Food as Medicine in Muslim Civilization

by:

Nil Sari

1. Introduction
Food and diet were central to Ottoman clinical and preventive medicine. Ottoman medical manuscripts begin by specifying si! rules t"at s"ould be followed for a "ealt"y life# and one of t"ese rules was eating a balanced diet. $n bot" Ottoman cuisine and Ottoman medicine great importance was attac"ed to t"e type and c"aracteristics of foods and beverages# and w"ic" of t"ese s"ould be consumed w"en and "ow by people of different constitutions. Ottoman medicine was based on $slamic medicine# itself rooted in t"e teac"ings of %ippocrates and &alen# and for medical preparations and foods drew principally on wor's by t"e $slamic p"ysicians $bn Sina ()vicenna* and $bn al+,aytar. -"e main reason w"y food and beverages were of suc" importance in medicine is t"at t"ey not only provide nutrition but also preserve "ealt" and possess curative properties. Conse.uently "ealt"y dietary practice emerged as a distinct field of medical 'nowledge. -"e sub/ects of nutrition# diet and digestion wit" respect to leading a "ealt"y life and t"e treatment of disease are discussed at lengt" in Ottoman period medical manuscripts. 0egetables# fruits# animal foods and minerals suc" as salt are dealt wit" not only in medical and p"armaceutical wor's# but even in wor's on c"emistry. )lt"oug" carbo"ydrates# proteins and vitamins were as yet un'nown# t"e importance of good food and a balanced diet for "ealt"y living was recognised. -"e principles of "ealt"y and balanced nutrition in Ottoman medicine are based on t"e t"eories of elements and "umours . 1ven today we can observe relics of t"is t"eory# w"ic" remained current until t"e beginning of t"e twentiet" century. -o clearly e!plain t"e importance of nutrition in Ottoman medicine# it is necessary to ta'e a brief loo' at t"e t"eory of elements and "umours2 in ot"er words# t"e p"ilosop"y of medicine at t"at period. $ will endeavour to e!plain t"is t"eory as simply as possible# alt"oug" it consists of definitions and interpretations t"at cover a wide field# are very comple!# and sometimes difficult to compre"end. 3espite some variations in opinion regarding t"e details of t"is t"eory among Ottoman p"ysicians# t"e basic framewor' of t"e p"ilosop"y of medicine corresponded to t"e outline $ will give below. )ll of t"e information in t"is te!t is based on manuscripts and printed Ottoman sources# wit"out any interpretation of my own. $t s"ould not be forgotten t"at evaluating t"e medical concepts of t"e Ottoman period in t"e lig"t of today4s medical 'nowledge would lead to distortion of Ottoman medical p"ilosop"y as a w"ole# and so s"ould only be done wit" t"e greatest caution and based on firm evidence. Since e!planation of t"e information in t"e te!t in accordance wit" today4s 'nowledge of t"e metabolism and endocrinology is a separate sub/ect of researc"# t"ese will not be ta'en into account "ere.

2. Elements (unsur) and their Qualities

)ccording to t"e p"ilosop"y of t"e period# t"e universe is made up of four main elements: fire# air# water and eart". -"ese are t"e basic substances t"at ma'e up all inanimate and animate ob/ects. -"e four elements are not material but e!press c"aracteristics of mass and energy. -"ese elements "ave "ot# cold# moist or dry .ualities# described as t"eir state (keyfiyet*. -"ese .ualities are in"erent and described as nature (tabat*. For e!ample# t"e nature of a "uman being is defined as "ot blooded and t"at of grass as cold. 1art" "as a cold and dry nature2 water# cold and moist2 air# "ot and moist2 fire# "ot and dry. Not only "uman beings but all animate and inanimate entities are under t"e influence of one or a combination of t"e above+mentioned four .ualities. -"e essential substance of any ob/ect is c"aracterised by t"ese .ualities# eac" being "ot# cold# moist or dry. 1ac" ob/ect "as a "otter# colder# drier or moister nature in comparison to ot"ers. Organs also "ave t"ese c"aracteristics. For e!ample# t"e "eart "as t"e tendency to be "ot and moist2 t"e liver "ot and dry2 t"e brain moist and cold2 t"e spleen dry and cold. -"ese natural .ualities are also present to a greater or lesser e!tent in every food or medicament. For e!ample# a food or medicament mig"t be "ot in t"e first# second# t"ird or fourt" degrees# and "ence t"e "eating effect of t"at food or medicament varies according to t"e degree it possesses t"at c"aracteristic. -"e combination of .ualities in a food or medicament determines t"e balance in t"e body of t"e person w"o consumes it. 3. Humours (khilt) and Their Qualities -"e "uman body contains four fluids or "umours2 t"at is# blood# plegm# yellow bile and blac' bile. 5e cannot define t"e four "umours in t"e literal sense of t"e words used to e!press t"em. %umours are t"e fluids first generated by t"e process of digestion. ,lood "as a "ot and moist nature (sanguine*2 p"legm is cold and moist (p"legmatic*2 yellow bile is "ot and dry (c"oleric*2 blac' bile is cold and dry (melanc"olic*. ) good and "ealt"y "umour or combination of "umours can be digested and assimilated into t"e tissues. -"ese are restorative# beneficial "umours. %umours wit" t"e appropriate .ualities ta'en in moderate amounts nouris" t"e body. 1ac" of t"e four "umours also "as sub+categories. ,alance between t"e "umours indicates "ealt". 5"en t"e .uality or amount of t"e "umours deviate from t"e normal# "owever# t"e "umoral balance is disturbed and t"is causes disease. -"e "umours t"at "ave caused t"e disease need to be e!pelled from t"e body by means of medicaments. -"e "umoral balance may be distorted by e!ternal factors# especially diet# resulting in disease. )bnormal "umours t"at cannot be digested or transformed into a proper form are e!pelled from t"e body. 5"en necessary one s"ould "elp t"e e!pulsion process by means of diet or medicaments. 4. Temperaments -"e ways in w"ic" t"e opposing .ualities of t"e four elements combine and interact are called temperaments . $f t"e opposing c"aracteristics are present in e.ual amounts t"ere will be a balance. ,ut if

one or more of t"e "ot# cold# moist or dry .ualities are dominant t"e balance is disturbed. 5"en t"is occurs t"e person4s temperament is distorted# and t"eir e.uilibrium (itid7l* is upset. 5e can tal' about t"e proper ratio of c"aracteristics for eac" individual person rat"er t"an an ideal combination identical for all. $t is rare for a person to "ave a temperament in perfect e.uilibrium. For e!ample# if fire is t"e dominant element in a particular person# "is temperament is "ot2 but if water is dominant# t"e temperament of t"at person is cold. -"ere are four suc" simple temperaments. -"ere are also four composite temperaments. For e!ample# if "ot and moist .ualities are bot" dominant in a person# t"at person "as a sanguine temperament. $f "ot and dry .ualities are dominant t"ey produce a c"oleric temperament2 if cold and dry .ualities dominate t"ey produce a melanc"olic temperament2 and if cold and moist .ualities dominate t"ey produce a p"legmatic temperament. -"ese temperaments may be present in a stronger or wea'er form# and t"is causes differences amongst individuals. $n addition# temperament varies according to t"e geograp"ic location# season# age and gender. -emperament s"ould always be ta'en into consideration bot" in medical treatment and diet. 1ac" person s"ould eat in accordance wit" t"eir own temperament. )lt"oug" some people may "ave a strong constitution and be able to eat and digest unw"olesome food# t"is s"ould not be depended upon# because t"e bad "umours# w"ic" cannot be digested# accumulate gradually# damaging t"e person4s "ealt". %umans learn in time w"ic" foods are "armful for t"em. Sometimes a "armless food t"at a person "as eaten previously mig"t cause "arm t"e ne!t time# and suc" foods s"ould be avoided. 5. How Humours Influence Nutrition

%umours consist of digested nutrients. -"e foration of "umours t"roug" t"e digestion of nutrients is called coo'ing (pisme* in Ottoman medicine. -"e formation of "umours is important in demonstrating t"e relation between food and "ealt". 3igestion starts in t"e mout" and continues in t"e stomac"# w"ere t"e food is transformed into a fluid called c"ime (keyms* resembling t"ic' barley gruel. -"e solid particles t"at "ave no nutrient value are e!pelled from t"e body as e!crement. -"e watery part of t"e c"ime is absorbed by t"e stomac" and t"e intestines. 8art of t"e c"ime is transformed into p"legm before digestion is completed. C"ime enters t"e liver t"roug" t"e portal vein. %ere# a second process of digestion occurs t"at is again called coo'ing # leading to t"e formation of yellow bile (t"e foam of t"e blood*# blac' bile (t"e sediments of t"e blood* and blood itself. ) certain amount of natural blac' bile# w"ic" is accumulated at t"e mout" of t"e stomac"# arouses t"e appetite. ,lac' bile is formed as a result of a cold and dry diet. -"e blood contains t"e most valuable parts of t"e digested nutrients. ,lood reac"es t"e "eart via t"e vena cava# leaving t"e more watery part of t"e c"ime to be disposed of by t"e 'idneys. -"e t"ird p"ase of digestion occurs in t"e blood vessels and is distributed to ot"er organs via t"e arteries. 5it" t"e fourt" and final p"ase of digestion in t"e organs# digestion is completed. $nefficient digestion results in distorted# diseased yellow bile and blac' bile is formed. $t is because "umours are formed by digested nutrients t"at t"e c"aracteristics and amount of w"at a person eats and drin's affects t"e "ealt" of a person eit"er favourably or adversely. 8reserving t"e "umoral balance and t"us a person4s "ealt" is possible by means of proper nutrition. $f possible# t"e first step in treating an illness is to correct t"e distorted "umoral balance by means of foods consistent wit" t"e patient4s temperament2 t"at is# by means of an appropriate diet. Only if t"is does not wor' is resort made to medication. -"e following words by t"e $slamic p"ysician 9azi4s are famous: $f you can cure a person by diet# do not suggest medication .

