Foreign Language 1991

FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS:
ISSUES AND RESEARCH
Irish National Teachers' Organisation Head Office 35 Parnell Square Dublin 1. Telephone 733533/722893 General Secretary E. G. Quigley
AN INTO PUBLICATION
FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING IN PRIMARY

SCHOOLS: ISSUES AND RESEARCH
FOREWORD
PART I
SECOND AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE IN PRIMARY EDUCATION: ISSUES AND RESEARCH
Section 1. Section 2.
Arguments for the early teaching of modern languages History of the early teaching of modern languages
Current practice in different countries Foreign languages at primary level: Issues in the Irish
context
Section 5.
Summary
REFERENCES
PART II
SURVEY ON THE PROVISION OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN IRELAND

THE INVOLVEMENT OF VARIOUS AGENCIES IN THE PROMOTION OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING IN IRELAND
DISCUSSION
PART III
PART IV
REFERENCES APPENDIX A
Foreign Language Teaching in Primary Schools: Issues and Research
FOREWORD
The resurgance of interest In foreign language teaching in other European countries, together with the advent of the completion of the single European market has begun to focus attention on the question of access to foreign
language, particularly the inclusion of a modern European language in the curriculum at primary level. In order to promote enlightened and well
informed debate regarding foreign language teaching at primary level in Ireland the INTO commissioned Mr. John Harris, Instituid Teangeolaiocta Eireann, to undertake a comprehensive review of second and foreign language teaching in other countries including an analysis of the arguments which support the introduction of foreign languages from an early age. In the light of the unique situation which pertains in Ireland, where two
languages already receive equal status on the curriculum, Mr. Harris was also requested to examine the issues of foreign language teaching in the
Irish context. Mr. Harris's paper forms Part I of this Report.

The Education Committee conducted a major study to ascertain the current level of foreign language provision in National Schools in Ireland. The
results of the questionnaire were compiled on an INTO district basis and the data was submitted to the Education Officer for collation and analysis. The
results of the survey may be found in Part II of the Report. In order to incorporate the views of a wide range of interested parties in the area of foreign language teaching the Education Committee decided to investigate the involvement2 of various agencies in the promotion of foreign language
programmes in Ireland. The views of different agencies are included in Part III of the Report. Part IV of this Report raises a number of issues which
must be taken into account in any debate on the question of the introduction of foreign languages at primary level. The Central Executive Committee wishes to record its appreciation to Mr. John Harris for his comprehensive review of second and foreign languages in the primary education system.
E.G. Quigley.
General Secretary.
November 1991.
PART I
SECOND AND FOREIGN LANGUAGES IN PRIMARY EDUCATION: ISSUES AND RESEARCH

This paper examines research and issues related to the teaching of second and foreign languages at primary level. This is a subject with many aspects to it and there is a very diverse literature. My aim is not to present a case for or against foreign languages in primary school, but simply to try to set out the main issues and research relevant to the topic. In any case, since quite detailed references to the literature are given, readers can return to the
original reports on which the various arguments are based and make their
own assessment. I have discussed a few topics, such as age and performance expectations in particular detail, because of their central importance. I have also given country-by-country information on the position of foreign languages in primary education, in the hope that this may provide a certain amount of guidance at a time when the position in Ireland is being discussed. The paper is mainly confined to research on foreign languages taught as individual school subjects - what is commonly called FLES (foreign languages in elementary schools) in the U.S. and ETML (the early teaching of modern languages) in Europe. Due to limitations of space, I have had to
either omit reference to many issues or treat them only briefly e.g. syllabus and method. Neither do I examine the question of immigrant, minority or
lesser used languages to any extent, or the effect of immersion programmes, although potentially there is much to be learned from research in all these
areas (See Sikma & Gorter, 1988).
The paper is in five sections:
Section 1 Section 2.
Arguments for the early teaching of modern languages History of the early teaching of modern languages
Current practice in different countries Foreign languages at primary level: Issues in the Irish context
Section 5.
Summary
ARGUMENTS FOR THE

EARLY TEACHING OF
MODERN LANGUAGES
1. Age and second/foreign language learning. One of the most frequently quoted arguments in favour of teaching foreign languages at primary level is
that the years before puberty are the best or critical years for acquiring a second language. The relationship between age and language learning is also
one of the most frequently debated and researched topics in applied linguistics and psycholinguistics. Research on age and language learning
has now been going on for close to forty years with a few studies going back even earlier (e.g. Penfield, 1953; Thorndike, 1928). Unfortunately, the issue has turned out to be extremely complex, and even now it cannot be claimed
that it has been fully resolved. There is a consensus, however, that the
question has been answered clearly enough as far as its implications for the
teaching of foreign languages at primary level is concerned: younger children are not any better at learning foreign languages in a school context than
older children or adults are (Smythe, Slennet & Gardner, 1975; Stern Weinrib, 1977; McLaughlin, 1985; Genesee, 1987; Singleton, 1989; and
Long, 1990). Because of the centrality of the 'optimal age' question to the
debate on foreign languages in primary education, it will be worthwhile to first outline some of the main research findings in this area. The original claim that younger children are better second language learners
was based on neurological arguments concerning the plasticity of the young brain, though other arguments, including one based on Piagetian stages of intellectual growth, have also been advanced (Penfield, 1953, 1965; Lenneberg, 1967; Krashen, 1975; Rosansky, 1975). This neurological
argument has now been more or less discredited (Mc Laughlin, 1985; Singleton, 1989). Currently, opinion is divided on the more specific question of whether the available evidence supports the hypothesis that children are
better second language learners than adults. Some researchers argue for the existence of age differences in eventual attainment, in favour of children,
particularly as far as the acquisition of a native-like accent in the second language is concerned (e.g. Seliger, 1978; Krashen, Long & Scarcella, 1979;
Krashen, Scarcella & Long, 1982; Scovel, 1988; Johnson & Newport, 1989;
Long, 1990; and Patkowski, 1990). Other researchers believe that the data is
inconsistent or that the existence of an advantage for children remains to be
proved (e.g. Stern & Weinrib, 1977; Hatch, 1983; McLaughlin, 1985; Singleton, 1989). A third group of researchers believe the findings show a clear advantage, at least in the short term, for adults and older children over younger children in all aspects of second language learning ( e. g. Ellis,
1985; Flege, 1987; Genesee, 1987: Major, 1987; Snow, 1983, 1987).
Krashen et al (1979; 1982) and Long (1990) believe that these apparent
contradictions in findings can be resolved if a distinction is made between short-term (rate) and long term (ultimate attainment) studies. Long (1990) proposes that the research literature supports the following three generalisations about second language acquisition/learning in children and adults: (1) Adults proceed through the early stages of morphological and syntactic development faster than children (where time and exposure are held constant). (2) Older children acquire faster than younger children
(again in early stages of morphology and syntax, where time and exposure
are held constant). (3) Child starters out perform adult starters in the long
run. (Long, 1990, page 260)
It is probably fair to say that most researchers would agree with this summary of the findings to date and that if they did have reservations these
would relate to (3). 'short term' (i.e. 'early stages'), as used by Long, means
anything from 25 minutes up to the equivalent of one, or even two, years full
time naturalistic exposure to the language. 'Ultimate attainment' (i.e. 'in the
long run') means the level of proficiency achieved after 'several years' in the
second language environment. What is important here from the point of view of the teaching of foreign languages at primary level is that any long term
advantage which younger children might have in second language learning
could never be fully realised within the context of ordinary formal schooling. This is simply because the number of hours exposure to any second
language which is possible in school is so limited - compared to the amount of exposure to a second language which is possible in the course of one or two years full time exposure (all waking hours). In other words, foreign language learning in primary and post-primary school falls well within
Long's 'short-term' category, and thus older children (or adults) would be
expected to learn faster than younger children in that context (Long's
generalisations 1 and 2 above). Whether or not Long's assessment of the literature proves to be correct, there can be little doubt that in the context of formal schooling the evidence
is that older children have the advantage over younger children as far as second and foreign language learning is concerned. Children who start foreign languages at post-primary either catch up, more or less, with those who began earlier; or else, older children perform better on evaluation tests than younger children after equivalent numbers of hours exposure to the
second language (e.g. Burstall, Jamieson, Cohen & Hargreaves, 1974;

Carroll, 1975; Ekstrand, 1976; Oiler & Nagato, 1974; Snow & Hoefnagel-
Hohle, 1978). Burstall et al (1974) who conducted the largest single study on this topic,
found that when early starters in French (age 8) were compared to the later starters (age 11) at age 13, the early starters scored significantly higher than the later starters on a speaking test and a listening test, but were either equal or worse on reading and writing tests. By age 16, the early and late starters differed only on the listening test - despite the three extra years exposure which the early starters had. When amount of exposure to French was controlled, however, the older children were consistently superior to the younger children on all tests. Burstall et al's study has been criticised on
various grounds (Bennett, 1975; Buckby, 1976; Spicer, 1980; Stern, 1982) -
a matter to which I will return later. What cannot be denied, however, is that neither Burstall et al's study, nor any other one, provides convincing evidence for the popular belief that younger children are better language learners than older children in a school context. Apart from research such as Burstall's, which concerns the teaching of a
foreign language as a subject, there are a number of other studies which examine foreign language learning in early and late immersion programmes i.e. programs where the target language is used as a medium of instruction
(e.g. French immersion schools in Canada or the all-Irish schools here). The clearest evidence, that is where account was taken of the number of hours exposure to the second language, shows that late immersion students (end of elementary /beginning secondary) tend to be better second language learners than early immersion students (beginning in kindergarten) (Harley, 1986). Other studies which compare early and late immersion students
(Adiv, 1980; Genesee, 1981, 1987; Morrison, 1981) are more difficult to
interpret due to differences in the total accumulated hours exposure to the second language and in the distribution and recency of the exposure. On balance (Mc Laughlin, 1985) this latter evidence suggests that late immersion students may be better learners at least in the more cognitive aspects of second language learning (e.g. reading comprehension). The
significance of these immersion results in relation to the age question is that, because the second language is learned in a naturalistic context in
such programmes, failure to demonstrate an advantage for younger learners cannot be explained away in terms, for example, of the unsuitability of formal teaching methods for younger children. Two other points are relevant. First, it must be emphasised that our conclusion here relates to the second/foreign language acquisition rate of students in situations where the immersion experience occurs in the early primary school years as opposed to the late-primary or early-post-primary years. In other words, it only disposes of the question of 'age' as such. But there are other reasons for starting early - whether one thinks of regular 'foreign language as a subject' or 'foreign language immersion'. These reasons are discussed in some detail below. Second, quite apart from the question of whether children are better learners or not, it is now well documented that both early and late immersion programmes produce
significantly superior second language skills compared to regular language programmes without any cost to the children's first language skills (Swain & Lapkin, 1981; Mc Laughlin, 1985: Genesee, 1987).
Despite the available evidence, the idea persists that an early start is always
better. The late H. H. Stern, an internationally respected expert in this area and a supporter of the idea of teaching foreign languages at primary school,
commented:
"Some educators and also groups of parents are not aware of the lack of evidence for the dictum 'the earlier the better'. They believe it is 'obvious' that early is better, and they are so convinced of this that they regard any questioning of this view as flying in the face of 'scientific' evidence or as a smoke-screen for retrograde policies on the part of educational authorities. They automatically applaud an early start as right and 'progressive'.
'The decision to start French early may be right on educational
grounds because of the importance of French, but if one wishes

to base policy on the evidence of research, there is little support in the available literature for regarding an early start as
imperative." Stern, 1982, page 13.
1.2 The extra exposure to the language provided by an early start. Although the research reviewed does not provide any worthwhile evidence that younger children are better or faster second/foreign language learners than older ones, the case for the early introduction of foreign languages does not stand or fall on this issue. One of the most important arguments has been that starting second language learning in primary school simply increases the number of hours exposure to the language and is likely in the long run, therefore, to produce a higher level of proficiency. There is an implicit assumption here, of course, that the extra time spent on the language in primary school can more easily be 'spared' than it can be later on. There is indeed a considerable amount of evidence that proficiency in a foreign language is related to the number of hours exposure to the language, though the distribution of that time - whether it is more or less concentrated or dispersed - appears to be a mediating factor. For example, both the 1EA French study (Carroll, 1975) and the NFER (National Foundation for
Education Research) evaluation of the French Pilot Scheme in Britain
(Burstall et al 1974) confirm that the amount of time spent learning French
as a second language is positively related to French achievement. The most
conclusive evidence, however, comes from evaluations of the various

Canadian second language programmes. These document the widely
differing second language achievement produced by a range of programmes.
depending on the amount of exposure to French which each programme provides (e.g. from 20 minutes exposure per day in the case of core French, to the whole day in the case of French immersion) (Cenesee, 1987).The
common sense expectation, in any case, is that even if younger learners are
not any more efficient than older learners, the extra exposure made possible by the early start in the primary years should produce higher foreign language achievement in the long run (since these early starters will also begin to gain any advantage associated with age as soon as they themselves
become older learners). Despite this, in the specific context of foreign
language teaching at primary level, the evidence generally shows that, in

practice, the initial advantage of early starters deriving from their greater exposure is largely, though not always completely, eroded as those who start
later quickly begin to catch up. Nevertheless, it will be recalled that even in the French Pilot Scheme some differences in listening, in favour of the early starters, still persisted at age 16. Again it is important to emphasise that this remaining difference at 16 is attributable to the extra exposure to the language - not to any fundamental advantage of younger as opposed to older learners - since when amount of exposure is controlled, older learners
generally do better. In the Oiler & Nagato (1974) study also, some difference in favour of the early starters still remained at the end of the experiment,
though that difference was not statistically significant.

