T.942" T.944 T)( (2+: T0 (4(0 T.94 ((4. T:4 T)( Temper Workability +esistance cold! a! Machinability a! *as Arc spot and seam (ra)eability b! Solderability c! A A A B B A A A B B A A A B C A A A B B A A A B B A A A B B C B D ''' C D ''' C D C D ''' B D ''' ''' E E D D D E E D D D E E D D D E E D D D E E D D D E E D D D A A A D B B D B B B B B C B ''' B A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A D D D D D D D C D D D ''' D D A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A D D D D B B D B C C C B C C B A A A A B A A A A B A A A A B A A A A B A A A A B A A A A D D D B B B D B B B B ''' B B C B A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A D D D D D D D D D D D ''' D D ''' D A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A C C C C C C C C C C C ''' ''' C C C

''' '''

''' '''

ability -#old/" and A t!rou$! E for ma#!inability" are relative ratin$s in de#reasin$ order of merit' -b/ 7atin$s A t!rou$! D for &eldability and bra5eability are relative ratin$s defined as follo&sC A F Generally &eldable by all #ommer#ial pro#edures and met!ods' B F Aeldable &it! spe#ial te#!ni8ues or for spe#ifi# appli#ations3 re8uires preliminary trials or testin$ to develop &eldin$ pro#edure and &eld performan#e' C F @imited &eldability be#ause of #ra# sensitivity or loss in resistan#e to #orrosion and me#!ani#al properties' D F No #ommonly used &eldin$ met!ods !ave been developed' -#/ 7atin$s A t!rou$! D and NA for solderability are relative ratin$s defined as follo&sC A F E,#ellent' B F Good' C F ?air' D F >oor' NA F Not appli#able Machina%ility. T!e ease and speed &it! &!i#! aluminum may be ma#!ined is one of t!e most important fa#tors

-a/ 7atin$s A t!rou$! D for &or

#ontributin$ to t!e lo& #ost of finis!ed aluminum parts' T!e metal may be turned" milled" bored" or ma#!ined in ot!er manners at t!e ma,imum speeds of &!i#! t!e ma=ority of ma#!ines are #apable' Anot!er advanta$e of its fle,ible ma#!inin$ #!ara#teristi#s is t!at aluminum rod and bar may readily be employed in t!e !i$! speed manufa#ture of parts by automati# s#re& ma#!ines' Amon$ t!e various &rou$!t and #ast aluminum alloys and amon$ t!e tempers in &!i#! t!ey are produ#ed" t!ere is #onsiderable variation in ma#!inin$ #!ara#teristi#s -see Table 0/" &!i#! may re8uire spe#ial toolin$ or te#!ni8ues -for e,ample" t!e use of poly#rystalline diamond toolin$ for ma#!inin$ !ard -H422 HB/ !i$!%sili#on%#ontent #astin$ alloys'/ Hardness and yield stren$t!s are variously used as appro,imations of ma#!inability'
Chemical milling, t!e removal of metal by #!emi#al atta# in an al aline or a#id solution" is routine for spe#iali5ed

redu#tions in t!i# ness' ?or #omple, lar$e surfa#e areas in &!i#! uniform metal removal is re8uired" #!emi#al millin$ is often t!e most e#onomi#al met!od' T!e pro#ess is used e,tensively to et#! preformed aerospa#e parts to obtain ma,imum stren$t!%to%&ei$!t ratios' Inte$rally stiffened aluminum &in$ and fusela$e se#tions are #!emi#ally milled to produ#e an optimum #ross se#tion and minimum s in t!i# ness' Spars" strin$ers" floor beams" and frames are fre8uent appli#ations as &ell'
Forma%ility is amon$ t!e more important #!ara#teristi#s of aluminum and many of its alloys' Spe#ifi# tensile and