. !lassification of "oods #ccordin$ to the Theor% of Elements

-"e foods and beverages t"at affect t"e "umoral balance are also classified according to t"e t"eory of elements as being "ot# cold# dry or moist. Foods and beverages t"at are moderate in nature generate blood. ,ecause diseases are also "ot# cold# dry or moist in nature# eac" disease is treated wit" foods or medicaments possessing t"e opposite .ualities. -"e medical effects of foods vary according to t"eir essential nature: Cold foods: Foods t"at are cold create p"legm. Cucumber# s.uas"# purslane and lettuce are cold vegetables. -"ey cause wea'ness (sst*. Hot foods: Foods t"at are "ot by nature create yellow bile. Suc" foods mainly consist of spices and similar condiments added to food. For e!ample# ginger# pepper# dry coriander# cumin# cinnamon# onion# garlic and mastic are "ot foods. Dry foods: 3ry foods create blac' bile# a cause of melanc"oly. -"ey lead to loss of appetite and constipation. Foods suc" as millet# lentils and dried meat are e!amples of dry foods. Moist foods: Moist foods are t"ose wit"out strong salty# sweet# sour or bitter flavours. -"ey "ave a softening effect. Noodles and spinac" coo'ed wit" rice and meat are e!amples of moist foods. &. How "oods and 'edicaments E(ert an Effect on the Health

Foods and medicaments affect "uman "ealt" in diverse ways: Essential qualities: ) food4s essential .ualities (coldness, hotness, moistness, dryness* can affect t"e person w"o eats it# and its effect will be proportional to t"e degree of t"ese .ualities. 1!amples of t"ese "ave been given above. Substance: Foods li'e meat and bread are called absolute nutrients (mutlak gid*# because t"ey affect t"e "ealt" solely by t"eir substances. 0arious organs of animals w"ose meat is eaten# and animal products suc" as eggs# mil'# "oney and c"eese are also used in treatment as well as being consumed as food. -"e nutritional strengt" of t"ese foods varies. For e!ample# t"e nutritional strengt" of undercoo'ed eggs or meat stoc' is "ig"# w"ereas t"at of most vegetables and rosewater is low2 t"at of apples is moderate. Power (kuvvet, h sse, h s!yet": -"is is t"e power of a foodstuff or medicinal substance to produce a particular effect. $f a substance ta'en alone functions as an analgesic# emetic# la!ative# diuretic or sedative# it is described as a medicament wit" a power uni.ue to itself 2 t"at is# it "as medicinal power. $f t"e effect of suc" a substance (suc" as t"e Mediterranean fan palm (Chamaerops humilis* is in "armony wit" t"e

nature of "uman beings it is non+poisonous. %owever# if t"e effect of a substance is against "uman nature# as in t"e case of sevkern <1=# for e!ample# it is described as "aving t"e power of poison . Notwit"standing t"at substances are effective t"roug" t"eir .ualities2 it is t"eir powers t"at prevail. For e!ample# t"ere is la!ative power in t"e dried /uice obtained from scammony (Convolvulus scammonia* root and turpet" (Ipomoea turpethum* root. -o give anot"er e!ample# t"e poison of t"e viper sna'e is "ot and scorpion poison is cold# but it is not t"ese c"aracteristics t"at do t"e 'illing2 w"at is fatal is t"e power of poison . #$ount: -"e effect of a substance varies according to t"e amount t"at is ta'en. Some t"at do not "ave any effect t"e first time t"ey are ta'en become effective w"en t"ey are ta'en a second or t"ird time# or w"en t"e amount is increased. Saffron (Crocus sativus # w"ic" is used as a stimulant and appetizer# is an e!ample of t"is. -"ere also are foods t"at become "armful as t"e amount is increased. For e!ample# eating too muc" onion causes frec'les on t"e face and vertigo. ). !lassification of "oods #ccordin$ to *i$estion Foods are also classified according to t"eir being easily digested or not. %entle (l tif" &oods: Most of t"e gentle foods are digested wit" very little residual "umour or ot"er residual substances. -"e gentle foods also assist in e!pelling food residues. -"e consumption of gentle foods results in boiling and burning of t"e blood# and t"e production of additional yellow bile. Most vegetables (especially radis" and mustard*# meat stoc'# egg yol'# liver# mutton and c"ic'pea soup <6=# young dove# sparrow# pic'les (capers# onion# garlic# radis" pic'le wit" vinegar# beetroot pic'le wit" mustard etc* are gentle nutrients (alt"oug" eating too muc" pic'le causes aging and wea'ens t"e nerves*. ,ecause t"e digestive power of people w"o get little e!ercise and t"e elderly is diminis"ed# suc" people s"ould eat in moderation and c"oose mainly gentle foods. For e!ample# instead of meat# t"ey s"ould eat soup made wit" meat stoc'. Coarse ('al!( )*+" &oods: Coarse foods increase moistness and p"legm# so t"at t"e .uantity of p"legm becomes e!cessive. Coarse foods also increase bodily strengt" and cause plumpness. -"ese foods and beverages s"ould be consumed w"en very "ungry and in moderate amounts so t"at t"ey are well digested# because t"ey cause indigestion. $f a person suffers from congestion (sudde*# suc" as constipation# as a result of eating coarse food# t"ey s"ould eat gentle nutrients# w"ic" will unbloc' t"e congestion. )ccordingly# if congestion occurs after eating coarse foods suc" as herse <;=# s"eep4s trotters# unleavened bread or starc"halva <>=# one s"ould eat gentle nutrients suc" as capers <?=# onion pic'le# garlic pic'le# radis" wit" vinegar and beetroot pic'le wit" mustard <@=# followed by a drin' of sirkengebin <A=# ta'ing care to eat in moderation. Foods suc" as pure w"eat bread# ripe fruits t"at "ave been "ung on strings for a few days and fully ripe figs give strengt" and plumpen t"e body. 5"en e!cessive fullness is felt it is necessary to cleanse t"e body# t"at is# to empty t"e digestion system. 0omiting is a simple way of cleansing t"e body. )lternatively t"e patient may eat less t"en usual for a few days# or drin' a lig"t la!ative in moderate amounts. -"e following s"ort receipt is for a medication used for t"e purpose of cleansing: 11 dirhems <B= of mastic <1C=2 one small peeled turpet" root2 1 dirhem of ginger pounded# sieved and warmed wit" almond oil2 and 1 dank <11= of sugar are ta'en and pounded toget"er# sieved and eaten before

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going to bed at nig"t. 3rin' warm water# eit"er plain or mi!ed wit" rosewater# and go to bed. ) good result will be easily obtained by t"e morning. For some people 6 dirhems of mastic wit" 6 dirhems of sugar is sufficient.