Even if it is accepted that younger children are not superior learners in a school context, we still must explain their failure generally to maintain even their initial achieved advantage. One explanation has centred on the inadequate co-ordination between primary and post primary second language programmes. In the past, post primary programmes frequently
either did not make allowance for the early starters, or combined early and late starters in the same class. Doubts have also been raised about the
appropriateness of the syllabus and teaching methods, the qualifications of teachers and, in the case of the NFER evaluation, the suitability of the tests and the design of the study itself (Bennett, 1975; Buckby, 1976; Stern, 1982; and Mc Laughlin, 1985). In any case, quite apart from any formal research results, there is general
agreement that after the initial enthusiasm for primary school foreign language programmes in the 1960's, many countries, including the U.S. and
Canada, became disillusioned with the results of teaching modern languages
as a subject at primary level and, particularly in the U.S.. the popularity of programmes decreased considerably (Mc Laughlin, 1985; Stern & weinrib,
1977).
In projects where at least some of the problems just mentioned have been successfully addressed, the results have been better. A project on the early (third grade) teaching of English as a foreign language in Germany showed
that early starters were significantly better than late starters in English
listening comprehension, speaking, reading and writing (Doye, 1979). Although differences were greater at fifth grade than at seventh grade, they did remain significant at seventh. Classes lasted 20 minutes a day in third and fourth grade and 45 minutes a day in the later post primary grades. No negative effects on other subjects such as German and mathematics were found. At the conclusion of the experiment, most pupils and parents declared themselves in favour of the early start in English. Doye's results, it should be noted, only show that the initial progress associated with an earlier start can be maintained as an advantage; they do not bear on the separate question of whether older or younger children are better learners. Two aspects of the organisation of the project are considered by Doye to be
significant and to account for the difference between his results and the
Pilot Scheme results. First, in the German project all the eight year old
children (n=1200) in a particular region of Germany took part and when
they entered post primary school in the same region they found themselves in English classes with other early beginners. In addition, there was strict continuity in the teaching at primary and post primary. Second, all teachers in the participating primary schools were qualified primary school teachers and also qualified foreign language teachers. Doye points out that neither of these conditions were consistently met in the
French Pilot Scheme in Britain. It is interesting to note that Oiler & Nagato
(1974) also point to the lack of co-ordination between primary and

secondary programmes as a major reason for the failure of early starters in their study to maintain their advantage: 'FLES students must mark time' when integrated with later starters in the same classes. It seems reasonable
to assume, then, that if foreign language programmes are well planned and
organised, the initial progress made as a result of the extra exposure to the
language at primary level will be maintained as an advantage, to a greater or lesser degree, at post primary level.
1.3 Other reasons for beginning foreign language instruction in
primary school. An important point to mention at the outset is that no negative effects on other school work, or on native language skills, have been reported in the case of primary school second or foreign language programmes. This is true whether we consider the teaching of the foreign language as a subject (Burstall et al., 1974; Doye, 1979; Holmstrand, 1979) or its use as a medium of instruction for 'majority language' children in
immersion programmes (Swain & Lapkin, 1981; Genesee, 1987). Even in the
case of pupils of lower academic ability and those from lower socio-economic
backgrounds, immersion at primary level has not been found to have any
long term negative effects on either general academic progress or on native

language skills (Cummins, 1984; Genesee. 1987; Holobow, Genesee,
Lambert, Gastright & Met, 1987; Holobow, Genesee & Lambert, 1991).
Foreign Language Teaching in Primary Schools: issues and Research
A frequently heard argument in favour of an early start, for which there appears to be some basis, is that it may make children more receptive to the idea of learning foreign languages generally. Burstall et al (1974) report that when pupils in the French Pilot Scheme had been successful in their efforts to learn French, they developed more favourable attitudes towards speaking the language than did those who were not introduced to French until the age
of eleven. On the other hand, where pupils experienced failure after an
initially hopeful start, negative attitudes developed which led to them dropping French as soon as they were permitted to do so, 'convinced that foreign language learning was beyond their capability'. The solution here, they argue, is a 'sustained effort to redefine the objectives of teaching French in order to meet pupils differing needs...' (Burstall et al, 1974; p. 243). Another argument in favour of an early start - which again relates to attitude - concerns the value of children developing an understanding and appreciation of different cultures from an early age, thereby promoting international understanding and friendship. Of course, the manner in which
- and the extent to which - language learning contributes to this goal
depends very much on the approach to teaching which is involved (Murphy,

1988). As Hawkins (1987a) points out, in connection with the Pilot French attitudinal data, the capacity for empathy - the ability to see the world from
someone else's point of view is at its height at about the age of eight or nine, but declines rapidly with the onset of adolescence. This change is associated
with insecurity and is especially marked, he argues, among boys from 'low
status' families. Learning a foreign language makes heavy demands on empathy: the learner must develop some interest in the foreigner and his way of life, as in a geography or history lesson, but must also learn to 'to behave like the foreigner, making the foreigner's ridiculous noises out loud for his mates to hear" (Hawkins, 1987a; p. 189). The early starter clearly has an advantage here. Singleton (1989), mentions some more general arguments in favour of an early start in foreign languages put forward by Ekstrand (1971) - the fact that all aspects of development are enhanced by early stimulation; the desirability of beginning early wherever that is feasible given the total
amount of knowledge that the modern student must acquire at school; and
the fact that even if older children are indeed better foreign language learners, this is no excuse for delaying instruction any more than a delay in beginning mathematics or writing would be justified by the fact that older children demonstrate superior skills in these areas.
Finally, there may be more specific advantages to an early start in foreign languages in particular countries, or in particular educational systems. For example, where there are inequalities in access to, or choice of, foreign languages at post primary level, the introduction of children to foreign languages at primary level may have beneficial effects. This issue is
10
discussed in more detail in relation to the Irish situation later in the paper.
HISTORY OF THE EARLY TEACHING OF MODERN LANGUAGES
Prior to 1950 or so, the teaching of foreign languages was largely confined to second and third level education. In the early 1950's, however, interest in the early teaching of foreign languages began to grow in a number of countries, particularly in the U.S.. Within a decade, the number of children enrolled in foreign language in elementary school (FLES) programmes in the U.S. had grown to more than a million. Two UNESCO-sponsored international meetings in Hamburg in 1962 and 1966 (Stern, 1967; 1969) were designed to stimulate research on early language teaching and on the
effectiveness of an early start. Three Council of Europe working parties consistently supported the teaching of foreign languages at primary level
(e.g. see Council of Europe, 1977). Interest in an early start has been attributed to a number of factors. In the
U.S., for example, it has been linked to the general concern with educational
excellence associated with the Sputnik era and changed attitudes towards foreign languages deriving from World War II and its aftermath (McLaughlin, 1985). The need for intensive language programmes for military personnel deployed in non-English speaking countries led to the development of the audio-lingual method (the army method) which became highly popular for elementary school programmes also. More general educational arguments advanced at the time were the need to radically improve foreign language learning, to capitalise on the younger child's supposedly greater language learning capacity and to enrich the educational experience of primary school
children (Stern & Weinrib, 1977). It was also believed that learning foreign
languages would help children to understand and appreciate cultures other than their own. In the post war era, this was seen as an important way to
promote international communication and harmony.
The enthusiasm of parents, and pressure from parents' groups, was a major reason for the rapid growth of primary school foreign language programmes (Mc Laughlin, 1985). The audio-lingual method of language teaching was thought to be very promising and it was generally believed that, in combination with the special language learning ability of children, this new
11
method could quickly produce mastery of second languages. These popularly held views were reinforced by psychologists and other professionals. After this rapid initial growth, however, the movement began to decline in the early 1970's. Gradually, teaching foreign languages in the elementary school was no longer seen as the most important way of improving proficiency and instead attention switched to the need for innovation in teaching languages at secondary and university level (Stern & Weinrib,
1977). A number of reasons have been advanced for the decline. Perhaps the
most important is that there was too great gap between aims and actual pupil achievement. Stern & Weinrib (1977) suggest that the early teaching of modern languages was 'promoted with excessive expectations'. The arrival of the audio-lingual method, and the belief that younger children had a unique capacity to learn foreign languages, did not seem to be reflected in the progress of the typical child in a foreign language programme. In practice, children appeared to find foreign languages just as difficult as any other school subject. Mc Laughlin (1985) while acknowledging that the audiolingual methods were by and large successful in the U.S., suggests that 'their doctrinaire use complicated education in many settings'. The method
did not seem to equip children to generate new meaningful material from the
well drilled corpus of utterances, or, more generally, to use the language for communication. In addition, when the audio-lingual method was rigidly applied, it meant that little allowance could be made for the child's cognitive development - particularly the capacity of older children to adopt a more 'abstract, rule governed approach to language'. The intellectual potential of many children was stifled in the typical audio-lingual class and they found the activities 'frivolous and not worth serious effort' (Mc Laughlin, 1985, p. 84). In Britain, likewise, Burstall et al found that -high achieving pupils tend to reject the audio-visual approach in favour of a more 'traditional'
grammar-based approach..." (Burstall et al, 1974, p. 244).
Another problem in the United States was that despite the general enthusiasm for the idea of an early start, programmes were often poorly planned. Frequently, teachers were not properly trained or qualified, or were assigned to teach a language other than the one in which they were qualified. In many cases, no proper provision was made for continuity at post primary level so that any early advantage secured was not built on. The extra burden on local school systems and the related increased tax burden on local communities was enough to erode support for regular in-school FLES programmes, particularly when no spectacular results were being produced (Mc Laughlin, 1985).
Finally, research results forced a more critical assessment of what was actually being achieved, with the work of Oiler & Nagato (1974) being very
influential in the U.S. and Burstall et al (1974) in Britain. The Pilot Scheme
'French from Eight' had been launched in Britain in 1963 with great
12
enthusiasm and public support. By 1965, 21% of all junior schools included some French in their curriculum and in 1970 this percentage had increased to 35%. Only some of these schools, of course, were part of the Pilot Scheme proper on which the NFER evaluation was based. While the Pilot Scheme certainly showed that it was possible to teach foreign languages at primary school without negatively affecting other areas of learning, the failure to
demonstrate any substantial permanent advantage to an early start in terms
of French proficiency was a big blow to the foreign languages in primary school movement.
Many other findings of the NFER study are less well known, though
nevertheless of considerable interest. For example, it was found that girls consistently scored higher than boys at both primary and post primary level; children in small rural primary schools scored higher than those in large urban schools; and higher socio-economic status was associated with greater success in learning French. In addition, instead of increasing opportunities to study other languages (such as Spanish, German and Russian), as the original project had aimed, secondary schools which catered for pupils from the Project primary schools sometimes restricted their foreign language programme to French. Problems such as these, however, just like problems of teacher competence in foreign language teaching, primary/post-primary co-ordination, and
teaching method/syllabus are not conclusive evidence against the teaching of foreign languages at primary school. Stern & Weinrib (1977, p. 18) believe that the existence of such difficulties is not surprising given that the
teaching of foreign languages at primary level is a relatively new enterprise compared to the teaching of subjects such as mathematics or reading. After all the long-established primary school subjects are not without problems. And none of the difficulties associated with foreign languages at primary level are either unique or insurmountable. At the same time, it would be very unwise to ignore the history of such difficulties in planning for foreign languages in primary school in the future. Foreign language teaching at primary level went into decline in a number of
other countries after an earlier period of growth. In France, the Ministry
prohibited any new primary school programmes in 1974 and Girard (See Stern & Weinrib, 1977) was asked to conduct an inquiry into existing
programmes. It was found that about 1.5% of the school population were
exposed to foreign languages (mostly English and German) at primary or nursery level. Girard felt, on the basis of direct classroom observation, that one-third of the classes were 'efficient', one third were 'tolerable' and one third were 'inadequate'. A large majority of secondary teachers, however, were in favour of the early start and judged it successful.
13
In Canada the major languages, English and French, are official languages
and the teaching of French, in particular, takes place in a sociolinguistic
context which differs quite markedly from that in many of the other countries referred to above. During the 1960's and 1970's Anglophone
parents became much more interested in improving French instruction for
their children and many school systems introduced 'oral French' into the primary schools. In the province of Ontario in 1975, for example, 28% of pupils in kindergarten and 38% of pupils in grades 1 - 6 studied French. Dissatisfaction with the results achieved with the typical 20-minute per day programme gradually began to grow, however, since it did not appear lead to 'any substantial achievement' for those who started early (Stern & Weinrib, 1977). It was partly in response to this situation that the innovative French immersion programmes at primary level were first developed. The very success of immersion, and the fact that it attracted a great amount of research interest while core French attracted very little, probably added to the relatively negative perception of core French in the 1970's (Stern, 1986). In Europe, a number of countries, such as Norway, Sweden, Denmark and Holland had a more long-standing tradition of teaching a foreign language as
a subject at primary level. Significantly, in these countries the issue of the
early teaching of foreign languages did not become controversial in quite the
same way it did in countries such as the U.S. or Britain. Neither was the
cycle of initial enthusiasm and high expectations in the 1960's, followed by