yield stren$t!s" du#tility" and respe#tive rates of &or !ardenin$ #ontrol differen#es in t!e amount of permissible deformation' 7atin$s of #omparable formability of t!e #ommer#ially available alloys in various tempers depend on t!e formin$ pro#ess' Su#! ratin$s provide $enerally reliable #omparisons of t!e &or in$ #!ara#teristi#s of metals" but serve as an appro,imate $uide rat!er t!an as 8uantitative formability limits' C!oi#e of temper may depend on t!e severity and nature of formin$ operations' T!e annealed temper may be re8uired for severe formin$ operations" su#! as deep dra&in$" or for roll formin$ or bendin$ on small radii' Usually" t!e stron$est temper t!an #an be formed #onsistently is sele#ted' ?or less severe formin$ operations" intermediate tempers or even fully !ardened #onditions may be a##eptable' Heat%treatable alloys #an be formed in appli#ations for &!i#! a !i$! stren$t!%to%&ei$!t ratio is re8uired' T!e annealed temper of t!ese alloys is t!e most &or able #ondition" but t!e effe#ts of dimensional #!an$e and distortion #aused by subse8uent !eat treatment for property development" and t!e strai$!tenin$ or ot!er dimensional #ontrol steps t!at may be re8uired" are important #onsiderations' Alloys t!at are formed immediately follo&in$ solution !eat treatment and 8uen#! -T+" T0" or A temper/ are nearly as formable as &!en annealed and #an be subse8uently !ardened by natural or artifi#ial a$in$' >arts #an be stored at lo& temperatures -appro,imately %+2 to %+9 IC" or %(2 to %+2 I?" or lo&er/ in t!e A temper for prolon$ed periods as a means of in!ibitin$ natural a$in$ and preservin$ an a##eptable level of formability' Material t!at !as been solution !eat treated and 8uen#!ed but not artifi#ially a$ed -T+" T0" or A temper/ is $enerally suitable only for mild formin$ operations su#! as bendin$" mild dra&in$" or moderate stret#! formin$ if t!ese operations #annot be performed immediately after 8uen#!in$' Solution !eat%treated and artifi#ially a$ed -T: temper/ alloys are in $eneral unsuitable for formin$ operations'
Forgea%ility. Aluminum alloys an be for$ed into a variety of s!apes and types of for$in$s &it! a broad ran$e of

final part for$in$ desi$n #riteria based on t!e intended appli#ation' Aluminum alloy for$in$s" parti#ularly #losed%die for$in$s" are usually produ#ed to more !i$!ly refined final for$in$ #onfi$urations t!an !ot%for$ed #arbon and*or alloy steels' ?or a $iven aluminum alloy for$in$ s!ape" t!e pressure re8uirements in for$in$ vary &idely" dependin$ primarily on t!e #!emi#al #omposition of t!e alloy bein$ for$ed" t!e for$in$ pro#ess bein$ employed" t!e for$in$ strain rate" t!e type of for$in$ bein$ manufa#tured" t!e lubri#ation #onditions" and t!e for$in$ and die temperatures'

As a #lass of alloys" aluminum alloys are $enerally #onsidered to be more diffi#ult to for$e t!an #arbon steels and many alloy steels' Compared to t!e ni# el*#obalt%base alloys and titanium alloys" !o&ever" aluminum alloys are #onsiderably more for$eable" parti#ularly in #onventional for$in$ pro#ess te#!nolo$y" in &!i#! dies are !eated to 902 IC -4222 I?/ or less'
&oining. Aluminum #an be =oined by a &ide variety of met!ods" in#ludin$ fusion and resistan#e &eldin$" bra5in$"

solderin$" ad!esive bondin$" and me#!ani#al met!ods su#! as rivetin$ and boltin$' ?a#tors t!at affe#t t!e &eldin$ of aluminum in#ludeC

Aluminum o,ide #oatin$ T!ermal #ondu#tivity T!ermal e,pansion #oeffi#ient Meltin$ #!ara#teristi#s Ele#tri#al #ondu#tivity