+. "oods with !urati,e -roperties (.id/0%i de,/1)

Substances t"at are used solely as foods are called gid!i mutlak (absolute foods* and t"ese are non+ poisonous nouris"ing nutrients suc" as meat and bread# w"ic" "ave no medicinal effect. -"ose t"at are classified as medicaments only and described as semm (poison* are called dev"!i mutlak (absolute medicaments*. Foods consumed for t"e protection of "ealt" or treatment of disease are called dev!yi gid or gid!yi dev(foods wit" curative properties*. Some substances used bot" as medicament (dev* and as a food or beverage (gid* may be called dev!i gid!i # hassa or gid!yi dev!i # hassa (foods wit" particular curative power*. -"is category consists of foods wit" a curative effect or substances t"at are employed primarily for curative purposes but also used as food. For a substance to be classified as a gid!yi dev it must be effective bot" in its .uality and in its substance. Suc" substances are non+poisonous (n!#ehr*. Foods suc" as kesk!i c# a type of blancmange made wit" barley flour and ewe4s mil'2 and scariole <16= t"at possess bot" medicinal and nutritive c"aracteristics# provide relief by t"eir cold .uality (brdet* on one "and and serve as foods on t"e ot"er. 8"ysicians prescribe suc" foods and beverages to t"eir patients. 0egetables and fruits are curative foods. For e!ample# figs# fully ripe grapes and dates are more curative in t"eir nature and so s"ould be eaten sparingly. -"ose w"o wis" to protect t"eir "ealt" s"ould avoid a diet consisting solely of fruit and vegetables because t"ese are foods wit" curative properties. 23. E(amples of Treatment with "oods4 5irds and "ish 6sed in Treatment

-"e seventeent" century -ur'is" writer 1vliya Delebi relates t"at t"e meat of various birds was given to patients as dietary food at t"e Fati" Sultan Me"met %an Mental %ospital and at t"e ,ayezid %ospital in 1dirne: E various delicious dis"es are prepared for t"e patients twice a day. -"e endowment deed for t"e foundation includes t"e instruction# Fif partridges and p"easants are not available# nig"tingales# sparrows and pigeons s"ould be coo'ed and given to t"e patients4E ,irds were used as invalid food and for t"e treatment of diseases. -"e meat or fat was applied e!ternally to cure wounds and ta'en internally for t"e treatment of diseases of t"e muscles and nervous system and for en"ancing virility. 1ac" species of bird was t"oug"t to "ave an effect of its own. For e!ample# duc' meat was said to cure "oarseness of t"e voice# eliminate flatulence# increase virility# and fatten and strengt"en t"e body2 w"ile benefits suc" as relieving deep pain are ascribed to t"e fat. $t is also stated t"at duc' fat

cleanses and beautifies t"e s'in. ,irds were sometimes coo'ed wit" spices and medicinal "erbs. For e!ample# goose was coo'ed wit" vinegar and spices2 biryn <1:= was coo'ed wit" olive oil and t"en stuffed wit" onions and a couple of garlic cloves added2 or alternatively coo'ed li'e isfidbc <1;=# wit" t"e addition of c"ic'peas# w"ite w"ore"ound <1>= and cinnamon. -"e addition of carrots and rue <1?= was considered very beneficial. Stoc' made from young c"ic'en# "en or rooster is bot" nutritious in its substance and a medicament# w"ile t"e brain# testicles and e!crement are medicaments. $t is said t"at t"e best roosters are t"ose t"at "ave not yet started crowing and t"e best "ens t"ose t"at "ave not yet laid eggs. 5e find diverse recipes for coo'ing c"ic'en to obtain t"e re.uired effects. For e!ample# if a c"ic'en is stuffed wit" mis' apples <1@= or .uince and t"en roasted# it is very nutritious. 3rin'ing stoc' prepared by coo'ing a rooster wit" ample water and adding polyploidy <1A= is a la!ative. 9ecipes are given for dis"es to treat certain diseases. For e!ample# for t"e treatment of lumbago t"e following dis" is prescribed: -a'e a rooster and add 6C dir"ems of pounded safflower <1B= seed# 1> dir"ems of polypody# a pinc" eac" of dill <6C=# fennel seed <61=# cumin and carnation# and some c"ic'peas. Ma'e t"e dis" slig"tly more salty t"an usual. 5"en well coo'ed strain and drin' t"e /uice as soup. Coo'ed garlic is a cure for flatulence. 0arious fis" species# including t"e goby# turbot# eel# carp# sea bass# pi'e# red mullet# plaice# bluefis"# bream# picarel# grey mullet# sole# two+banded bream# bonito# mac'erel and trout# and also t"e dolp"in# are described as curative by medical aut"ors. -"e benefit of feeding patients wit" red mullet# goby and scorpion fis" is particularly emp"asised. -"ere is e!tensive information in medical boo's about w"ic" fis" are best# w"ere t"ey are caug"t# "ow to coo' t"em# and wit" w"ic" foods t"ey s"ould and s"ould not be eaten. Since fis" are cold by nature t"ey calm t"e "ot "umours and t"ereby "ave a beneficial effect in cases of diseases of a "ot nature. For e!ample# t"ey are good for a dry coug"# /aundice# debility# dysentery and fissurations. Fis" eggs improve virility and are good for coug"s and dysentery. Medications prepared wit" fis" are used in t"e treatment of various diseases suc" as c"ronic furuncles# warts# poisonous stings suc" as scorpion stings# bites by rabid dogs# swellings in t"e anus# "ig" fever# malaria# deafness# "ard lumps on t"e uvula# psoriasis and /aundice. Medical writers e!plain w"ic" coo'ing and preparation met"ods are to be used for t"e treatment of w"ic" diseases. $n ot"er words# fis" recipes are used for "ealt"y nutrition and for protection from and treatment of disease. %ere are some e!amples of medications containing fis" and fis" dis"es ta'en from medical manuscripts: &ish ,oultice: -"is medicament is made wit" scorc"ed fis" and applied to swellings in t"e anus. $t is also applied to bites from rabid dogs or stings by poisonous animals suc" as scorpions. Scorched fish head: -"e "ead of a salted fis" is scorc"ed and t"e as"es sprin'led on furuncles and warts. -urnt fishbone: -"e as"es of burnt fis"bone are beneficial for psoriasis. Fis" "eart: -"e "eart of t"e fis" cut in "alf and coo'ed wit" vinegar is especially good for t"ose suffering from malaria or /aundice and t"ose wit" a "ot temperament. &ish cooked in vine'ar: Fis" coo'ed wit" vinegar is good for t"ose wit" malaria and a "ot temperament.

&ried fish: Fis" fried in a little oil is good for t"ose w"o are recuperating from a disease because it gives strengt". &ish la.ative: -"e stomac" of t"e fis" is slit# filled wit" sil' and sewn up wit" string. -"en it is placed into 1ACC dir"ems of water and coo'ed until only :CC dir"ems of water remain# t"en strained. 3rin'ing t"is water causes e!treme diarr"ea. Dol,hin fat: Colocynth <66= is coo'ed in dolp"in fat# w"ic" is of a "ot temperament. -"is oil is t"en dropped into t"e ear to cure deafness.

22. # 5alanced *iet for -reser,in$ Health ,alancing t"e diet forms one of t"e leading branc"es of traditional medicine# w"ic" treats t"is sub/ect wit"in t"e framewor' of t"e "umoral t"eory. -"e concept of balanced nutrition to give protection against disease and as a met"od of treatment is defined by t"e word mu"tedil (moderate*. Medical boo's discuss "ow to guard against possible "armful effects on t"e digestion of eating and drin'ing freely by means of eating a food wit" t"e .ualities of an antidote. For e!ample# t"e "arm done by foods li'e fruit and vegetables t"at possess curative properties can be avoided by consuming foods wit" t"e opposite .ualities. $f vegetables wit" cold .ualities suc" as cucumber# s.uas" or lettuce are eaten# t"e balance is redressed by eating some garlic# lee'# w"ite w"ore"ound <6:= or mint as a precaution against any possible "arm t"at mig"t be caused. 1ating unripe grapes# sumac# t"yme# pepper or ginger toget"er wit" fis"# w"ic" is a cold food2 and after t"e fis" eating sweets suc" as ginger murabb <6;=# "oney# "alva or rose /am# w"ic" are "ot# is suggested as a precautionary measure. 3rin'ing lemon and "oney s"erbet <6>=# sour lemon s"erbet or sarab!i mselles <6?= wit" fis" "elps its digestion and prevents adverse effects. $f a "ot food suc" as garlic# w"ite "ore"ound# onion or t"e li'e is eaten# its effects are offset by cucumber# fres" purslane <6@=# lettuce# s.uas" or sour s"erbets. %owever# eating a diversity of foods wit" opposing .ualities at t"e same meal is itself "armful. $f a food "as t"e property of obstructing t"e c"annels in t"e body# foods wit" t"e property of dissolving and e!pelling food and beverages are added to t"e diet. For e!ample# woodcoc' meat is constipating and to avoid t"is "armful effect woodcoc' meat s"ould be eaten wit" unripe grapes and lemon /uice. $f coarse (gal#* foods suc" as keskek# s"eep4s trotters or starc" "alva are eaten# gentle foods suc" as pic'led capers# pic'led onions# pic'led garlic# radis" wit" vinegar# beetroot pic'le wit" mustard or o!ymel s"ould be eaten toget"er wit" t"em. Moist and mildly flavoured foods suc" as s.uas" and cucumber s"ould be eaten following foods t"at are salty or "ave a s"arp flavour# suc" as pic'les and spices. Salty foods are "armful for t"e eyes. ) meal s"ould consist of foods belonging to certain categories following in a specific order. )ccording to t"ese principles# delicate# gentle and watery foods s"ould be eaten first. So# for e!ample# soup is ta'en first# followed by tirid <6A=# meat and ot"er foods. -"e failure to digest bread is more "armful t"an it is for meat.