disappointment and more sober assessments in the 1970's, a feature of
foreign language teaching at primary level in these countries. What they seem to have in common - apart from the same foreign language, English are (a) the fact that the foreign language taught has, to a greater or lesser degree, the status of a second language - it has some specific functions within society, unlike a strictly foreign language; and (b) a particular concern for more effective second language learning generally - of which the decision to teach the language at primary level is just one expression. We will return later in the paper to a more general discussion of the significance of the distinction between second and foreign languages at primary level.
Faerch, Haastrup & Phillipson (1984) point out that English, which has been taught in Danish primary schools since 1937 and is presently compulsory for all children from age 10, "...has become so significant in so many spheres of life in Denmark that it is on its way to acquiring the status of a second language. This is the case if English is needed not just for foreign trade or as a mark of a certain level of general education, but as condition for full participation in Danish society, in connection with politics, technology, business, the
media , sport, etc." Faerch, Haastrup & Phillipson (1984; page 222).
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In Sweden, knowledge of English is considered to be 'a national and individual necessity' (Hoy, 1976). The language has been compulsory for all primary school children from grade three (age nine) since 1972 and the programme is generally considered a success (Hoy, 1976). One Swedish evaluation project (Holmstrand, 1980) is of particular interest because of the unusually early start in a foreign language which was studied. Swedish pupils who started English in the ordinary way at grade 3 (age 9) were compared to another group who started even earlier at grade one (age 7).
The total number of hours instruction up to the end of grade 6 was equated
for the two groups by spreading instruction time for the early starters more thinly over the six years. The number of hours instruction per week was only a half hour in the first year, one-and-a-half hours in the second year, two hours in the third and fourth year and three hours in the fifth and sixth year. At the end of the six-year period, performance of the two groups of children on a range of tests was basically the same, showing that the very early (age 7) start was as effective as, though not superior to, the regular (age 9) start.
CURRENT PRACTICE IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES

In this section we give a brief account of the situation regarding the teaching
of foreign languages at primary level in a number of countries. It is difficult to obtain complete and up to date information on each country, a problem that is made worse by the fact that the situation appears to be changing rapidly in many countries and that primary education is defined differently from one country to another. The main sources on which the present account is based are three Eurydice documents (Eurydice, 1984; 1988;
1989), Hoy (1976), Council of Europe (1977), and Stern & Weinrib (1977). In
addition, a considerable amount of useful information on recent changes in the United States is contained in Rhodes & Oxford (1988); on developments
in France in Asher (1990); and on the situation in Canada in Stern (1986), Poyen (1990) and Herbert (1990). Although the level of detail varies from
country to country, an attempt has been made to give some information on the amount of time per week which is devoted to foreign language teaching, the age or grade at which instruction begins, whether languages are compulsory or not, and what languages are taught. Perhaps the clearest trend to be observed is one of renewal and increased participation in primary school foreign language programmes in many
15
countries. There is also evidence that at least some of the problems encountered by foreign language programmes at primary level are similar from one country to another - e.g. the need to coordinate primary and postprimary programmes. Increasingly, also, there is evidence of a willingness to deal with such problems in a more systematic way.
Ireland; In 1989 the National Parents Council distributed a questionnaire to the Parents' Association (or parents' representative) associated with 1000 primary schools. The schools had been selected on the basis of geographic location and size. Over a third of the questionnaires were completed, representing 11.4% of all primary schools. Twenty one percent of the respondents said that a foreign language was offered as an extra curricular
activity in their school, including 5% who said it was offered free of charge. The average fee was 25.90.
Some pre-service and inservice training in the teaching of French at primary level has been conducted by the Colleges of Education in recent years. The Review Body on the Primary Curriculum which reported in 1990 advised against the introduction of modern European languages into the curriculum in primary schools.
United States; A survey of foreign languages at primary and secondary level in the US was carried out in 1986/1987, based on a random sample of all
public and private elementary and secondary schools (Rhodes & Oxford, 1988). The response rate was 52% overall. Results showed that approximately one-fifth (22%) of all responding elementary schools offered foreign language classes, with twice as many private elementary schools (34%) as public elementary schools (17%) doing so. Of those which did not teach foreign languages, approximately half reported that they would be/might be interested in doing so while the rest said they would not be.
There was slightly more interest among private elementary schools (55%)
than public elementary schools (48%). Spanish was the language most commonly taught (offered by 68% of those elementary schools leaching a foreign language). Next came French (41%), followed by Latin (12%), German (10%), Hebrew (6%), Chinese (3%), Russian (2%), American Indian Languages (1%), Spanish for Spanish speakers (1%), Greek (1%) and other languages (1%). There is also some evidence of a growth in the number of elementary school foreign language programmes in recent years. For example, while a survey of elementary schools in eight states in 1981 had shown that only 18% of
schools had foreign language programmes, the 1986/1987 survey reported
by Rhodes & Oxford showed that 27% of schools in these same states had such programmes. Respondents were asked to categorise their foreign language teaching in terms of the following four programme types:
16
"Foreign language experience (FLEX): The goals of this program are to get general exposure to language and culture, learn basic words and phrases, and develop an interest in foreign language for future languages study. The aim is not fluency, but rather exposure to other language(s) and culture(s)". "Foreign language in the elementary school (FLES): The goals of this program are to acquire listening and speaking skills, gain an understanding and appreciation for other cultures, and acquire limited amounts of reading and writing skills. Lessons in early grades centre around greetings, colours, numbers, food, days of the week, etc., and conversation focuses on topics children are familiar with, e.g., family, pets, school. The teacher in this type of program may speak some English in the class". "Intensive FLES: The goals of this program are the same goals as in the above program but there is more exposure to the foreign language. This greater exposure includes language classes taught only in the foreign language or the foreign language being reinforced in other classes. There is coordination between foreign language teachers and other teachers so that language concepts are carried over into the regular curriculum". "Immersion: The goals of this program are to be able to communicate in the language almost as well as a native speaker of the same age and acquire an understanding of and appreciation for other cultures. At least 50 percent of the school day is taught in the foreign language, including such subjects as arithmetic, science, social studies, language arts". (Rhodes & Oxford, 1988, p. 53-54) Of those elementary schools which reported offering foreign language instruction, 41% had FLEX programmes, almost half (45%) had FLES, 12% had Intensive FLES and 2~ had immersion programmes. The vast majority (89%) of schools made room for foreign language instruction during the school day. The rest offered classes before or after regular school hours or on weekends. Private schools were more likely to have foreign language classes integrated in the school day (94%) than public schools (86%). Information on the amount of time devoted to foreign language instruction was not obtained. In response to an open-ended question about the types of materials used, 84% of schools cited using teacher-made materials, 70% mentioned commercially published textbooks/ workbooks, 60% audio-visual materials, 38% commercially-made foreign language games, and 14%
17
Foreign Language Teaching In Primary Schools: Issues and Research
computer-assisted instructional materials. There were no major differences between public and private schools in this area. Only 26% of the elementary schools reported that all their teachers were certified for foreign language teaching at primary level. Continuity between elementary foreign language instruction and secondary
foreign language instruction was definitely not maintained in 31% of elementary schools, where students who had already begun study of a foreign language In elementary school are placed in 'Level One' classes
alongside students who had no prior contact with the language. As Rhodes & Oxford comment, it is wasteful of both human and material resources for students having studied a language for up to six years to start again at the beginning when they reach secondary school. Forty-nine percent of schools reported that early starters could enroll in more advanced classes, which
may or may not have been designed to accommodate their prior level.
Canada; Despite the disillusionment with the results of teaching French in primary schools in the 1960's, which was sharpened still further by the success of French immersion in the 1970's, Core French has staged something of a recovery in recent years. Programmes which had once started at sixth seventh or eighth grade gradually, in response to parental pressure,
moved down to earlier and earlier starting grades - even to kindergarten or
grade 1. Further impetus for renewal and development was provided by the
launch of the National Core French Study in 1985, a key element of which is
the development of a multidimensional curriculum with four components Language, Communicative Activities, Culture, and General Language Education (Poyen, 1990; Herbert, 1990; Stern, 1976, 1986).
France: Here also there is evidence of a renewal of interest in the teaching of foreign languages at primary level. Up until 1988-89 the teaching of a foreign language was not compulsory and only some schools provided it. In the school year 1986-87, for example, only 1.3% of all pupils were receiving foreign language instruction at primary level. It was usually taught in the last two years of primary school (pupils 9/10 years old). The number of hours a week spent on teaching the foreign language was decided locally and
ranged from 30 minutes to 2 hours within the 27 hour weekly timetable. An
experiment to pilot the teaching of foreign languages in selected primary

schools was initiated at the beginning of the new school year 1989-90. The aim was to foster a "conscience europeenne" in the new generation of French
citizens by providing them with the means to communicate and be understood in a foreign language. Under this new scheme, pupils in the last two years of primary school were to receive two to three hours of language teaching a week and just over 10% of all primary school children were to be involved. While historically foreign language programmes at primary level were confined to the more affluent communes, there is evidence that this time the less prosperous communes are also applying for inclusion (Asher,
18
1990).
The criteria to be satisfied by each school in order to be involved in the scheme appear to be designed to anticipate and respond to many of those difficulties which were identified in the British Pilot French scheme, as well as many other elementary school foreign language programmes:
i the foreign language to be offered had to be one of those
offered in the secondary school (college) to which pupils would transfer at age.
!i for the sake of homogeneity and continuity, all experimental schools had to be part of the group that
feeds one college. iii iv teaching had to be carried out by staff identified by an Inspecteur d'Academie as being suitably qualified. the application to take part in the experiment had to receive the backing of the various primary and secondary school committees (Asher, 1990).
The project will be monitored by teams of evaluators in each of the 27