Aluminum oxide immediately forms on aluminum surfa#es e,posed to air' Before aluminum #an be &elded by

fusion met!ods" t!e o,ide layer must be removed me#!ani#ally by ma#!inin$" filin$" &ire brus!in$" s#rapin$" or #!emi#al #leanin$' If o,ides are not removed" o,ide fra$ments may be entrapped in t!e &eld and &ill #ause a redu#tion in du#tility" a la# of fusion" and possibly &eld #ra# in$' Durin$ &eldin$" t!e o,ide must be prevented from re%formin$ by s!ieldin$ t!e =oint area &it! a nono,idi5in$ $as su#! as ar$on" !elium" or !ydro$en" or #!emi#ally by use of flu,es'
Thermal conductivity is a property t!at most affe#ts &eldability' T!e t!ermal #ondu#tivity of aluminum alloys is

about one%!alf t!at of #opper and four times t!at of lo&%#arbon steel' T!is means t!at !eat must be supplied four times as fast to aluminum alloys as to steel to raise t!e temperature lo#ally by t!e same amount' Ho&ever" t!e !i$! t!ermal #ondu#tivity of aluminum alloys !elps to solidify t!e molten &eld pool of aluminum and" #onse8uently" fa#ilitates out% of%position &eldin$'
The coefficient of linear expansion, &!i#! is a measure of t!e #!an$e in len$t! of a material &it! a #!an$e in

its temperature" is anot!er p!ysi#al property of importan#e &!en #onsiderin$ &eldability' T!e #oeffi#ient of linear t!ermal e,pansion for aluminum is t&i#e t!at for steel' T!is means t!at e,tra #are must be ta en in &eldin$ aluminum to ensure t!at t!e =oint spa#e remains uniform' T!is may ne#essitate preliminary =oinin$ of t!e parts of t!e assembly by ta# &eldin$ prior to t!e main &eldin$ operation' T!e #ombination of !i$! #oeffi#ient of t!ermal e,pansion and !i$! t!ermal #ondu#tivity &ould #ause #onsiderable distortion of aluminum durin$ &eldin$ &ere it not for t!e !i$! &eldin$ speed possible'
Melt Characteristics. T!e meltin$ ran$es for aluminum alloys are #onsiderably lo&er t!an t!ose for #opper or

steel' Meltin$ temperatures and t!e volumetri# spe#ifi# !eats and !eats of fusion of aluminum alloys determine t!at t!e amount of !eat re8uired to enter t!e &eldin$ temperature ran$e is mu#! lo&er for aluminum alloys'
Electrical conductivity !as little influen#e on fusion &eldin$ but is a very important property for materials t!at are

to be resistan#e &elded' In resistan#e &eldin$" resistan#e of t!e metal to t!e flo& of &eldin$ #urrent produ#es !eat" &!i#! #auses t!e portion of t!e metal t!rou$! &!i#! t!e #urrent flo&s to approa#! or rea#! its meltin$ point' Aluminum !as !i$!er #ondu#tivity t!an steel" &!i#! means t!at mu#! !i$!er #urrents are re8uired to produ#e t!e same !eatin$ effe#t' Conse8uently" resistan#e &eldin$ ma#!ines for aluminum must !ave mu#! !i$!er output #apabilities t!an t!ose normally used for steel" for &eldin$ #omparable se#tions' Table 0 lists &eldin$" bra5in$" and solderin$ #!ara#teristi#s of sele#ted &rou$!t aluminum alloys'

Finishes
T!e natural metalli# surfa#e of aluminum is aest!eti#ally pleasin$ in many produ#t desi$ns even &it!out furt!er finis!in$' Its natural prote#tive o,ide film is transparent and #an be t!i# ened by anodi5in$" for e,tra prote#tion" &it!out affe#tin$ t!e metalBs appearan#e'

But aluminum also a##epts a $reat variety of finis!es t!at #an alter its appearan#e or en!an#e its surfa#e #!ara#teristi#s as re8uired' Surfa#e te,tures #an be #reated from rou$! to matte to mirror%smoot!' T!e metalli# !ue #an be #olored by appropriate #!emi#al or anodi5in$ pro#esses' Surfa#e #oatin$s su#! as paint" la#8uer" enamel" ele#troplatin$ or laminates #an be applied'