Following p"ysical e!ertion or "ard wor' t"e body becomes "eated and at suc" times delicate (na#ik* foods suc" as mil'# fres" fis"# wild apricots# peac"es and melons s"ould be avoided. -"is is because foods entering t"e stomac" w"en it is "eated are corrupted# and t"ese corrupted foods t"en disrupt t"e "umours. 22. "ood !om7inations to #,oid Harm Certain foods are t"oug"t to be "armful if eaten toget"er. Ottoman medical writers give t"e following advice on t"is sub/ect:

3is"es made wit" yog"urt and unripe grapes s"ould not be eaten toget"er. 8lums# wild apricots# peac"es and sour pomegranates s"ould not be eaten one after anot"er.

3is"es wit" vinegar s"ould not be eaten toget"er wit" dis"es containing unripe grapes# salt fis" or dried meat. 9ice s"ould not be eaten wit" vinegar.

Goung pigeon s"ould not be eaten wit" garlic# onion and mustard. $f t"ese t"ree foods are eaten toget"er wit" young pigeon t"ey boil t"e blood# w"ic" causes s'in problems. C"ic'en s"ould not be coo'ed wit" yog"urt. C"ic'en s"ould not be eaten toget"er wit" fis".

C"ic'en toget"er wit" sour foods s"ould be eaten in moderation. -"ese cause abdominal pain w"en eaten in large .uantities. $ced water s"ould not be drun' after fruit. %oney s"ould not be eaten toget"er wit" t"e "oneycomb. Onion s"ould not be eaten toget"er wit" garlic. 3rin'ing mil' and wine on t"e same day causes gout.

Fres" fis"# mil'# mil' foods# fres" c"eese and eggs s"ould not be eaten toget"er. )mong t"e foods t"at s"ould not be eaten wit" fis"# eggs come first. $t is even claimed t"at deat" may result from neglecting t"is dietary rule.

One s"ould not drin' water after eating fis"# but patiently put up wit" being t"irsty. One s"ould not eat yog"urt wit" fis".

1ating meat# especially t"e meat of land animals# toget"er wit" fis" is very "armful and t"e cause of c"ronic disease. 23. *ietar% 8ules accordin$ to Temperament

1ac" individual s"ould eat in accordance wit" t"eir own temperament.

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5"en people "ave a balanced temperament and are t"erefore in good "ealt" t"eir diet s"ould consist of t"e following: meat# in particular lamb# veal or goat4s meat2 w"eat2 an appropriate sweetmeat2 a fragrant and pure beverage. Foods apart from t"ese serve to protect t"e "ealt" or treat diseases. 3is"es suc" as t"ose made wit" vegetables t"at do not satisfy t"e appetite for long s"ould be eaten less often in winter and more often in summer. 8eople wit" a "ot temperament s"ould ta'e food and beverages t"at are lig"t and of a cold .uality. $n t"e mornings t"ese people s"ould eat one or two morsels of bread soa'ed in a sour s"erbet made of pomegranate# sour grape# sour apple or lemon /uice# and drin' a sour s"erbet of t"is 'ind. 3is"es suc" as sour s"erbet# stew wit" unripe grapes# stew wit" plums# stew of lentils wit" vinegar# or marrow kalye <6B= are proper nutrients for a person wit" a "ot disposition. 3ue to its cold .uality fis" calms "ot "umours and is t"erefore beneficial for people wit" "ot temperaments. $f a person wit" a "ot temperament eats fis" t"ey s"ould drin' o!ymel or some vinegar. $f a person w"ose stomac" is very "ot eats late it will cause a "eadac"e. ) person w"o gets "ot after meals s"ould be careful not to eat fast and s"ould divide t"e meal into two small meals. ) person w"o is p"legmatic# t"at is# "as a moist and cold temperament s"ould eat gentle and "ot foods2 for e!ample# mutton and c"ic'pea soup# young pigeon# sparrow# and "ot "erbs suc" as mastic# cinnamon and cumin. 8lump people wit" a moist temperament s"ould eat red meat fried in walnut oil or olive oil# and seasoned wit" cumin# cinnamon and garlic. One dir"em of pounded blac' peppercorns tied in a piece of muslin and coo'ed wit" c"ic'pea soup lends strengt" to t"e dis". ,ecause fis" "ave a cold and moist .uality and increase p"legm# t"ey are "armful for t"ose wit" a cold temperament and t"ose wit" p"legm in t"e stomac". )n e!cess of p"legm is "armful for t"e nerves and brain# causing lumbago# apople!y and paralysis. -o e!pel t"is "armful p"legm from t"e body# la!ative "erbs# "ot water or "oney wit" vinegar s"ould be ta'en. 8eople wit" a cold and dry melanc"olic temperament s"ould eat moist foods and avoid dry foods suc" as millet# lentils# dried meat and salty foods. For e!ample# salt fis" seasoned in vinegar# a dry and cold foodstuff# prevents t"e building up of yellow bile in t"e stomac"# w"ic" causes indigestion and an increase of blac' bile# resulting in furuncles and itc"ing. 8eople wit" a c"oleric temperament and dry nature s"ould eat cold and moist foods2 for e!ample# noodles# spinac" coo'ed wit" rice and meat. Foods li'e salt fis"# w"ic" is "ot and dry# s"ould be avoided since t"e power of t"e salt causes an increase in yellow bile. 24. #d9ustin$ *iet #ccordin$ to the :eason

Foods are closely related to t"e seasons# because t"e seasons affect t"e density of t"e "umours. -"erefore# diet s"ould also be ad/usted according to t"e season. -"e nature of spring is "ot and moist. So cold and dry foods s"ould be eaten in ample amounts in t"e mornings and evenings as t"ese prevent t"e blood from being corrupted. 0ery sweet foods t"at "ave bad effects on t"e blood s"ould be avoided. 3uring spring# foods suc" as meat and s"erbet s"ould be consumed.

11

-"e nature of summer is "ot and dry. ,ecause yellow bile increases in summer# foods t"at activate or produce yellow bile s"ould not be eaten2 w"ile foods t"at cause t"e body to become cold and moist s"ould be consumed in ample amounts. Sour foods and beverages are very appropriate for summer. Foods t"at decrease yellow bile# suc" as fruits# t"e /uice of pomegranates# unripe grapes# lemons# roses and apples2 cold vegetables li'e cucumbers# marrow and purslane# and dis"es or soups flavoured wit" vinegar and ot"er sour ingredients are beneficial. Foods preserved in brine# and t"ose t"at are salty# spiced or "ave a strong flavour s"ould be avoided in summer. $n autumn blood decreases and blac' bile increases. -"e temperament of t"is season is cold and dry. -"erefore during t"is season one s"ould avoid dry and salty food# instead eating foods t"at are "ot and moist. 3uring winter p"legm increases and t"erefore one s"ould avoid foods and beverages t"at increase t"is "umour. -"e nature of t"is season is cold and wet# so it is appropriate to eat "ot and dry foods during winter2 for e!ample# dis"es coo'ed wit" garlic# onion or spices suc" as pepper and ginger2 roast meat (kebab* and sweetmeats. Cold yahni <:C= s"ould be avoided in t"e winter. 3is"es s"ould be consumed "ot in winter# and cold or warm in summer. )t t"e same time foods and beverages s"ould not be eit"er e!cessively cold or e!cessively "ot. -"ere is a list of dis"es to be eaten according to t"e season in a document (3.B>BB* in t"e -op'api 8alace arc"ive. $n t"is document t"e dis"es are listed by t"e season# ta'ing into account t"e "umoral t"eory t"at forms t"e basis of classical Ottoman medicine. For e!ample# in summer# sour food and beverages# fruits and vegetables predominate and spices are avoided# as prescribed for people wit" a "ot disposition2 w"ereas in winter# coarse foods suc" as 'ebabs and sweets# and dis"es seasoned wit" spices are recommended. -"e dis"es consumed t"roug"out t"e four seasons# suc" as pilaf wit" meat and c"ic'en 'ebab# are t"ose classified as moderate # and do not upset t"e "umoral balance. -"e document is entitled an account of foods appropriate for t"e four seasons . ,elow are some e!amples of daily menus recommended for t"e summer mont"s: :ummer :eason4 )dditional lig"t soups s"ould be coo'ed from t"e beginning of summer to t"e end and "ot plants (spices* s"ould be avoided. $riday% Fried pilaf wit" meat <:1=# sour grape soup# stuffed aubergine# barberry <:6= soup# plain c"ic'en soup wit"out rice# c"ic'en 'ebab. Saturday% 9ice coo'ed wit" mil'# marrow burani <::= wit" unripe grapes <:;=# lemon soup# c"ic'en soup wit" lemon /uice# c"ic'en 'ebab. Sunday% 0egetable pilaf# 'alye wit" Swiss c"ard# stuffed marrow wit" unripe grapes# c"ic'en soup wit" sour pomegranate /uice# and c"ic'en 'ebab. &onday% 8ilaf# sumac <:>= soup# fried marrow# meat kalye wit" lemon /uice# plain c"ic'en soup# c"ic'en 'ebab.