administrative regions. Asher notes that there is apprehension among some academics who believe that the experiment may reduce the diversity of
language provision in the school system by increasing the dominance of one

foreign language, English: 90% of the experimental schools offer English
alone or as one of a range of languages. More recent information indicates that in the year 1990-1991 the proportion of pupils involved in the new scheme doubled.
Netherlands: Since 1985/1986, one foreign language, English, has been
taught for 1 hour a week to pupils in fourth, fifth and sixth grade (age 10 12) of all primary schools. In the province of Friesland, both Frisian and
Dutch have been compulsory since 1979/1980. About 15% of primary
schools in Friesland are bilingual, which means that the Frisian language gets considerably more attention than it does in other schools in Friesland
(Ytsma, 1988). English is a third compulsory language in Frisian schools
also.
Finland; All children learn a second or foreign language, most often English, from age 10.
Norway: English is taught to all children from age 10.
19
Denmark: English is compulsory from the 5th year of primary school (age 10) for two and a quarter hours per week (three 45-minute sessions).
Sweden: English is compulsory from age nine.
Belgium: There are 3 national languages (French, German and Dutch). One 'second language' (usually another national language) is taught in almost all areas at some stage of primary schooling. In Brussels and linguistic frontier areas it is French when the pupil is Dutch-speaking, and Dutch when the pupil is French speaking. In these areas, the teaching of the second language is compulsory - 3-4 hours per week in the third and fourth years (age 8-9) rising to 5-8 hours in the last two years of primary school (11 - 12).
Italy: Before 1987 foreign language teaching in primary schools occurred only on an experimental basis e.g. the ILSSE project (Titone, 1988). The New Primary School Programmes Include foreign language teaching and from 1992 one foreign language will be taught to all children from grade 2 (about age seven).
Federal Republic of Germany: Regular foreign language teaching begins in the 5th year at the lower secondary (Hauptschule/Realschule or Gymnasium) when children are about 10 years old. In general, the numbers of hours instruction per week decreases from 5-6 hours in 5th and 6th years to about 3 hours in the final year of lower secondary (loth year).
United Kingdom; French is taught in some primary schools but provision is sporadic and has declined since the Pilot Scheme. A 'Pre-Eleven Languages Network' has links with 25 LEA's, 20 of which still teach a foreign language at primary level. DES Minister Alan Howarth is quoted in the December 1990 Issue of Language World as approving of initiatives to teach foreign languages at primary level in cases where "teachers with the appropriate expertise and the other resources required" are available and he expresses the hope that "In future the teaching of foreign languages to primary age children will become very widespread.
In Wales, while all primary schools teach Welsh the policy with regard to teaching it is largely at the discretion of the various local authorities for each county. In general, the County policy towards the language reflects the "Welshness" of the area. So while the aims in some counties may be such as to make every child bilingual, in others it may be to help pupils become reasonably fluent in Welsh,
Because Scotland has retained its own autonomous legal system and separate administration of justice It has a different education system than the rest of the United Kingdom. Until recently there was little teaching of foreign languages in primary schools, though a few schools taught French
20
and Italian experimentally. Within the non-state sector many schools offer a foreign language in the final year of primary school. In 1989 a National Pilot scheme to teach foreign languages at primary level was initiated under the auspices of the Scottish Office Education Department. At the same time,
a number of regionally based pilots were also launched (Johnstone, 1991; Connelly, 1991; and McGhee, 1991). The National Pilot projects involve
twelve networks of schools, each network consisting of a secondary school and its associated primary schools (79 primaries in all). Initially, the projects involved only grade 7 classes (11 year olds) but this has now been extended to grade 6 (10 year olds). The scheme is being evaluated by a team based at the Department of Education. University of Stirling (Johnstone, 1991).
FOREIGN LANGUAGES AT PRIMARY LEVEL: ISSUES IN THE IRISH CONTEXT

4.1 Local information and international comparative data. There are two very general kinds of information or factors which we need to take into
account in making any general decision about foreign languages in primary education in Ireland. First, there are the local factors, including our overall language education goals; how a primary school programme might contribute to the achievement of these goals; how it might be expected to affect current problems and practices at post primary level; how proficient in foreign languages teachers already are and what their attitude to teaching these languages might be; and the amount of time which it was planned to devote to foreign language teaching at primary level. In addition, it would be desirable to know what proportion of the population are in favour of primary school foreign language programmes; what do they expect from such programmes; and what resources would they be prepared to commit to the enterprise At present we have no information on these questions comparable to the kind of sociolinguistic, attitudinal and educational data which we have on Irish and the teaching of Irish at primary and post
primary levels (e.g. CLAR, 1974, 1975; 0 Riagain & o Gliasain. 1984; Bord na Gaeilge, 1986; Harris & Murtagh, 1988, 1991; Irish National Teachers'
Organisation. 1976. 1985).