Applications
Aluminum alloys are e#onomi#al in many appli#ations' T!ey are used in t!e automotive industry" aerospa#e industry" in #onstru#tion of ma#!ines" applian#es" and stru#tures" as #oo in$ utensils" as #overs for !ousin$s for ele#troni# e8uipment" as pressure vessels for #ryo$eni# appli#ations" and in innumerable ot!er areas' Tables 9 and : list typi#al appli#ations for some of t!e more #ommonly used &rou$!t and #ast alloys" respe#tively'
Table
Alloy

Selected applications for wrought aluminum alloys

Description and selected applications

4422 Commer#ially pure aluminum !i$!ly resistant to #!emi#al atta# and &eat!erin$' @o& #ost" du#tile for deep dra&in$" and easy to &eld' Used for !i$!%purity appli#ations su#! as #!emi#al pro#essin$ e8uipment' Also for nameplates" fan blades" flue linin$" s!eet metal &or " spun !ollo&are" and fin sto# 4+92 Ele#tri#al #ondu#tors (244 S#re& ma#!ine produ#ts' Applian#e parts and trim" ordnan#e" automotive" ele#troni#" fasteners" !ard&are" ma#!ine parts (240 Tru# frames" air#raft stru#tures" automotive" #ylinders and pistons" ma#!ine parts" stru#turals (24) S#re& ma#!ine produ#ts" fittin$s" fasteners" ma#!ine parts (2(0 ?or !i$!%stren$t! stru#tural appli#ations' E,#ellent ma#!inability in t!e T%tempers' ?air &or ability and fair #orrosion resistan#e' Al#lad (2(0 #ombines t!e !i$! stren$t! of (2(0 &it! t!e #orrosion resistan#e of t!e #ommer#ially pure #laddin$' Used for tru# &!eels" many stru#tural air#raft appli#ations" $ears for ma#!inery" s#re& ma#!ine produ#ts" automotive parts" #ylinders and pistons" fasteners" ma#!ine parts" ordnan#e" re#reation e8uipment" s#re&s and rivets ((41 Stru#tural uses at !i$! temperature -to +49 IC" or :22 I?/' Hi$!%stren$t! &eldments +22+ Most popular $eneral%purpose alloy' Stron$er t!an 4422 &it! same $ood formability and &eldability' ?or $eneral use in#ludin$ s!eet metal &or " stampin$s" fuel tan s" #!emi#al e8uipment" #ontainers" #abinets" free5er liners" #oo in$ utensils" pressure vessels" builderBs !ard&are" stora$e tan s" a$ri#ultural appli#ations" applian#e parts and trim" ar#!ite#tural appli#ations" ele#troni#s" fin sto# " fan e8uipment" name plates" re#reation ve!i#les" tru# s and trailers' Used in dra&in$ and spinnin$' +220 S!eet metal &or " stora$e tan s" a$ri#ultural appli#ations" buildin$ produ#ts" #ontainers" ele#troni#s" furniture" it#!en e8uipment" re#reation ve!i#les" tru# s and trailers +429 7esidential sidin$" mobile !omes" rain%#arryin$ $oods" s!eet metal &or " applian#e parts and trim" automotive parts" buildin$ produ#ts" ele#troni#s" fin sto# " furniture" !ospital and medi#al e8uipment" it#!en e8uipment" re#reation ve!i#les" tru# s and trailers 9229 Spe#ified for appli#ations re8uirin$ anodi5in$3 anodi5ed #oatin$ is #leaner and li$!ter in #olor t!an +22+' Uses in#lude applian#es" utensils" ar#!ite#tural" appli#ations re8uirin$ $ood ele#tri#al #ondu#tivity" automotive parts" #ontainers" $eneral s!eet metal" !ard&are" !ospital and medi#al e8uipment" it#!en e8uipment" name plates" and marine appli#ations 929( Stron$er t!an +22+ yet readily formable in t!e intermediate tempers' Good &eldability and resistan#e to #orrosion' Uses in#lude pressure vessels" fan blades" tan s" ele#troni# panels" ele#troni# #!assis" medium%stren$t! s!eet metal parts" !ydrauli# tube" applian#es" a$ri#ultural appli#ations" ar#!ite#tural uses" automotive parts" buildin$ produ#ts" #!emi#al e8uipment" #ontainers" #oo in$ utensils" fasteners" !ard&are" !i$!&ay si$ns" !ospital and medi#al e8uipment" it#!en e8uipment" marine appli#ations" railroad #ars" re#reation ve!i#les" tru# s and trailers 929: Cable s!eat!in$" rivets for ma$nesium" s#reen &ire" 5ippers" automotive appli#ations" fen#e &ire" fasteners 92.+ ?or all types of &elded assemblies" marine #omponents" and tan s re8uirin$ !i$! &eld effi#ien#y and ma,imum =oint stren$t!' Used in pressure vessels up to :9 IC -492 I?/ and in many #ryo$eni# appli#ations" brid$es" frei$!t #ars" marine #omponents" TJ to&ers" drillin$ ri$s" transportation e8uipment" missile #omponents" and dump tru# bodies' Good #orrosion resistan#e 92.: Used in $enerally t!e same types of appli#ations as 92.+" parti#ularly &!ere resistan#e to eit!er stress #orrosion or atmosp!eri# #orrosion is important 9090 ?or all types of &elded assemblies" tan s" pressure vessels' ASME #ode approved to (29 IC -022 I?/' Also used in tru# in$ for !ot asp!alt road tan ers and dump bodies3 also" for !ydro$en pero,ide and #!emi#al stora$e vessels 909: ?or all types of &elded assemblies" stora$e tan s" pressure vessels" and marine #omponents' Used &!ere best &eld effi#ien#y and =oint stren$t! are re8uired' 7estri#ted to temperatures belo& :9 IC -492 I?/ 9:9) ?or anodi5ed auto and applian#e trim and nameplates :2:4 Good formability" &eldability" #orrosion resistan#e" and stren$t! in t!e T%tempers' Good $eneral%purpose alloy used for a broad