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'uesday% 8ilaf# marrow coo'ed wit" unripe grapes# pide <:?= wit" marrow filling# rice coo'ed wit" sour /uice<:@=# c"ic'en soup# c"ic'en 'ebab. (ednesday% 9ice coo'ed wit" mil'# fried aubergine wit" meat# bozca soup <:A=# mint soup# c"ic'en soup wit" lemon /uice and eggs# c"ic'en 'ebab. 'hursday% Soft boiled rice# fried marrow# tutmac <:B= wit" sour /uice# w"ite soup <;C= wit" sour pomegranate /uice# c"ic'en 'alye wit" c"ic'peas and onion# c"ic'en 'ebab. From time to time t"ese seasonal dis"es may be replaced by t"e following dis"es: Noodle soup# umac soup <;1=# sour almond soup# sour soups# 'alye wit" sour /uice# hekim asi <;6=. 25. 'eal Times and #mounts

-"ere is not"ing so "armful as becoming e!cessively "ungry or eating to e!cess. Meals s"ould not be eaten before one is really "ungry# nor delayed for long after one is really "ungry. $f t"e appetite is not fulfilled# t"e stomac" becomes upset and filled wit" unw"olesome (fsid* "umours. 5"en t"ere is true "unger# one s"ould not delay eating. -"e meal s"ould be eaten wit" a loyal appetite (sdik istih*# t"at is# a real appetite# but one s"ould stop eating before t"e appetite is entirely satiated. $t is better to eat .uic'ly and leave t"e table rat"er t"an sit all t"roug" t"e repast eating continuously and unnecessarily. ,ecause w"en a repast is protracted# t"e food eaten earlier is digested# but t"at eaten later is not# giving rise to disorders. One s"ould not eat too soon after a repast# but wait until t"e previous meal "as been digested# to avoid "armful effects. $f one is obliged to eat# t"en one s"ould lie down and rest for a w"ile after eating# and t"en do slow but plentiful e!ercises. -o "elp digestion one s"ould ta'e some cvris <;:= as appropriate to t"e temperament. Over+eating brings about accumulation of blood and satiation. 1!cessive consumption of eit"er food or beverages is very "armful and could even cause deat" from congestion. 8referably meals s"ould be arranged as follows: t"ree times every two days2 t"at is# morning and evening meals on one day and lunc" on t"e second day. %owever# a person w"o is in t"e "abit of eating twice a day becomes wea' if t"ey start to eat once a day. )nd if a person in t"e "abit of eating once a day t"en starts eating twice a day# t"ey become wea' and suffer from indigestion and distension of t"e stomac". 2 . Importance #ttached to "ood -reparation and to the !oo; $nformation about t"e preparation of food to be used in protecting against and treating diseases is found in boo's called mfredt (materia medica* and mrekkebt (compound medicines* consisting of receipts for drugs and medicaments# as well as in general medical wor's. -"e sub/ect of w"ic" coo'ing met"ods and ingredients s"ould be used to ma'e a dis" "ealt"ier is regarded as an integral part of medical science. -"is can be illustrated by t"e following e!ample recommending t"at fis" be coo'ed in vegetable oils of various 'inds: <fis"= s"ould be coo'ed in walnut oil or olive oil# and s"ould be served sprin'led wit" pepper2 or it s"ould be coo'ed in sesame oil# walnut and almond oil. -"is latter met"od provides special protection

1:

against t"e "armful effects of fis" . $n anot"er e!ample grilling fis" wit" unripe grape and sumac is described as t"e most appropriate coo'ing met"od and better t"an frying in oil. $t was essential t"at t"e person w"o prepared t"e food and beverages so crucial to "uman "ealt" be an e!pert. 5"en t"e close relations"ip between food and "ealt" in Ottoman medicine is considered t"e important role of t"e coo' in t"e treatment of patients can be understood. For e!ample# t"e person appointed as tabbah(coo'* to a "ospital prepared not only food for t"e patients but also syrups and medicaments 'nown asmatbht <;;=# always following recipes and formula prescribed by t"e p"ysician according to t"e temperament of t"e patients . -"e importance given to nutrition in t"e treatment of patients is clearly evident in t"e endowment deeds of "ospitals. For e!ample# t"e endowment deed for t"e Fati" Sultan Me"med foundation (vakif* specifies t"at two fine upstanding coo's be appointed to prepare meals for t"e patients in t"e "ospital. -"ese two coo's must wor' "ard to lig"ten t"e wretc"ed wounded "earts of t"e patients2 coo' food to nouris" t"e life force of t"ese suffering people w"ose s'ins are as sallow as an autumn leaf# w"o are afflicted by so many troubles# debilitated by diverse ailments# in need of compassion# in despair of a cure. -"eir wages were t"ree ak)e a day. 1vliya Delebi writes t"at in t"e %ospital of ,ayezid $$ in 1dirne delicious dis"es were distributed from t"e 'itc"en to every patient# w"et"er t"eir illness be mental or p"ysicial# and eac" dis" was prepared in accordance wit" t"eir individual needs. $n t"e endowment deed of t"e "ospital it is emp"asised t"at t"e coo's prepare diet food in accordance wit" t"e instructions of t"e p"ysicians: -wo capable# clean# "onest# uprig"t master coo's s"all do t"eir utmost to coo' w"atever dis"es t"e p"ysicians may prescribe according to t"e malady of eac" patient in t"e mental "ospital 'itc"en2 and to carry out all t"e duties w"ic" by custom are t"eir responsibility .uic'ly and in a cleanly manner. )t t"e SHleymaniye %ospital we find t"at four master coo's are to be employed2 two responsible for beverages and two for food. $t is specified in t"e endowment deed t"at t"e two beverage coo's (tabbh!i ashrba* be people accomplis"ed and e!pert# w"ose s'ill at coo'ing syrups "as been clearly demonstrated# and w"o will serve unceasingly wit" complete dedication# endeavour and perseverence. Meanw"ile t"e two food coo's (tabbh!i at"ima* must be people w"ose understanding and 'nowledge of coo'ing food is complete in every way and t"ey are e!pected to prepare diet dis"es and ot"er foods in accordance wit" t"e instructions given by t"e p"ysician to suit t"e dispositions# temperaments and maladies of t"e patients# and ma'e sure t"at t"e flavour and ot"er attributes of t"e food t"ey coo' is as it s"ould be. -"e conditions laid down for t"e two coo's to be appointed to t"e )ti' 0alide %ospital were as follows: t"ey s"all coo' foods appropriate for t"e patients suc" t"at a clever master p"ysician may place trust and confidence in t"em# and t"ey s"all be diligent and ta'e great pains t"at t"e food t"ey coo' s"all arouse t"e appetite of t"e patients. -"e %alva"ane (%alva Iitc"en* at -op'api 8alace is of particular note in illustrating t"e importance attac"ed to t"e 'itc"en and t"e coo' wit" respect to "ealt". )s well as preparing sweet dis"es of all 'inds for t"e table t"e %alva"ane was also a dispensary w"ere medicines in t"e form of tissanes# preserves# s"erbets and macun(a type of electuary# "aving a soft te!ture and sweetened wit" "oney or sugar* were prepared. ) boo' 'ept by t"e %alva"ane coo's discovered by Nasid ,aylav and translated by "im into modern -ur'is" contains numerous receipts for medicines <;>=.