Second, it would be very desirable to have detailed comparative data from a range of countries showing, in reasonably precise functional or linguistic terms, what can be achieved in teaching foreign languages at primary level; and how this varies according to factors such as teaching time and pupil abilities. It would also contribute greatly to decision-making to have
21
comparative information on how specific programme outcomes are related to variables such as social class, extra school language contact, teacher qualifications, method and syllabus. Unfortunately, research of this kind essentially a primary level equivalent of the Carroll (1975) and Lewis & Massad (1975) IEA studies - has not yet been carried out.
4.2 Performance expectations for second and foreign language
programmes. In the absence of both local information and international comparative data it will be useful to consider whether any guidance of a more general kind can be gained from the experiences of other countries. As I will try to show, the distinction between second and foreign languages is a particularly useful one in evaluating what are reasonable goals and performance expectations in teaching foreign languages at primary level in Ireland. This is an important issue since, in the past, parents in many countries appear to have lent their support to the enterprise of teaching foreign languages at primary level on the basis of quite ambitious
expectations. While the distinction between second and foreign languages is not entirely unambiguous (Seshadri & Alien, 1979), it will be sufficient for present
purposes to define a second language as one which may be encountered outside the language class and a foreign language as one which may not. Clearly, from the point of view of language learning, any extra exposure to the target language, but particularly exposure which involves active interaction in the language, is an advantage. In addition, however, where a language can be considered to a greater or lesser extent a second language, there are usually specific features in the language teaching situation itself which confer important further advantages.
Thus, where the language taught is a second language - for example. English in Sweden or Irish in Ireland - it is commonly taught to all children
at particular grades in primary school, and all children continue to study
the language on transferring to post primary. Contrast this with the teaching of foreign languages, and particularly with situations where there are a number of foreign languages taught, so that children with different foreign language backgrounds come together at post primary level. It is easy to list purely language teaching advantages which tend to be associated with second language programmes, as opposed to foreign language programmes, at primary level:
In the second language situation, there will be a fairly generally shared, even if limited, knowledge of the language in the population and, most importantly, among parents. This is unlikely in the strictly foreign language
situation - unless there are unusually stringent educational provisions. In the second language situation, particularly where there is a long standing
programme of instruction in the target language, virtually all parents will be
22
better equipped to help with homework, to listen to reading, to practice grammar and even to converse occasionally in the language.
In the second language situation, a greater proportion of primary teachers are likely to have an adequate knowledge of the target language, irrespective of any specific professional training. In practice also, teachers in second language situations are more often qualified in both primary education and language teaching.
In the second language situation there is a larger, and more widely shared,
pool of experience in teaching the target language. In addition, there are
economies of scale associated with such enterprises as the development of course materials and the organisation of teacher training.
Less extreme variations in proficiency among incoming pupils at post
primary may be expected in the case of second languages since there are no absolute starters - as there are where different foreign languages have been taught at primary. This means not only fewer problems from a teaching
point of view, but also less likelihood of more able pupils having to mark
time (and becoming bored) while less proficient students try to catch up.
At primary level, the second language teacher is almost always the regular class teacher, whereas in the case of foreign languages (e.g. in the U.S.) this may not be so. This clearly affects the extent to which the target language can be extended beyond the language class proper as a medium of instruction or of classroom communication. At post primary level, also, with a common target language (the second language situation), teaching through the medium of that language or installing it as a general means of classroom communication poses fewer problems than it would in the situation where there is a diversity in foreign language experience among incoming pupils and among teachers themselves.
Consistent with the points just made, our review in section 2 shows that in countries such as Sweden and Denmark, where a second rather than a strictly foreign language is involved, primary school language programmes are generally considered more satisfactory. The inherent advantages of the second language teaching situation are also frequently exploited in actual practice. In Sweden, for example, English is used as a means of classroom communication (Hoy, 1976), just as Irish is in our own primary schools. We cannot say with certainty whether the more favourable outcome in the second language situation is mainly due to the kind of language teaching advantages just outlined above, or whether it is due to the additional exposure and extra-school support which is also commonly available in that situation. The picture is further complicated by the fact that the countries which have English as a second language (more or less) are also the ones
23
which seem to take non-native language teaching most seriously - at post primary as well as at primary level. Even though Irish may not have all the sociolinguistic and other advantages of the specific second language situation in the Scandinavian countries (where the language in question, English, is a world language with a unique status) Irish does appear to share all the other advantages associated with the second language type of situation. What has been built up in the case of Irish at primary level, then, is very substantial and will not be easily reproduced in the case of foreign languages: e.g. the widespread teacher
competence in the Irish language itself; the reservoir of skill and experience
in teaching this particular language to pupils of this particular age; and the tradition of using Irish for classroom communication and sometimes as a medium of instruction. Some, but not all, of the educational advantages of the second language situation listed above could be achieved by limiting programmes at the primary level to just one foreign language. It is unlikely, however, given the kinds of educational, political and cultural reasons why people seek foreign
languages at primary level at present, that the idea of confining teaching to just one foreign language would be acceptable. There is also the practical
point that primary teachers will differ in their command of different foreign languages and that any programme at primary level would presumably try to
take advantage of existing foreign language proficiency among teachers. In any event, even if a primary school programme were limited to just one foreign language, at least some of the other advantages of the second
language situation - such as the relatively widespread knowledge of the language among parents - still would not accrue.
All this suggests that because Irish already reaps the benefits of a second
language situation, our performance expectations for a foreign language programme at primary level, other things being equal, should be more
modest than they are for Irish. Yet something very close to the contrary view is sometimes expressed in casual conversation on this topic - the suggestion is made that results in the case of Irish at primary level are disappointing if not uniquely poor, and there is an implication that it probably would not be too hard to surpass such a level of achievement in the case of foreign languages, if these were properly taught. In all probability this kind of
negative assessment of Irish, and the correspondingly positive assessment of
the prospects for modern languages, simply mirrors the history of teaching foreign languages at primary level in other countries which we described in
Section 2. In other words, the cycle of initial enthusiasm being followed by
more critical evaluation which is typical of many countries. The only essential difference is that in the case of Irish we already have real practical experience of the outcomes of teaching the language over a long period, whereas in the case of foreign languages we do not.
24
In fact, the negative assessment of FLES programmes in the U.S. and elsewhere, bears striking similarities to the case of Irish. A dominant issue to emerge in each case was the problem of unrealistic expectations, based partly on unfounded assumptions about the language learning potential of younger children, and partly on over estimations of the effectiveness of audio-visual and audio-lingual methods (Stern, 1983; McLaughlin, 1985). The audio-visual methods introduced for Irish in the 1960's (e.g. Department of Education, 1969), were in many respects similar to the
audio-lingual methods applied to the teaching of French in the U.S. around the same time - methods that until relatively recently were considered the most up to date and effective approach to language t e a c h i n g . Not surprisingly, then, the disillusionment with the outcome has been as sharp
in the case of Irish as it has been elsewhere. Indeed, the specific criticisms of audio-lingual methods in the U.S. and Britain, which we mentioned earlier, will have a familiar ring to many teachers of Irish: the difficulty children have in generalising from the specific set of utterances learned; the problem of using the language learned for real communication; and the frustration of brighter and older children, who are capable of adopting a more abstract and rule governed approach to language, with the constraints of rigidlyapplied audio-lingual /audio-visual methods. Thus, to think that the teaching of foreign languages at primary level in the future would not be subject to fundamentally the same kinds of difficulties that Irish has been subject to in the past, would be to repeat history in a rather ironic way. Admittedly, the teaching of Irish at primary level is about to undergo changes, just as the teaching of modern languages at post primary already has. But that kind of periodic reappraisal and improvement of language teaching methods and courses has always gone on, and does not take from the fact that, as in the past, broadly the same factors govern the prospects for all language teaching at primary level. In any event, there is now a substantial amount of empirical evidence that the performance of primary-school children in learning Irish is at about the level that would be expected given the amount of lime they spend on the language each day (Harris, 1984; Harris & Murtagh, 1988). The tendency to find the learning of Irish wanting, and to have an overly positive view of the prospects for teaching foreign languages is sometimes exacerbated by references to inappropriate or irrelevant examples in Europe e.g. the European Schools, or bilingual schools in Belgium. Of course, it is very instructive to examine language teaching and learning in these situations, but to expect that they have direct implications for the standard of achievement which is possible in either Irish or foreign languages, where these are taught as single school subjects to all children, would be quite wrong. In interpreting the achievements of programmes in other countries.
25
due account must be taken of all the educational and sociolinguistic aspects of the context in which the languages are taught, including any selective factors which may be operating in the kind of children who are being enrolled.
We already have our own home-grown versions of some of these kinds of special language teaching situations - e.g. English speaking children who attend Gaeltacht schools side by side with native Irish speaking children; or English speaking children attending all-Irish schools outside the Gaeltacht areas. Research shows that these children have impressive levels of
achievement in Irish (Harris, 1984; Harris & Murtagh, 1987; 1988). But we
would never think of expecting the Irish achievement of children in such special circumstances to be matched by children in ordinary schools. Yet quite the same care is sometimes not taken in considering the relevance of examples from Europe.
None of this, of course, is an argument against the introduction of foreign
languages at primary level. Most of the educational arguments for an early start are essentially the same for foreign languages as they are for Irish or any other second language. If we accept these arguments, then the question is simply how important do we feel a particular foreign language is assuming that teaching the language at primary level is necessary to achieve the goals we have set ourselves. As Stern & Weinrib (1977) point out in a
discussion of the teaching of second and foreign languages:
Ultimately, the decision on the stage of education at which to introduce a second language is an educational, cultural and political one. There may be no overpowering reason in the biology of the child development in favour of teaching languages to younger children. But there are no overpowering reasons against it either. An understanding of the role of a second language in a community, and an appreciation of its educational and cultural value, are perhaps more important than the search for a psychologically or biologically optimal age. (Stern & Weinrib, 1977; p. 19).
4.3 Foreign language programme issues in Ireland. The many issues concerning the kind of foreign language programme which might be suitable
for Irish primary schools are interrelated in a complex manner. Thus,
questions such as the broad aims of the programme, the amount of time per week to be devoted to it, the range of languages which might be considered, and the kind of syllabus which would be appropriate cannot be evaluated in
isolation. With regard to time, for example, most countries which have
primary school foreign language programmes seem to spend somewhere between half an hour and three hours per week on it. If a very small amount of time is envisaged, say half an hour to one hour per week, this would seem to suggest that a programme with a 'language awareness' (Hawkins, 1987a; 1987b; 1989), or 'general language education' (as in Canada), or 'foreign
26
language experience (FLEX)' orientation (as in the U.S.) might be more appropriate than one which tried to develop substantial communicative skills in the language. Courses of study in language awareness try to develop in the learner "a sensitivity to and conscious awareness of the nature and functions of language and its role in life" (An Bord Curaclaim
agus Scruduithe, 1987, p. 46).
Likewise, if the primary school programme were to allow a choice among a number of different foreign languages, the emphasis again probably should be on language awareness or language experience, if the problem of pupils arriving in post-primary with substantially different foreign language skills is to be avoided. Finally, the language awareness and language education orientation seems particularly suitable in an Irish context where there would be three languages, English, Irish and the foreign language on which to base such a component and from which to draw examples.
At the moment very little information is available on how foreign languages are taught at primary level in Ireland, how much time is devoted to them, or how effective existing foreign language teaching is. Eilish Hurley in Hurley
and Orr (1989) suggests that for a primary school programme consisting of two 20-minute sessions per week, objectives might consist of the following:
broadening the pupils horizons to include mainland Europe; helping them to better appreciate Irish language and culture; preparing them to learn, and to enjoy learning, French or other languages at post primary; and widening their experience of the nature and functions of language i.e. language awareness, developed in conjunction with Irish and English. The syllabus for sixth class (11/12 year olds) would be a foundation for, but would not be in competition with, post primary. Pupils would get some exposure to basic structures and sounds in the foreign language by means of games, songs, role-playing and sketches and there would be a focus on civilisation/ culture. Orr in the same article (Hurley & Orr, 1989) mentions half an hour per week as a possible time allotment, and like Hurley, emphasises that course content should be complementary to the language curriculum at post primary, she feels there should be no explanation of structures and grammar, on the grounds that this is a task for post primary. Songs, rhymes and games whose content would be suitable for primary but not post primary and which introduce important structures would be used (See also Hurley, 1989). Needless to say the teaching of Irish will already have developed in Irish primary school pupils some aspects of the kind of language awareness that, in other countries, may be developed by teaching foreign languages. This kind of language awareness could be further built on and enriched by the introduction of a foreign language element. Two other advantages are conferred by Irish. First, pupils, from their experience with Irish, are familiar
27
Foreign Language leeching in Primary Schools: Issues and Research
with the notion of learning and using another language and have very likely acquired some language learning skills that they would not otherwise have.
Second, teachers are qualified in language teaching, because of Irish, if not
in specific modern languages. As Meestringa (1987) points out in relation to the introduction of English, which is a compulsory foreign language, into bilingual Frisian-Dutch schools:
The teachers who teach Frisian and Dutch and who will also have to teach English are skilled in the use of more than one language in school; they have knowledge of and insight into the learning of a second language and
experience with the work forms that are useful for stimulating secondlanguage development.
These advantages, which Irish also has, are not available in many other foreign language situations.
Another issue of interest here is how Irish primary school pupils themselves
feel about the idea of learning foreign languages. In a study carried out by
Institiuid Teangeolaiochta Eireann and Aonad Curaclaim na Roinne Oideachais in 1989, pupils in sixth-grade classes in 20 schools distributed around the country were administered various tests (Harris & Murtagh, 1991). Although the classes represented the full range of pupil abilities and socio-educational conditions, the pupils as a group had marginally lower English verbal reasoning scores than pupils nationally.
Among the tests they were administered was an Irish adaptation of the
Gardner's (1985) Attitude Motivation Test Battery. One of the scales on that
test is the Interest in Foreign Languages Scale which consists of 10 positively stated items about learning and speaking foreign languages. The largest proportion of pupils disagreeing with any of these ten positive statements was 12.5%. For example, 79.8% of pupils agreed with the statement "I would like to learn a foreign language at school even if I didn't
have to do it.n, while 8.8% were 'neutral' and 11% disagreed. Looking at
responses to this same question at the class level, it was found that in 12 of the 20 classes more than 80% of the pupils agreed that they would like to learn a foreign language, while in all but one of the remaining classes more than 60% agreed. In the case of three classes in disadvanlaged areas, the
proportions agreeing were 61%. 78% and 81%. Thus, there is evidence of generally positive attitudes to the notion of learning foreign languages across
a wide range of sixth grade primary school pupils and classes. Of course, this conclusion must be interpreted in the light of the fact that the vast majority of these pupils probably had no direct experience of learning foreign languages and may not have been thinking very immediately of the effort and application which is involved in learning any language.
Finally, in this regard, mention should be made of the notion of content-
28
based language instruction. Quite simply, this means teaching subject matter other than language through the medium of the target language - as already happens in immersion and all-Irish schools and to a lesser extent in many ordinary schools. Interest in the potential of content-based language instruction in ordinary schools has grown enormously in the U.S. in recent years and there are now numerous books and articles on the topic (Leaver & Stryker, 1989; Brinton. Snow & Wesche, 1989; Snow, Met & Genesee, 1989;
Tucker & Crandall, 1989; and Spanos. 1989). What distinguishes the work
done in recent years, however, is the systematic approach which has been adopted to analysing the language needed to teach different kinds of subject matter, and to discovering how different aspects of language learning can be promoted depending on the nature of the subject matter being taught. One major advantage of content-based language instruction is that it provides a way of dealing with the frequent complaint that 'in order to make a place for elementary school foreign language instruction in the curriculum something must be taken out' (Curtain & Martinez, 1990). Conventional time constraints on school subjects can be relaxed to some extent when both language instruction and content instruction are proceeding at the same time. At the moment it would appear that this strategy may be more useful in the case of Irish - where the tradition of and experience with Irish medium instruction already exists - but obviously some potential exists in the foreign language area as well.
4.4 Equality and the transition to post-primary. A number of studies in
the last few years have demonstrated that there are significant inequalities in the distribution of foreign language teaching at post-primary level in Ireland (Hannon et al, 1983; Lynch, 1989; and Ruane, 1990). Uneven curricular provision, allocation within schools and student choice patterns in foreign languages - related to variables such as social class, gender and region - have now been documented. Ruane (1990) reports, for example, that
in 1987/1988. 81. 3% of girls but only 63 . 6% of boys studied French at
junior
cycle.
Lynch
(1989)
shows
that
vocational
and
community/comprehensive schools are worse providers of foreign languages than secondary schools; and that fee-paying secondary schools are more
likely to provide both modern and classical languages than free-scheme secondary schools. Hannon et al (1983) found that rural schools are likely to offer fewer foreign languages than urban schools. Lynch (1989) reports that German is statistically more likely to be offered in cities or large towns and less likely to be offered in small towns and rural areas. It would be surprising if the recent growth in the teaching of foreign languages as an extra curricular activity at primary level (National Parents Council. 1989) did not reflect, if not actually exacerbate, some of these
inequalities. The very fact that existing foreign language teaching at primary
level is generally paid for by parents almost guarantees, for example, the
29
existence of social-class related inequalities. To leave the situation as it is at present, then, would be to run the risk of reinforcing, if not actually extending, the kind of inequalities at post-primary level which are already giving cause for concern. On the other hand, if some foreign language education could be provided for all pupils at senior grades in primary school, it might help, other factors being equal, to reduce such inequalities. There are at least two ways in which this might happen - by equalising the amount of exposure to foreign languages among all pupils at primary level, and by developing a positive orientation to the idea of foreign language learning generally among pupils who would not otherwise have considered it at post
primary.
In this regard, it is interesting to note just how many students fail to take at least one foreign language at post primary at present - though failure to study a foreign language is determined, admittedly, by many other factors apart from individual pupil choice. Ruane (1990) reports that when the proportions of students taking the individual foreign languages at junior cycle in 1986/87 are added together, it may be estimated that 82.7% at most, and very likely considerably fewer than that, took a foreign language at junior cycle. Some indication of the extent to which this figure overestimates the true participation rate is given by the fact that the
proportion for French at junior cycle is only 72.4%, and that the other
languages are often taken as second languages in addition to French. Only