ran$e of stru#tural appli#ations and &elded assemblies in#ludin$ tru# #omponents" railroad #ars" pipelines" marine appli#ations" furniture" a$ri#ultural appli#ations" air#rafts" ar#!ite#tural appli#ations" automotive parts" buildin$ produ#ts" #!emi#al e8uipment" dump bodies" ele#tri#al and ele#troni# appli#ations" fasteners" fen#e &ire" fan blades" $eneral s!eet metal" !i$!&ay si$ns" !ospital and medi#al e8uipment" it#!en e8uipment" ma#!ine parts" ordnan#e" re#reation e8uipment" re#reation ve!i#les" and stora$e tan s :2:+ Used in pipe railin$" furniture" ar#!ite#tural e,trusions" applian#e parts and trim" automotive parts" buildin$ produ#ts" ele#tri#al and ele#troni# parts" !i$!&ay si$ns" !ospital and medi#al e8uipment" it#!en e8uipment" marine appli#ations" ma#!ine parts" pipe" railroad #ars" re#reation e8uipment" re#reation ve!i#les" tru# s and trailers )292 Hi$!%stren$t! alloy in air#raft and ot!er stru#tures' Also used in ordnan#e and re#reation e8uipment )2)9 ?or air#raft and ot!er appli#ations re8uirin$ !i$!est stren$t!s' Al#lad )2)9 #ombines t!e stren$t! advanta$es of )2)9 &it! t!e #orrosion%resistin$ properties of #ommer#ially pure aluminum%#lad surfa#e' Also used in ma#!ine parts and ordnan#e

Table 6 Selected applications for aluminum casting alloys

Alloy 422'2 (24'2 (2.'2 ((('2 (+.'2 (0('2 +epresentati,e applications Ele#tri#al rotors lar$er t!an 49( mm -: in'/ in diameter Stru#tural members3 #ylinder !eads and pistons3 $ear" pump" and aerospa#e !ousin$s General%purpose #astin$s3 valve bodies" manifolds" and ot!er pressure%ti$!t parts Bus!in$s3 meter parts3 bearin$s3 bearin$ #aps3 automotive pistons3 #ylinder !eads Sole plates for ele#tri# !and irons Heavy%duty pistons3 air%#ooled #ylinder !eads3 air#raft $enerator !ousin$s