1;

8alace p"ysicians used food and beverages to protect t"e "ealt" and treat t"e medical disorders of members of t"e palace "ouse"old. ) report by t"e c"ief p"ysician dated 1C February 1:6? (6: February 1B11* preserved in a -reasury 9egister s"ows clearly "ow p"ysicians attac"ed importance to coo'ing as an integral part of medical care rig"t up to t"e end of t"e Ottoman period: %erewit" it is strictly commanded t"at as a medical necessity special care s"all be given to coo'ing t"e c"ic'en and lamb cutlets for t"e table of "er ladys"ip t"e first favourite# t"at c"ic'en coo'ed in various ways s"all be provided every day# and t"at similar care s"all be ta'en w"en coo'ing cutlets and ot"er dis"es for "er. 2&. -rescriptions for "oods and 5e,era$es <ritten 7% -h%sicians for #ilin$ 'em7ers of the -alace Household Ottoman p"ysicians prescribed particular foods and beverages as part of t"eir treatment. %owever# $ "ad never seen any surviving medical prescriptions of t"is 'ind written for particular patients until some e!amples were discovered in a -reasury register. -"ese prescriptions written by t"e c"ief p"ysician and ot"er p"ysicians used suc" p"rases as by medical necessity # wit" regard to "isJ"er ailment # as appropriate for "ealt" # in accordance wit" medical re.uirements and as medical science re.uires to e!plain t"e diet specified. -"ese documents s"ow "ow seriously t"e relations"ip between food and medicine was regarded in Ottoman medical practice. 5e can assume t"at similar documents of an earlier date remain to be discovered. 1!amples of suc" prescriptions in t"e form of medical reports to t"e palace aut"orities given below reveal t"at preventive and clinical medicine continued to attac" importance to food and beverages until t"e early 6Ct" century. Since traditional medicine "ad already been superseded by 1uropean medicine in bot" medical training and practice# it is conceivable t"at traditional approac"es to diet "ad been observed to produce favourable results. ,elow are some e!amples from t"e first page of t"e register containing dietary prescriptions written for members of t"e palace "ouse"old for curative or preventive purposes: -"is report "erewit" submitted prescribes as a medical re.uirement a bowl of yogurt per day for "er lady c"ief cler' of t"e %arem. 6 Marc" of t"e year :6@ (1> Marc" 1B11*. C"ief 8"ysician. -"is report prescribes t"at 8eyvend 'alfa of t"e %arem Kaundry Office be given c"ic'en and soup for five days in accordance wit" t"e dictates of medical science. 1B Marc" of t"e year :6@ (1 )pril 1B11*. 1vlamyus. -"is report prescribes t"at as appropriate for "er ailment ,edrsafa 'alfa s"all be given mutton c"ops and apple compote every day until a second report s"all be submitted. 6@ Marc" of t"e year :6@ (B )pril 1B11*. Nizameddin. -"is report "erewit" submitted prescribes t"at for medical reasons t"e meal on t"e table of %er %ig"ness t"e mot"er of %is %ig"ness 8rince Nazim s"all consist of well coo'ed cutlets# and sometimes grilled meatballs and occasionally fried meat# and t"at sometimes mil' pudding and pasta s"all be provided. 6B Marc" of t"e year :6@ (11 )pril 1B11*. %ead+p"ysician.

1>

-"is report "erewit" submitted prescribes t"at Nevin 'alfa of t"e %arem -reasury Office be given noodle soup made wit" c"ic'en stoc'# mallow and o'ra every morning and evening for a wee'. 11 )pril of t"e year :6@ (6; )pril 1B11*. Nazif. -"is report "as "erewit" been written concerning t"e illness of Nevin Ialfa of t"e %arem -reasury Office# prescribing t"at boiled c"ic'en and two cutlets be added to "er meals on alternate days for t"e period of a wee'. 1; )pril of t"e year :6@ (6@ Nisan 1B11*. Nazif -"is report prescribes t"at wit" respect to t"e illness of t"e "onorable Nevin of t"e %arem -reasury Office s"e s"all be served as formerly wit" c"ic'en and cutlets on alternate days# toget"er wit" artic"o'es coo'ed wit" minced meat in meat stoc'# marrow kalye and stuffed marrow to be served in turn# instead of soup and o'ra and mil' pudding. 6C )pril :6@ (: May 1B11*. Nazif. -"is report prescribes t"at on medical grounds t"e "onorable c"ief clar' s"all be given four fres" eggs every day for a mont". 6 May 1:6@ (1> May 1B11*. )"med -"is report "erewit" prescribes t"at as a medical re.uirement ,esim )ga# gentleman+in+waiting# s"all be given soup# cutlets# marrow and o'ra for t"ree days on account of "is illness. 61 Lune :6@ (; Luly 1B11*. 2). "rom Toda%=s -erspecti,e 8"ysicians writing in t"e Ottoman period used to compile information ta'en from various medical boo's# sometimes adding t"eir own e!periences to t"ose recorded by earlier p"ysicians. -"is meant t"at w"ile t"e effects of a particular substance were repeated in many sources# sometimes .uite different effects were attributed to t"e same substance. $t is difficult to determine w"et"er suc" information was new 'nowledge first recorded by t"e writer. %owever# t"e use of food in preventive and clinical medicine is a common approac" to all t"ese wor's. Similarly use of t"e "umoral t"eory to determine t"e temperament of patients# t"eir ailments and appropriate medication# and in e!plaining diagnosis and treatment was also common to all p"ysicians. )s can be seen# most of t"e met"ods of treatment by means of foods and beverages t"at $ "ave illustrated "ere wit" e!amples from Ottoman period medical boo's differ considerably from recipes to w"ic" we are accustomed today. Nevert"eless t"ere are some similarities between t"is information and modern culinary practices in -ur'ey today. For e!ample# fis" is still coo'ed wit" sour ingredients li'e unripe grapes# vinegar or lemon2 we still eat a sweet course after fis"# usually "alva2 and we still avoid eating yogurt wit" fis". Suc" customs# w"ose origin we rarely stop to consider# are relics of traditional medicine t"at survive in our gustatory tastes.

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2+. :ources 'anuscripts

1mir Delebi (Seyyid Me"med et+-abMb es+Se"Mr bi+1mir Delebi*: *nm#a+ al! 'ibb (1?6>*. $stanbul Nniversity Cerra"pasa Faculty of Medicine Medical %istory Museum# no. B?. $bn ,aytar (1bu Me"med )bdulla" b. )"med Oiyaeddin*: ,itab *l!-mi" al!&ufradt al*d.iya .a al!*gdiye/ -rans. )bdurra"man b. Gusuf: 'ar+amat al!&ufradt/ SHleymaniye Kibrary# IiliP )li 8asa# no. @1?J;.

$bn ,aytar (1bu Me"med )bdulla" b. )"med Oiyaeddin*: ,itab *l!-mi" al!&ufradt al*d.iya .a al!*gdiye/ -rans. %ezarfen %Hseyin 1fendi: 'ar+amat al!&ufradt (1@t" century*# SHleymaniye Kibrary# Kala $smail# no. :ABJB# %amidiye# no. 1C1? and )yasofya :@;>.

$bn Sina (1bu )li el+%Hseyin b. )bdulla"*: al!0nn f *l!tibb/ -rans. Mustafa b. )"med b. %Hseyin el+-o'adM: 'abh# al!&athn (1At" century*# SHleymaniye Kibrary# %amidiye# no. 1C1>. $bn+i Serif: 1digr f al!'ibb (1>t" century*# $stanbul Nniversity Cerra"pasa Medical %istory Museum Kibrary# no. 1>> and :11. $sa 1fendi b. )li el+Sa'izM: &ufradat Isa 2fendi f *l!'ibb (1@t" century*# SHleymaniye Kibrary# %e'imoglu no. >?@ and Geni Camii no. 11@;2 $stanbul Nniversity Cerra"pasa Faculty of Medicine Medical %istory Museum Kibrary# no. >AC.

,itb min al!'ibb f al!*hkm al!,ulliyt .a al!*dviyt al!&ufradt/ SHleymaniye Kibrary# )yasofya no. :@;A. Me"med MH4min et+-an'abuni (1??B*: 'uhfat al!&umnn. -rans. )"med S7nM b. %Hseyin b. %asan:3unyat al!&uhassiln f 'ar+amat 'uhfat al!&umnn (1@::*. SHleymaniye Kibrary# Fati"# no. :>AB2 $stanbul Nniversity Cerra"pasa Faculty of Medicine Medical %istory Museum Kibrary# no. :>B# >?6.

NidaM: &anf" *l!ns/ $stanbul Nniversity Cerra"pasa Faculty of Medicine Medical %istory Museum Kibrary no. >6 and ?>. Siya"M (el+IaramanM min ,eled+i Karend 3ervis Siya"i*: 4ugat &ushkilt!i *+# (1@t" century*# $stanbul Nniversity Cerra"pasa Faculty of Medicine Medical %istory Museum Kibrary no. 1BJ6 and ;1:. SuQrM: 'a"dil al!*m#i+a/ $stanbul Nniversity Cerra"pasa Faculty of Medicine Medical %istory Museum Kibrary no.# 6@B. 'abiatnma (-ranslated from 8ersian# 1;t" century*: $n t"is wor' t"e relation between nutrition and "ealt" is e!amined under t"e "eadings# ,read# 5ater# Meat# 0egetables# Spices# Sweets and Fruits. -"e facsimile edition publis"ed by 8rof. 3r. $smail %i'met 1rtaylan "as been used.