65.2% of students, at most, took a foreign language at senior cycle in that
same year. While it is reasonable to hope that a primary school foreign language programme which was available to all children would improve participation rates and help to reduce some of the inequalities just mentioned, this will not be an automatic consequence. For one thing, results of the French Pilot Scheme in Britain indicate that similar, but less pronounced, inequalities are likely to be observed at primary level. Burstall, it will be recalled, found that boys scored significantly lower than the girls on all French achievement tests. In addition, from age 13, the low- achieving boys tended to drop French significantly more often than low- achieving girls did. Even though the girls studying French at sixteen represented, therefore, a considerably wider range of ability than those boys who had chosen to continue, the girls still scored significantly higher on the French achievement tests. Similarly, it
was found that from very early on in the experiment, high socio-economic
status was associated with high achievement in French. Interestingly, the transition to post primary tended to increase social-class related disparities
in French achievement. Similar gender and social class differences have
been found in the case of achievement in Irish at primary level (Harris, 1984; Harris & Murtagh, 1991).
A more general point which emerges from this discussion is that it is
30
virtually impossible to understand any issue related to foreign languages at primary level without taking careful account of existing practices and problems at post-primary and tertiary level. The effect on later foreign language learning of introducing a primary school programme will depend to a large extent on how well-articulated the primary and post primary programmes are, what attitude to language learning has been cultivated in the early stages, how many and which foreign languages are provided at the two levels, and similar factors. Likewise, we must consider if the
introduction of foreign languages at primary is the best or only way of
achieving aims such as increased participation and the reduction in gender and social-class related inequalities in foreign language learning. Are there changes which could be effected at post-primary, for example, which would achieve the same results as effectively or even more effectively? Ideally, of course, all these issues would be tackled systematically in the context of a national language policy (O Murchu, 1990) or a national foreign language plan (Ruane, 1990). In Ruane's view a language teaching policy would outline a rationale for the place of foreign languages in the curriculum in terms of the various social, economic and vocational benefits which would
be expected to accrue to pupils and to society generally as a result of their
study. More specific questions about foreign language teaching would be answered in the context of that general rationale: e.g. at what age should foreign language study start; which categories of pupils should be offered particular foreign languages; and how long should pupils study each
language? Ultimately, however, the resolution of the question of foreign
languages in primary school in Ireland will also require a substantial period of pilot testing and systematic evaluation.
SUMMARY It is feasible to teach foreign languages to primary school children. Nevertheless, younger children do not appear to have any unique language
learning capacity, at least in a school context. Older children often catch up
with children who have started earlier, though in some cases there is a question about whether the early starters were given an adequate opportunity to capitalise on their initial advantage. Where primary school foreign language programmes are well organised, and where pupils transfer to post primary programmes which take account of their earlier start, the advantage appears to be maintained. The advantage derives from the extra time spent learning the language, however, not from the younger age of the children as such.
31
There are a number of other arguments - for some of which there is empirical evidence - in favour of the early teaching of modern languages. For example, pupils who start earlier seem to develop more favourable attitudes to learning and speaking the language - but only if they achieve some success in the programme. After a period of stagnation and decline, there is now evidence of revival, development and extension of foreign language programmes in Europe and North America. The new pilot schemes to teach foreign languages at primary level in Scotland and France, for example, are attempting to build in safeguards relating to the transition to post-primary - one of the persistent problems which has undermined early modern language programmes in the past.
The issue of performance expectations for second and foreign language programmes at primary level is important. Second languages, such as Irish, usually have specific educational advantages which foreign languages do not. Where these advantages exist, performance expectations should be more modest for a foreign language programme than for a second language programme. Among the educational advantages associated with a second language programme are the fact that since all pupils learn the language, the transition to post primary is not problematical in the way that it often is for foreign languages; and, in the case of a second language, most parents will have some knowledge of the language which allows them to supervise homework and generally to support the school's efforts more effectively at a practical level. It is important to guard against the notion that the early teaching of modern languages is so effective that we only need to start off a programme to be able to demonstrate this in practice. The history of the 'foreign language in primary school' movement proves the opposite. In all probability, the various problems of primary school programmes described here are surmountable. But it cannot be said that successful programmes are common, or that it would be an easy matter to mount a successful primary school foreign language programme here. In fact, inadequately prepared programmes and unrealistic performance expectations have often turned out to be the most potent arguments against the early teaching of foreign languages. If it were decided that the amount of time to be devoted to any future foreign language programme at primary level were to be small - half an hour to one hour, per week, for example - and if a number of language options were to be offered, a syllabus with a 'language awareness', or 'general language education' or 'language experience' orientation might be desirable. This would tend to minimise the difficulties which frequently arise on transition to post primary when the focus is more exclusively on the development of linguistic and communicative skills. A 'language awareness' component
32
would also provide a context within which teaching of the three languages of the curriculum - Irish, English and the foreign language - could be integrated to some extent. There is some empirical evidence that sixth-grade primary school children in Ireland are quite positively disposed towards the idea of learning foreign languages. The value of content-based language instruction (using the target second or foreign language to teach subject matter) is increasingly being recognised.
It can serve to relax conventional time constraints on school subjects since language instruction and content instruction are proceeding at the same time.
Existing inequalities in foreign language provision and choice at postprimary level in Ireland may be increased by the current 'extra-curricular'
teaching of foreign languages. A limited foreign language programme for all
primary school children might help to reduce same inequalities - at least by orienting children to the idea of studying a foreign language who otherwise
would not have considered it. However, a primary school programme will not
solve all difficulties in this area since, as Burstall has shown, many gender and social-class related differences in foreign language achievement are also observed at primary level.
More generally, it is clear that almost any question involving foreign languages at primary level can only be fully addressed in the context of existing problems and practices at post-primary level. For this reason, issues in foreign language teaching at both primary and post-primary level should really be considered in the context of a national language plan.
33
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Foreign Language Teochlng in Primary Schools: Issues and Research

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39
PART II
SURVEY ON THE PROVISION OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN IRELAND

The Education Committee conducted a nationwide study in order to ascertain the number of schools which were providing opportunities to their pupils to learn foreign languages. A questionnaire was designed by a subcommittee of the Education Committee (appendix A). It was decided to request District Committees, or in some cases Branch Committees,to distribute the questionnaire to every school in their respective catchment areas. Completed questionnaires were returned to the relevant members of
the Education Committee. The results of the survey were compiled on a district basis and the findings of the sixteen districts were submitted to the
Education Officer for collation and analysis.
ANALYSIS OF THE FINDINGS

1. 1834 schools (56.5%) out of a total of 3,247 responded to the Education Committees nationwide survey on the teaching of foreign languages in primary schools. 436 of the schools (23.8%) which responded made provision for the teaching of a foreign language in
their schools. 2. The opportunities to take a foreign language in national schools are greater for pupils in larger national schools than in the smaller ones.
40
TABLE 1
The distribution of national schools, responding schools by size and those offering a foreign language
National Schools* Responding Schools Offering Foreign
Language School Size (No. of Teachers)

1-5 2136 6-10 11+
Totals
No.
Respond No. ing Schools

178 331 361
1834
65.8 1142 584 18.0 527 16.2

3247 1OO.O
15.6 97 161
436
29.3 44.6
'Source: An Roinn Oideachais, Statistical Report 1988/1989

3. The majority (65.6%) of foreign language teaching takes place outside school hours. This pattern differs for smaller and larger schools: in the former the majority of the teaching takes place within schools hours.
TABLE 2
The timing of foreign language teaching in national
schools
School Size 1-5 No. % 6-10 No. % 11 + No.%
During School Hours*

Outside School Hours
107
70
60.7
39.3
44
53
45.4
54.6
71
163
30.3
69.7
41
*Some schools recorded time before official school time as "during school
hours" and some schools had foreign languages taught both within and
outside schools hours

4. Foreign language teaching is usually offered to senior class pupils and a small minority of schools make it available to junior class pupils.
TABLE 3
Age when foreign language teaching is introduced to pupils*

AGE
4 -7 7-10 10+
No. of Schools
22 130 284
% of Schools
5.0 30.0 65.0
*Source: Statistical Report 1988/89

5. More girls than boys take up a foreign language in primary schools. Of the 18,918 pupils learning a foreign language in the surveyed schools 59.4% were girls. An average number of 43 pupils per school attending foreign language classes.
A foreign language is offered by one in three of girls' single sex schools compared to one in five in similar type boys' schools.
6.
A foreign language is more likely to be offered in Scoileanna Lan Ghaeilge and Multidenominational schools than in other national schools.
42
TABLE 4
The distribution of various types of national school and

the teaching of foreign language.
JVational Schools* Responding schools offering foreign Language
Type of Schools
No.
No.
Gealtacht Lan-Ghaeilge Multi-denominational Ordinary
121 64 10 3052
3.7 2.0 0.003 94.3
7 34 7 388
5.8 53.1 70.0 12.7
"Source; Statistical Report 1988/89
7.
French is the usual foreign language (74.6%) offered to pupils of these schools while only minorities offer German (19.7%) or Spanish (2.4%) or some other (3.3%; not specified). A minority of schools offer two languages.
Schools offering French have higher rates of take-up than schools offering other languages.
TABLES
Number of national schools offering various foreign languages and the rates of take-up per school for various . foreign languages
Language Taught No. of Schools
foreign Providing Language* a
Average
schools No. of pupils taking per
French German
378 100
42 24.8
Spanish Other
12 17
12.6 12.6
*While 436 schools offer a foreign language some schools offer more than one language
8.
An insignificant number of schools offering foreign language teaching reported liaison with post-primary schools: 25 schools (6.6%) for French, 8 schools (8.0%) for German and one school (8.3%) for Spanish. None of the 17 schools teaching other languages had contact with post-primary schools.
9.
Nearly half of the foreign language teaching in national schools is taught by an existing staff member (46.4%). The remainder engage either an (Irish) external teacher (36.7%) or a foreign teacher
(16.9%). The staff member Is more likely to be qualified in teaching
a foreign language.
44
TABLE 6
Teachers of foreign languages In Irish national schools and their qualifications

Teacher
Staff Member No. % External Teacher Foreign Teacher No. % No. %
Total No. Engaged* 217 No. with Foreign Language Teaching Qualification 155 (of which:)
a. Degree b. Diploma 96 21
46.4
71.4
172
92
73 2
36.8
56.4
79
39
19 15
16.8
49.3
*Some schools have two or more categories of teachers engaged
10.
Favourable staff attitudes to foreign language teaching is present to a significantly greater degree in schools offering foreign languages than in others. However, favourable staff attitudes are not a necessary condition for its provision.
TABLE 7
Staff attitudes to foreign language teaching in responding schools

Attitude
School* Provision
with Foreign Language
Favourable No. %
323 74.1
Non-committal No. %
94
511
Opposed No. %
9
150
21.6
36.6
2.1
10.7
without Foreign Language 470 33.6
45
11.
Age was deemed to be the most significant factor in the selection of pupils for foreign language teaching. 'Ability to pay' and 'other' (parental interest or pupils being in 5th or 6th classes) figured prominently. Language ability was regarded as an insignificant factor.
TABLES
Basis of selection of pupils for foreign language teaching

School Responses
Age 215
Conversion as per
44.7%
Language Ability
. Ability to Pay Other
10
128 128
2.1%
26.6% 26.6%
* A number of schools indicated two or more factors as being relevant
in the process of selecting pupils for foreign language teaching
12.
Fees charged by schools range from a minimal contribution to an annual payment of 65.00 per pupil.
46
CONCLUSIONS
Only a minority of national schools offer foreign language teaching to their pupils. The main language provided is French. The languages are taught with little contact or liaison with post-primary schools.
The majority of teachers teaching the foreign language have language
qualifications and in the main the teacher will be a staff-member of the school. However, significant use is made of outside teachers engaged for the purpose.
The following are characteristics of the situations where foreign languages are being taught.
It occurs in larger schools rather than in smaller ones; It occurs in girls' and mixed schools to a greater extent than in boys' schools;
It occurs outside school hours rather than within hours;