A(0('2 Diesel and air#raft pistons3 air%#ooled #ylinder !eads3 air#raft $enerator !ousin$s B(19'2 Gear !ousin$s3 air#raft fittin$s3 #ompressor #onne#tin$ rods3 rail&ay #ar seat frames +2.'2 +41'2 ++('2 +++'2 +90'2 +99'2 +9:'2 General%purpose permanent mold #astin$s3 ornamental $rilles and refle#tors En$ine #ran #ases3 $asoline and oil tan s3 oil pans3 type&riter frames3 en$ine parts Automotive and !eavy%duty pistons3 pulleys" s!eaves Gas meter and re$ulator parts3 $ear blo# s3 pistons3 $eneral automotive #astin$s >remium%stren$t! #astin$s for t!e aerospa#e industry SandC air #ompressor pistons3 printin$ press bedplates3 &ater =a# ets3 #ran #ases' >ermanentC impellers3 air#raft fittin$s3 timin$ $ears3 =et en$ine #ompressor #ases SandC fly&!eel #astin$s3 automotive transmission #ases3 oil pans3 pump bodies' >ermanentC ma#!ine tool parts3 air#raft &!eels3 airframe #astin$s3 brid$e railin$s Corrosion%resistant and pressure%ti$!t appli#ations Hi$!%stren$t! #astin$s for t!e aerospa#e industry Outboard motor parts3 instrument #ases3 #over plates3 marine and air#raft #astin$s Housin$s for la&n mo&ers and radio transmitters3 air bra e #astin$s3 $ear #ases >istons and ot!er severe servi#e appli#ations3 automati# transmissions Internal #ombustion en$ine pistons" blo# s" manifolds" and #ylinder !eads Ar#!ite#tural" ornamental" marine" and food and dairy e8uipment appli#ations Coo &are3 pipe fittin$s3 marine fittin$s3 tire molds3 #arburetor bodies ?ittin$s for #!emi#al and se&a$e use3 dairy and food !andlin$ e8uipment3 tire molds Ar#!ite#tural and ornamental #astin$s3 #onveyor parts3 air#raft and marine #astin$s Air#raft fittin$s3 rail&ay passen$er #are frames3 tru# and bus frame se#tions Instrument parts and ot!er appli#ations &!ere dimensional stability is important Automotive parts3 pumps3 trailer parts3 minin$ e8uipment

A+9:'2 Stru#tural parts re8uirin$ !i$! stren$t!3 ma#!ine parts3 tru# #!assis parts +9)'2 +91'2 +:2'2 +.2'2 +.0'2 +12'2 04+'2 00+'2 940'2 94.'2 9(2'2 9+9'2 )4+'2

A+:2'2 Cover plates3 instrument #ases3 irri$ation system parts3 outboard motor parts3 !in$es A+.2'2 Appli#ations re8uirin$ stren$t! at elevated temperature

A04+'2 Outboard motor pistons3 dental e8uipment3 type&riter frames3 street lamp !ousin$s

A940'2 >ermanent mold #astin$ of ar#!ite#tural fittin$s and ornamental !ard&are

A)4('2 General%purpose #astin$s t!at re8uire subse8uent bra5in$

.92'2

Bus!in$s and =ournal bearin$s for railroads

A.92'2 7ollin$ mill bearin$s and similar appli#ations

Selected 'eferences K Aluminum Statistical Review for 1996, T!e Aluminum Asso#iation In#'" Issued 411) K ASM Specialty Handboo ! Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys, L'7' Davis" Ed'" ASM International" 411+ K "roperties and Selection! #onferrous Alloys and Special$"urpose Materials, Jol (" ASM Handboo , ASM International" 4112" p +%(49