)n old medical boo' on coo'ing in t"e Millet Kibrary ()li 1miri Kibrary* MHteferri' No. 1;: is a valuable source for our food "istory. $t contains many recipes for meat and vegetable dis"es# sweet dis"es and s"erbets# and specifies t"eir effects on "ealt".

Oeynel )bidin b.%alil: Shifa al!$uad# $stanbul Nniversity Cerra"pasa Faculty of Medicine Medical %istory and 3eontology Science ,ranc" Kibrary# no. :>.

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#rchi,e *ocuments

8rime Minister Ottoman )rc"ive#: %att+i %umayun 3efteri# nr. :C?A?.

5$usl!i erbaya mnsib gidlarin beyn edildigi defter5: -op'api 8alace )rc"ive No. 3. B>BB. -"e document lists dis"es to be served during t"e four seasons of t"e year to t"e employees of t"e palace. -"e arc"ivists date t"e document to t"e si!teent" century. -rinted <or;s

)divar# ). )dnan: 6smanli 'rklerinde Ilim. 9emzi# $stanbul 1B@C.

,ar'an# R.K.: Se"irlerin -ese''Hl ve $n'isafi -ari"i ,a'imindan Osmanli $mparatorlugunda $maret Sitelerinin Iurulus ve $sleyis -arzina )it )rastirmalar. Istanbul 7niversitesi Iktisat $akltesi &ecmuasi# October 1B?6+ February 1B?:# No. 1+6. pp. 6:B+6B?.

,ar'an# R.K.: Fati" Cami ve $mareti -esislerinin 1;AB+1;BC Gillarina )it Mu"asebe ,ilanPolari Istanbul 7niversitesi Iktisat $akltesi &ecmuasi# October 1B?6+ February 1B?:# No. $+6# pp. 6B@+:;1.

,ar'an# R.K.: Saray Mutfaginin AB;+AB> (1;AB+1;BC* Gilina )it Mu"asebe ,ilanPosu . Istanbul 7niversitesi Iktisat $akltesi &ecmuasi# October 1B?6+ February 1B?:# pp. :AC+:BA. ,ar'an# R.K.: $stanbul Saraylarina )it Mu"asebe 3efterleri # 8elgeler# -Hr' -ari" Iurumu# No. 1:# vol. $S. )n'ara# 1B@B. ,rowne# 1.&.: )rabian Medicine. Cambridge Nniversity 8ress# Kondon# 1B?6.

3ramur# 9engin: %elva"ane4de Macun $malM $Pin Iullanilan 1czanin -emini . 'ip 9nyasi# v. >B# No. :# May+Lune 1BA?# pp. ;;+?C. &runer# O. C.: 'he Canon of &edicine of *vicenna Incorporating a 'ranslation of the $irst 8ook/)ugustus M. Ielley# New Gor'# 1B@C. %alici# Feyzi: *li 2sref 9ede"nin 1emek :isalesi/ )tatHr' IHltHr 3il ve -ari" GH'se' Iurumu# )tatHr' IHltHr Mer'ezi# )n'ara# 1BB6. $bra"im %a''i# 1rzurum %asan'aleli: &arifetname. vol.:# 6nd ed. 8ut into modern -ur'is" by -urgut Nlusoy# )"med Said# $stanbul# 1B@>. IagitPi# M.).: 8esin ,ilavu#u. $stanbul# 1B;B. I7"ya# 1. (tr*: Ibn!i Sina 2l!,nn fi"t!'ibb/ ,oo' 1. )tatHr' IHltHr Mer'ezi ,as'anligi# )n'ara# I7"ya# 1. (tr.*: 2l!,nn fi"t!'ibb Ibn!i Sina. ,oo' 6. )tatHr' IHltHr Mer'ezi ,as'anligi# )n'ara#

1BB>.

6CC:.

IHtH'oglu# S. M.: 1CCB (1?CC* -ari"li Nar" 3efterlerine &Tre $stanbul4da Desitli 1sya ve %izmet Fiyatlari. 'arih 2nstits 9ergisi# No. B# $stanbul 1B@A. Me"met I7mil: &elce!i 'abbhn. Usir 1f. Matbaasi# 16@>J1A>B.

Osman %ayri MHrsid b. %alil -arsusM: ,en#"s!Sihhat"l!2bdaniye 2ser!i &rsid!i 6smaniye. Matbaa+i Osmaniye# $stanbul# 16BAJ1AA1. Rzden# M.).: $bn Sina -ibbina ,ir ,a'is ,HyH' -Hr' Filozof ve -ib Vstadi $bni Sina Sa"siyeti ve 1serleri %a''inda -et'i'ler. -Hr' -ari" Iurumu# Series: 0$$# No. 1# $stanbul# 1B:@.

1A

;hilosophy of &edicine and Science/ ;roblems and ;erspectives. Compiled by 3epartment of 8"ilosop"y of Medicine and Science. $nstitute of %istory of Medicine and Medical 9esearc"# New 3el"i 1B?6.

Sari# Nil: Osmanli 8alace4nda Geme'lerin Mevsimlere &Tre 3Hzenlenmesi ve 3evrin -ababetiyle $lis'isi . Offprint from 'rk &utfagi Sempo#yumu 8ildirileri <= 2kim!= ,asim =>?=# )n'ara# 1BA6# pp. 6;>+6>@.

Sari# Nil: Osmanlilarda Geme )detlerinin Ilasi' 3evir -ip )nlayisi ile $lis'isi . Catering 3ourmet# 9Tnesans# $stanbul# 1BA@# pp. 66+:C. Sari# Nil: -Hr' -ip -ari"inde Geme' ile -ip )rasinda'i $lis'iye )it Rrne'ler (-"e 9elation ,etween Food and Medicine in -ur'is" Medical %istory* . @nd International $ood Congress 'urkey (<!=A September =>?? # Ionya IHltHr ve -urizm 0a'fi# )n'ara# 1BAB# pp. :B6+;C6.

Sari# Nil# M. ,edizel OHlfi'ar ()ydin*: ,eslenme ile Sagli' )rasinda Iurulan $lis'i ve -abiatn7me . 8ursa 'ip 'arihi 3nleri Sempo#yumu (=B!=C &ayis =>>@ ,onferans ve 8ildiri D#etleri# -Hr' -ip -ari"i Iurumu ve Nludag Vni. -ip Fa'Hltesi -ip -ari"i ve 3eontolo/i )nabilim 3ali# $stanbul# 1BB6# pp. 6?.

Sari N# ,. OHlfi'ar: $slam -ibbindan Osmanli -ibbina Iuslarla -edavi . IE/ &illetlerarasi 1emek ,ongresi (<!F 2yll l>>@, ,onya 8ildirileri/ Ionya IHltHr ve -urizm 0a'fi# 1BB:# pp. 6>B+6@l. Sari N# M. ,. )ydin: Osmanli -ip Gazmalarinda ,ali' 8isirme ve Meal -arifleri. E/ &illetlerarasi 1emek ,ongresi (=!< 2yll l>>B, *nkara 8ildirileri# )tatHr' IHltHr Mer'ezi ,as'anligi# 1BB;# pp. 6>C+ 6>?.

Sari N# ,. )ydin: -ip Gazmalarinda ,ali'la -edavi . 'arih ve &edeniyet 1BB># No. 66# pp. >@+?C.

Sari N: Osmanli 3arHssifalarina -ayin 1dilece' &Trevlilerde )ranan Niteli'ler. 1eni 'ip 'arihi *rastirmalari# No. 1# $stanbul# 1BB># pp. 11+>;. Sari N# ,. )ydin: Iuslarla -edavi . 'arih ve &edeniyet# 1BB?# No. 6:# pp. ?;+?A.

Sari N# 9. -ug: 1nderun+i %Hmayun Iil7r+i %assa ,as'ullu'Pusu 3ervis Me"med4in (1@?;J>+ 1A;C* 3H"n -er'iplerine )it 9isalesi . IE/'rk 2c#acilik 'arihi 'oplantisi (B!C Ga#iran l>>? 8ildirileri/ 1d: 1. 3Tlen. Marmara Vniversitesi 1czacili' Fa'Hltesi# 6CCC# pp. 6:A+6B@.

S"a"# %. M.: 'he 3eneral ;rinciples of *vicenna"s Canon of &edicine. Naveed Clinic# Iarac"i

1B??.