Scoileanna Lan Ghaeilge and multidenominational schools are more likely to provide for foreign language teaching;
Foreign languages will be offered usually to senior class

national school students; and
Payment will usually be involved in situations where the teaching occurs outside school hours or where outside teachers are engaged. Fees range from a minimal contribution to a annual payment of 65.00. Given that foreign language teaching is arranged in a ad hoc manner variations - of geographic, gender, in time-tabling, in costs, curricular and post-primary co-ordination - are bound to occur. In this current variable situation the question of equal access will increasingly become an issue which may have to be addressed in the near future.
47
PART III
THE INVOLVEMENT OF VARIOUS AGENCIES IN THE PROMOTION OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING IN IRELAND
In preparing a comprehensive review of the teaching of foreign languages, the Education Committee decided to incorporate the views of a wide range of interested parties involved in the area of foreign language teaching.
NATIONAL PARENTS' COUNCIL
The National Parents' Council - Primary (NPC) in its publication "Modern European Languages in the Primary School" outlines parents' desire that all children should be introduced to a modern European language in primary schools. This policy is further reiterated in 'reservation No. 2' in the Report of the Review Body on the Primary Curriculum in which the NPC-Primary regrets the Review Body's decision not to recommend the introduction of a modern European language into the curriculum in primary schools (p105). The NPC-Primary's survey, "The Cost of Free Education", indicates that 21% of primary schools are already providing foreign language classes in the context of extra curricular activities (p.17). The NPC - primary's survey indicates that many more parents appear to be sending their children to independently-run foreign language classes (p105). While the NPC-Primary acknowledges that curriculum overload, the training of foreign language teachers, methodology and language choice present particular problems for primary schools, it implies that, with the combined goodwill and cooperation of all the interests concerned, many of the present difficulties could be overcome. The following principles were put forward by the NPCPrimary in support of its policy that foreign languages should be included in the curriculum of the primary school:-. i The cultural awareness of children is increased by exposing them aurally and orally to different linguistic experiences;
the children's horizons are broadened; and
ii
48
iii
the Introduction to foreign languages encourages enlightened attitudes towards other cultures (p2.).
In determining the most appropriate age at which to introduce a foreign language, the policy document invokes unattributed research which indicates that "the earlier a child is introduced to any language the easier
that language acquisition becomes"(p5). The NPC-Primary recognises the fact that two languages are already being studied by pupils in primary
schools in Ireland and acknowledges" that a basic grounding in these languages should be achieved before taking a third language on board, especially when the third language has no widespread support in the wider community and little relevance to the everyday life of the child "(p.5). The document does, however, indicate that many parents would "seem to favour the introduction of the third language at about age ten" (p.5). The document is descriptive rather than definitive on the question of which language to introduce in primary schools. It does, nevertheless recognise the importance of continuing with whichever language is chosen at primary level
through to second level.
An analysis of the 371 respondents to the NPC - Primary survey on 'The Cost of Free Education" indicates that of the 21% of schools offering foreign
language teaching, only 5% are providing it free of charge. The fees range from a nominal contribution to an annual payment of 60 (the average cost per pupil being 25.90). The NPC - Primary, while recognising that "clear opportunities are available to those who can afford to pay", urges the introduction of subsidy schemes to enable all children to participate in extra curricular activities, including the learning of foreign languages.
COLLEGES OF EDUCATION The introduction of foreign language teaching as a compulsory curricular area accessible to all children during school hours is contingent upon the availability of a pool of teachers with appropriate language leaching
qualifications. The supply of fully qualified teachers will depend to a considerable extent upon the Colleges of Education and on the Education Departments of the various Universities to provide appropriate training.
Some of the Colleges of Education already offer academic courses to degree level in French. In recent years the number of students in Mary
Immaculate College of Education, Limerick studying French to degree level
have risen marginally as follows: 1989: 18; 1990: 20; 1991: 21. The French Department at St. Patrick's College of Education, Drumcondra, has been offering Bachelor of Education Degree courses in French since 1974.
49
foreign Language Teaching in Primary Schools: Issues and Research
The numbers of students taking French to degree level are as follows: 1989,
21: 1990, 19: 1991, 6: 1992 19,. The French Department has been
actively involved in student teacher exchange projects for many years, particularly, with the Ecole Normale (College of Education} of Quimper in Brittany. Since the establishment of the Erasmus programmes, the French Department has also been involved in Erasmus exchanges with the Ecole
Normale of Antony near Paris. The Department has submitted ideas for joint projects with other Ecoles Normales under the Erasmus programmes, e.g. class to class exchanges. The Department has offered a pedagogic course in French language teaching to 3rd year students for many years.
In the Colleges of Education which are attached to Dublin University (Colaiste Mhuire, Marino, The Church of Ireland School of Education and
Froebel College) students proceeding to B. Ed. degree at ordinary (pass) level do not take a foreign language to degree level. A voluntary module is
currently offered in the fourth year honours course in Trinity College.

Colaiste Mhuire, Marino, with a view to equipping teachers for the classroom, has arranged a similar voluntary provision for French. The
modules, which tend to be poorly attended in the second and final terms are
not of degree standard. The question of the provision of a modern European Language in the B.Ed degree is currently under review by the
Church of Ireland College of Education and by the staff of the Froebel College of Education. Discussions are also underway between the associate Colleges in relation to the question of modern European languages and the primary school child.
Mary Immaculate College of Education in its submission to the Review Body
on the Primary Curriculum on the question of "Modern Languages in the Primary School" outlined the following a r g u m e n t s in favour of the introduction of modern languages in primary schools: "cultural benefits, high levels of motivation and facilitation of the transition from primary to post-primary education." The submission also acknowledged that, in the
event of the introduction of French in primary schools, it would be necessary
to "devise a programme and a pedagogical approach suitably designed for the context of the primary school". Mary Immaculate College suggested that any future work on a pilot project could be monitored and evaluated within the curriculum unit of the College where the combined expertise of personnel with an academic background in French could be utilised. Given the curriculum overload in primary schools, in addition to the existence of a second language, Mary Immaculate's submission considered that fifth or sixth classes were the most appropriate juncture in which to introduce an extra language at this stage. Student teachers who take foreign language courses are eligible to avail of student exchange programmes under the Erasmus Inter- University Co-
50
operation programmes (ICP).
TEACHERS PROJECTS
The absence of suitable teaching materials and resources for foreign language teaching is one of the major obstacles facing teachers who wish to commence foreign language teaching in primary schools. Following consultation between various interested parties, a working group of 45 teachers was formed under the auspices of the Institiuid Teangeolaiochta Eireann and co-ordinated by a member of the French Department in St. Patrick's College of Education. The group aims to exchange ideas and to
consider the possibility of developing appropriate foreign language teaching
materials. A booklet and cassettes entitled "Dans Les Nuages" which was produced by the group was published by Institiuid Teangeolaiochta Eireann in 1989. It is an oral language programme containing rhymes, songs,
games and language activities. It is designed to awaken children's interests in foreign languages, to cultivate positive attitudes towards other languages
and cultures and to encourage a disposition to language learning as well as to prepare the children for more formal language learning at second level. The teaching approach is concerned with encouraging children to be receptive to other language forms, rather than with language content, or language acquisition. The programme is based on the perception that early introduction to foreign languages helps the acquisition of the native languages through heightened language awareness. The working group is currently evaluating the materials which have been produced by its members.
ALLIANCE FRANCAISE The Alliance Francaise provides inservice courses in early language teaching for native French qualified teachers who give courses for children in the Alliance Francaise premises at 1, Kildare Street, Dublin 2 and at 24, Clarinda Park East, Dun Laoghaire. The Alliance offers courses to children at five levels, from the age of 6 years upwards. Courses are not currently being provided for children under the age of 6 years because of the lack of suitable accommodation. The inservice teacher training courses in early language teaching which are being provided by the Alliance are not open to Irish trained teachers because the Alliance insists that only native speakers of the French language meet the required language competence to teach in
51
the Alliance.
As a result of the interest shown by a number of principal
teachers in primary schools the Alliance agreed to offer courses in French for primary school children of nine years and upwards in their own schools on a fee paying extra curricular basis and staffed by teachers from the
Alliance. In 1990, two schools availed of the service and by 1991 the
number had risen to 12 schools.
THE GOETHE EVSITITUTGERMAN INSTITUTE
The Goethe Institut at 62 Fitzwilliam Square, Dublin 2, does not currently
have programmes available for children in primary schools, although, it

would be prepared to address this issue should a sufficient number of parents express an interest in having their children attend German classes. Courses are conducted at the Institute for teachers in second level schools.
At branches of the Goethe-Institut in Germany a wide variety of intensive four week and eight week courses are offered to external candidates designed to meet their individual and professional needs. A number of scholarships are available for suitably qualified teachers who might be interested in participating in short term inservice education courses conducted between the months of June and September. Increasing numbers of primary teachers are enrolling in Goethe-Institut courses in
Dublin. Students may attend for examinations, set by the Goethe-Institut
Munchen in conjunction with the German Association of Adult Education (Deutscher Volkshocschulverband). Examinations for advanced students set by the Goethe-Institut Munchen under the auspices of the Universitat Munchen are also open to candidates from Ireland. Goethe-Institutes in
other countries have produced a wide variety of teaching material which could be adapted to facilitate elementary German language teaching in
Ireland.
SPANISH CULTURAL INSTITUTE
The Spanish Cultural Institute, at 58 Northumberland Road, Dublin 4, offers daytime and evening Spanish language courses in four different levels; complete beginners, elementary, intermediate and advanced. If there is sufficient demand the Institute will organise courses for specific purposes. All members of the teaching staff are native Spanish speakers with a Bachelor of Arts degree and teaching experience.
52
The Spanish Cultural Institute is the co-ordinating examination centre in Ireland for the Diplomas in Spanish as a Foreign Language issued by the Spanish Department of Education and Science. These examinations are held in November and June of each year. Two levels are offered: "Diploma Basico" and "Diploma Superior". Language classes at the Spanish Cultural Institute provide students with the opportunities to prepare for both Diplomas.
The Spanish Cultural Institute provides an advisory service for qualified
teachers members who have a knowledge of Spanish and who wish to teach
English in Spain or to Spanish speakers in Ireland. Spanish language resources are also made available to schools. The Spanish Government, through the Department of Education in Dublin, makes a limited number of grants available annually, to Irish nationals wishing to attend summer courses in Spain.
ISTITUTO ITALIANO DI CULTURA - ITALIAN INSTITUTE

The Italian Cultural Institute at 11, Fitzwilliam Square, Dublin 2, offers daytime and evening courses for adults at four levels, from complete beginners to diploma level. A certificate, testifying to the high language competence acquired by students at the end of level four is required to enrol for the diploma course. Each year the Italian Institute offers study grants to students who have proved highly successful in the diploma examinations and at other levels. Classes for children are also held at the Italian Cultural Institute on Saturday mornings. These are run by the 'Club Italiano', and are mainly intended for children of Italian immigrants.
SUBJECT ASSOCIATIONS The views of a number of subject associations were ascertained by the Education Committee. The associations agree in principle to the provision of foreign language teaching at primary level provided (i) that foreign languages are introduced either on a general or on a network basis; (ii) that the particular languages which are being taught in the primary schools are also available in the post -primary schools to which the children transfer; and (iii) that a uniform programme is being followed throughout the
53
primary school system. The associations emphasised the importance of using appropriate methodology in the teaching of foreign languages.
ALIVE O'
Alive O' is a private organisation which was founded in 1980 under the name Living Language Contact, to promote extra curricular foreign language
courses, particularly French, in primary schools. Foreign languages,
including German and Spanish, together with French are also taught in the organisation's premises at Hagan's Court, 4A Lad Lane, Dublin 2, with the assistance of "native trained" teachers. The organisation adopts a total immersion approach to language acquisition including a combination of
workshops, drama, games, rhymes and songs. The courses are entirely
devoted to oral and conversational language and children are only

introduced to the written word in their third or fourth year. The initial
emphasis is on the learning of language sounds by constant repetition, rather than the acquisition of concepts. This method is based upon the organisation's view that good pronunciation is more important than the speed of learning or the amount of vocabulary. All children are expected to acquire a "good accent" from the beginning of their respective courses. On average, children attend French language classes in primary school for periods of two to three years while a minority learn French for periods of up
to six years. The average attendance increases to three to four years for
those attending French classes at the organisation's own premises.
EN FAMILLE "En Famille", an exchange organisation for primary school children aged 8 to
11, was established in 1978. It involves making arrangements for an Irish child to live for six months with a carefully selected French family (who have
a child of similar age). The Irish child attends the local French school and is treated as a full member of the French family. The child learns to speak
French fluently, gets experience of French daily life, culture and customs
and learns to develop independence in a secure environment.
After six months, the Irish child returns home accompanied by the French child, who, in turn, will spend six months with the Irish family. Thus, the two children will have been together for a full year.
54
Progress is monitored through a network of local representatives who advise the families, help solve any problems and report back to the French and Irish Executives. Great care is taken in matching the Irish and French families. Every family is interviewed, having first filled in a detailed application form. School reports are sought, also references, and when a "match" is made with a French family, letters, photographs and phone calls are exchanged. Since 1978, approximately 400 children have taken part in six month exchanges. "En Famille" is a non-commercial organisation. The Irish Executive is Ciaran 6 Murchu, Kilbride. Co. Meath.
LINGUAPHONE INSTITUTE
The Linguaphone Institute (Ireland) Ltd., offers comprehensive home study language courses comprising of cassettes and teaching manuals in all European and Oriental languages. Native speakers are used in language conversations on all linguaphone programmes. The programmes cost
163.00 which may be paid in monthly installments. Discounts are available to schools purchasing materials from Linguaphone. Tutorial
services are also available in most modern language and the courses
prepare students adequately for the Linguistics Institute Examinations which are held each year in Dublin in the month of May. A short French course, suitable for children and adults is also available from Linguaphone at a cost 59. A free sample cassette and brochure is available to schools by contacting Linguaphone Institute (Ireland) Ltd. at 41, Upper Abbey
Street, Dublin 1.
55
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
1.
2.
Mary Hogan, St. Patrick's College of Education. Drumcondra