-erzioglu# )rslan: Gelvahane 9efteri ve 'opkapi Sarayi"nda 2c#acilik (2ine 8isher Hnbekannte *r#neien Im 'opkapi!Schloss in Istanbul Hnd Ihre 8edeutung $ur 9ie 3eschichte 9er ;harma#ie # )r'eolo/i ve Sanat# $stanbul# 1BB6.

'heories and ;hilosophies of &edicine. Compiled by 8"ilosop"y of Medicine and Science# $nstitute of %istory of Medicine and Medical 9esearc"# -ug"la.abad# New 3el"i# 1B@: No. ?6. GHcel# %asan )li: 8ir 'rk Gekimi ve 'ibba 9air &an#um 8ir 2ser. 3evlet ,asimevi# $stanbul Nllmann# M.: Islamic Surverys II Islamic &edicine/ 1dinburg" Nniversity 8ress# 1dinburg"# 1B@A. Vnver# ). S.: 'arihte CA 'rk 1emegi/ $stanbul Vniversitesi -ip -ari"i 1nstitHsH# No. :B. $stanbul# 1B:@.

1B;A.

Vnver# ). S.: $atih 9evri 1emekleri/ $stanbul Vniversitesi -ip -ari"i 1nstitHsH# No. ;6# $stanbul 1B>6. ($n t"is wor' t"e 4gat)e!i 2t"imeI'ercme!i ,en#"l Istiha by )"met Cavid# -op'api 8alace Kibrary

1B

%azine No. 11A?# written at t"e end of t"e eig"teent" century is studied in t"e lig"t of Vnver4s earlier wor'# $atih 9evri 1emekleri.*

Vnver# ). S. (tr. %azmi -ura*: 5Ibni Sina"nin 'edbirl &safirin :isalesi5/ 'rk 'ib 'arihi *rkivi# 0ol. :# No. 1C# 1B:A# pp. ::+;A. Vnver# ). S.: )nadolu ve $stanbul4da $maretlerin )s"ane# -ab"ane ve Misafir"anelerine ve MHesseslerinin 9u"M Iem7llerine 3air. Istanbul 7niversitesi 'ip $akltesi &ecmuasi# No. 1A# 1B;1# pp. 6:BC+6;1C.

Galt'aya# M. S.: $bni Sina4nin -ibdan bir Vrcuzesi. 'ib 'arihi *rkivi# 0ol. $# No. ;# 1B:># pp. 16@+

1;6. "ootnotes
<1= 1. %emloc' Conium maculatum/ @/ Gelleborus. ) poisonous substance called "eleborin is e!tracted

from some species of t"is genus.

<6= Johud!b: c"ic'peas are boiled in water# drained and coo'ed wit" c"ic'en or meat stoc'. <:= )lt"oug" t"e word gal# means coarse or t"ic'# in a medical conte!t it refers to foods t"at are difficult to

digest and "ig" in calories# containing large proportions of fat# carbo"ydrates or sugar. -"e word l#cet# w"ic" means viscous# is similarly used. For e!ample# gal# foods wit" e!cess l#cet cause p"legm.
<;= Gerse: a dis" made wit" mutton and w"ole w"eat grains coo'ed toget"er until tender and t"en beaten to

a porridge.
<>= ) pudding made by coo'ing starc" in butter and t"en adding water and "oney or sugar. <?= 3emmae capparidis. ,uds of t"e Capparis spinos plant used to ma'e pic'les. -"ey are congestive and

strengt"ening.
<@= Mustard en"ances t"e appetite. -able mustard is made of seeds of t"e blac' (8rassica nigra* and w"ite

(Sinapis alba* mustard plants.

<A= O!ymel. ) drin' made of "oney and vinegar. <B= 9irhem: appro!imately :.:6 grams. <1C= 9esin of t"e mastic tree# ;istacia lentiscus var. latifolius. <11= 9ank: a measurement t"at varies over place and time# being e.uivalent to one si!t" or sometimes one

.uarter of a dirhem.
<16= 8ric'ly lettuce# 4actuca scariola# or possibly c"icory Cichorum intybus.

6C

<1:= 8iryan: meat t"at is first braised wit" no or little water and t"en roasted. $n regional -ur'is" cuisine

t"is dis" is called pren (biryn and coo'ed in a pit oven.

<1;= Isfidbac: an ancient )rab dis" for w"ic" meat is first coo'ed wit" tail fat# c"ic'peas# onion# coriander#

dill and almond mil'# and t"en egg yol's# cumin and cinnamon are added. -"is dis" is recorded in in Ottoman -ur'is" cuisine in t"e si!teent" century.
<1>= &arrubium vulgare/ <1?= :uta graveolens/ <1@= Mis' or mis'et apple: a fragrant variety of apple. <1A= ;olypodium vulgare/ <1B= Carthamus tinctorius/ Medicaments are prepared from t"e seeds# w"ic" "ave a la!ative effect. -"e

flowers are sometimes added to food.

<6C= *nethum graveolens. )n infusion of t"e fruits of t"is plant is used for flatulence and to aid digestion.

-"e aromatic leaves are used as a culinary "erb.

<61= Fennel is used to relieve gastric complaints and flatulence. <66= Citrullus colocynthis.

<6:= &arrubium vulgare. -"e sap e!tracted from t"is plant or sweets made wit" t"is sap. <6;= &urabb: Fruit preserve in t"e form of a /elly or marmalade. <6>= S"erbets are sweetened drin's made of fruit /uice or flavoured wit" spices or "erbs. <6?= Sarab!i mselles: grape /uice or wine boiled down to a t"ird of t"e original .uantity. <6@= ;ortulaca oleracea. ,esides being eaten as a vegetable# purslane leaves are ta'en as a diuretic or used as a poultice for t"e treatment of "emorr"oids. <6A= 'irid: a dis" of bread soa'ed in mil' or stoc'. <6B= ,alye: a dis" of vegetables or fruit coo'ed wit" small pieces of meat t"at "ave been fried. <:C= 1ahni: ,oiled meat dis"es served wit" t"e /uice.

61

<:1= 9ne birinc. $n a manuscript in t"e )li 1miri Kibrary t"e aut"or writes t"at dne birinc fattens t"e body and strengt"ens t"e mind. $t strengt"ens t"e "eart and liver and is a most appropriate food for t"ose wit" a sound constitution. (f. 6Ab*. <:6= 8erberis vulgaris. 3ried barberries were fre.uently used in coo'ing. <::= 8urn: a dis" consisting of a vegetable# often aubergine# coo'ed wit" fried meat# spices# saffron and eggs. $t en"anced t"e appetite and was said to be appropriate for all temperaments. <:;= ,oruk: unripe fruit# especially sour unripe grapes. <:>= -"e fruits of :hus coriaria. -"e sour sumac fruits were dried and used as a substitute for lemon /uice. <:?= 8itta bread. -"is type of t"in leavened bread was often spread wit" a filling before ba'ing in t"e oven. -"e various fillings included c"eese# and# as "ere# marrow. <:@= 2ksi: t"e sour /uice of lemon# sumac# pomegranate etc. <:A= Soup made wit" yogurt# c"ic'peas and coarsely ground w"eat or barley. <:B= 'utma): noodle soup wit" yogurt. -"e noodle paste is cut into long strips and t"en cut crossways into narrow pieces. -"ese are t"en boiled briefly in boiling water and coo'ed wit" onion# butter and minced meat. Gogurt is added if desired. <;C= *k sorba: soup made wit" flour and yogurt# or wit" buttermil' and "ulled w"ole w"eat grains. <;1= Hmac sorbasi: soup made wit" small noodles coo'ed in water wit" butter and tomato paste. -"e soup is served sprin'led wit" mint. <;6= Gekim asi: no recipe "as been found for t"is dis". <;:= Cvris: an electuary for aiding digestion. -"ese were in t"e form of a paste mi!ed wit" "oney. <;;= &atbht: a general name for medicines in t"e form of tissanes prepared by boiling or steeping plants in water. <;>= -"is translation by Nasid ,aylav was later publis"ed by )rslan -erzioglu. K ;rofessor Jil Sari, ;h/ 9/, from Istanbul Hniversity Cerrahpasa &edicine $aculty, 9epartment of 9eontology and Gistory of &edicine, is a .orld eLpert scholar in the history of medicine, Islamic medicine and culture and 6ttoman science and medicine/ ;rofessor Sari is also a key $S'C associate/ 'his article .as first published in 5'urk &utfagi ('urkish Cuisine 5, edited by *rif 8ilgin!6#ge Samanci, *nkara% ,ultur ve 'uri#m 8akanligi 1ayinlari, @AA?/ (e are grateful to ;rofessor Jil Sari, author of the article and, for allo.ing publication/ 'he article .as translated from 'urkish by &ary Isin/

66

E(cerpted from 'uslim Herita$e http4>>www.muslimherita$e.com>article>food0medicine0muslim0ci,ili?ation

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