Elizabeth Murphy-Le Jeune French Department., St. Patrick's College of Education.
Drumcondra.
3. Monsieur Michel Carriere, Director Alliance Francaise
4.
5.
Brendan ODea (Erasmus) Higher Education Authority

Guy De La Torre. Director, Alive O'.
7.
Herr Walter Lohsert, Director, Goethe Institut - German Institute
8.
9.
Mr. Ciaran 6 Murchu, Irish Executive, En Famille.

Mr. Ciaran Byrne M. Ed.. Ph.D., H.DE.. Head of Education, Mary Immaculate College of
Education, Limerick.
10.
Mr. Sydney Blain, Principal, Church of Ireland College of Education . Rathmines, Dublin
6.
11.
12.
Br. S.P. 6 Nuallain. Uachtaran. Colaiste Mhuire, Marino, Griffith Avenue, Dublin 9.
Sr. Maura Duggan O.P.. Principal, FroebelCollege of Education, Dominican Convent, Sion Hill. Blackrock, Co. Dublin.
Mr. Kevin Williams. Lecturer, Mater Dei Institute.
13.
14.
Ms. Fionnuala Kilfeather, Chairperson, National Parents' Council - Primary.
15.
Senor Jose-Antonio Sierra, Director Spanish Cultural Institute.
16. Ms. Angela Barono, Director, Istituto I tali an o di Cultura.
56
P A R T IV
DISCUSSION
The imminence of the single European market and the resurgence of interest in educational reform in Ireland have, in general, provoked a renewal of
interest in the question of foreign language teaching and, in particular, in
the desirability of including a third language in the curriculum programme for primary school children.
ARGUMENTS
The most commonly advanced arguments for justifying the introduction of modern European languages at primary level are twofold:
(1) utilitarian arguments based on the perceived advantages
which the individual, the state and commercial interests

derive from the exposure of young children to foreign
language teaching;
(2) and liberal educational arguments based upon the unique contribution which foreign languages are likely to make to children's general education.
Decisions based solely on utilitarian arguments tend to be problematic,

particularly in relation to predicting the most appropriate foreign language
to introduce at primary level. The results of the INTO survey, "The Provision of Foreign Language Teaching in National Schools", indicates that French is the main language currently being taught in the majority of those schools which offer foreign language programmes to their pupils, with only a minority of schools offering German and Spanish. It would appear that the earlier enthusiasm for German language teaching in the mid-eighties, arising mainly from optimistic forecasts regarding future job opportunities in Germany, has receded significantly as a result of the reunification of
Germany.
A recent occasional paper, published by the Linguistic Institute of Ireland warns against placing too much emphasis on linguistic funationalism. It
argues "that to suggest to the general population of pupils in second-level
57
schools that learning E.G. languages increases their job prospects is not only untrue, but also serves to undermine the foundations of the school language programme" (Mac Aogain 1990). The paper also raises the possibility "that after 1992 the necessity for English speaking nations to learn continental languages is going to be less as the demand for English surges in continental schools" From the point of view of the allocation of time and the provision of adequate resources it is essential, in any debate on foreign language teaching, to address the question of whether or not all children should be required to study foreign languages over a prolonged school going period, since many of them may never have the opportunity to use a foreign language on any regular basis. Moreover, the sharp rise, in
recent years, in the number of linguistic institutions providing intensive
foreign language courses raises the question of whether foreign language

skills are best "learned intensively over a short period of lime by learners
prompted by motivation of an immediate and practical nature" (Williams 1989) or through a period of prolonged exposure to language acquisition in the education system.
Whilst linguistic functionalism tends to dominate in arguments advanced for the introduction of foreign language teaching to young children, it can be argued that foreign language teaching should create what the National Parents' Council - Primary document on "Modern European Languages in the Primary School terms, a cultural awareness amongst pupils arising from different linguistic experiences, a broadening of their horizons and a means of encouraging enlightened attitudes towards other cultures" (p.2). Similar aspirations have been articulated in both the Rules and Programme for Secondary Schools and in the former Curriculum and Examinations Board's document, "Language in the Curriculum".
Of central concern in promoting the cultural aspects of the liberal
educational arguments is the level of linguistic ability which is required of young children to enable them to develop their awareness of foreign cultures. This is a matter that should also be considered in any debate on foreign language teaching at primary level.
Advancing the liberal educational argument a stage further, suggests that the study of foreign languages, not alone makes a unique contribution to the overall cognitive development of young children but that it also cultivates their individual self confidence and adds to the growth of their personalities. Being capable of communicating in a foreign tongue also contributes towards children's sense of worthiness and achievement. It is almost
universally accepted that young children derive great pleasure and satisfaction from learning and experiencing different foreign cultures. In
this respect, therefore, the intrinsic motivation which children derive from mastering a foreign language is in itself an important educational argument
58
which must receive due attention in any debate on foreign languages.
METHODOLOGIES
It should always be borne in mind, however, that the way in which young children are initially introduced to foreign language teaching is a matter of the utmost importance. The joint Colleges of Education/Teachers Project have produced an oral French language programme entitled Dans Les Nuages which is based on 19 themes and contains a resource book and rhymes, songs, games and language activities. The teaching approach is
designed to enhance children's language awareness by encouraging them to
be more receptive to other language forms rather than being too concerned with language content or language acquisition.
A similarly communicative approach is advocated in the National Parents Council- Primary's document on modern European languages in which the NPC suggests that no specific standards should be required in primary school, thus encouraging the participation of all children, irrespective of their individual linguistic abilities or aptitudes. The language subject associations argue convincingly that only languages which are available in the post primary schools to which the children may eventually transfer should be considered for inclusion in any foreign
language programme for primary schools. Invoking experiences from other
countries, the associations claim that the failures of previous programmes

can be attributed partly to the lack of continuity and alignment which
occurred between primary and post primary schools. The associations advocate a system of "networking" between primary and post-primary schools in different localities so that close liaison is established between language teachers at both levels. The language associations, while prepared to accept in principle the introduction of foreign language teaching at primary level, stress the necessity for uniformity with regards to methodology and the importance of using authentic language with children from the beginning of their foreign language experiences.
59
Foreign Language Teaching in Primary Schools: issues and Research
RESOURCE IMPLICATIONS
ITie introduction of foreign languages at primary level would be contingent on having available a sufficient pool of teachers with the appropriate
language qualifications. This would entail the establishment of a major programme of inservice education to enable teachers to acquire or refresh foreign language skills, the provision of suitable foreign language teaching materials and the development of appropriate language c u r r i c u l u m programmes. Unfortunately, the experience of primary teachers with the inadequate levels of inservice provision and the current lack of state aid for the teaching of the Irish language, are two major factors to be considered
when discussing the introduction of a third language into the primary school curriculum. The Review Body on the Primary Curriculum considered various arguments in favour of the introduction of a modern European language at primary level, particularly those relating to educational, cultural, social and economic issues. The situations in Britain and other European countries were examined. The Review Body decided against recommending the
introduction of a modern European language into the curriculum in primary schools on the basis of arguments "relating to lime and curriculum overload as well as the demands of the two languages on the present curriculum" (p.79).
The introduction of a foreign language at primary level in Ireland must be

considered in the context of the fact that two languages of equal status are currently being taught throughout the whole period of a child's primary
education, that both languages are allocated equal amounts of time, that the
"mother tongue" (Irish or English) receives significantly less time allocation than that which applies in other European Countries, that the learning of the "second" language (Irish or English) incorporates many of the linguistic benefits associated with foreign language learning in general and that the
exposure to a second language contributes significantly to the child's general education in terms of the cultivation of language awareness and the preparation for future foreign language acquisition. The introduction of a third language would undoubtedly have implications in terms of time allocation, particularly in the context of two existing languages which between them receive, at least, ten hours per week or almost 40% of the overall curriculum time allocation.
60
INEQUALITY
It is important to bear in mind in any discussion on foreign language teaching at primary level, that serious inequalities already exist in the
provision of foreign language teaching at post-primary level, particularly in relation to the significant number of rural schools which can offer only a
limited language programme to their pupils. Glaring inequalities are already developing in relation to the provision of
foreign language teaching at primary level. Of the 1,834 schools which responded to the INTO survey, 436 schools (23.8%) offer foreign languages to their pupils. A total of 18,918 pupils, representing an average of 43
pupils per school, are in receipt of foreign language tuition. Bearing in mind that there were 543,191 pupils in primary schools in 1989/1990, it is
reasonable to conclude that only a small minority of pupils are learning
foreign languages in primary school system. Children attending smaller schools appear to be particularly discriminated
against. Table 1 of the INTO survey on the Provision of Foreign Language Teaching in National School indicates that opportunities to study a foreign
language are greater for pupils in larger national schools than in smaller
schools.
In the survey, 'The Cost of Free Education", the National Parents Council Primary refers to the whole question of inequality by asserting that "clearly
opportunities are available to those who can afford to pay". Foreign language teaching is now being provided on an extra-curricular basis
involving annual fees of up to 65.00 per pupil. The fact that existing foreign language provision at mary level is generally paid for by parents perpetuates the continuation of social class related inequalities. Failure to
address this situation runs the risk of reinforcing if not actually extending
those inequalities which are already giving cause for serious concern at
post-primary level.
A QUESTION OF AGE
The interim Curriculum and Examinations Board in its 1985 discussion paper, "Language in the Curriculum", confidently asserted "that clearly the
61
introduction to foreign languages at an early age is conducive to improved achievement at post-primary level, which has consequences both cultural and economic for the country" (p.34). More recently, the National Parents'
Council document, "Modern European Languages in the Primary School",
invokes similar sentiments and indicates that "the earlier a child is introduced to any language the easier that language acquisition becomes"
(p. 2). The INTO believes that the early introduction of foreign language teaching in primary schools is a much more complex issue than these
statements imply.
In an attempt to promote enlightened and informed
debate on the question of foreign language teaching, the INTO decided to
commission Mr. John Harris to undertake a comprehensive review of the

main issues related to the early introduction of foreign language teaching of
young children. In Part 1 of this report, Mr. Harris examines the issues involved in introducing foreign language teaching and looks at current practice in different countries. He also examines issues related to foreign languages in the context of the current provision of second language teaching in Ireland. While there is some empirical evidence to indicate, that sixth-grade primary school pupils in Ireland are positively disposed to
foreign language teaching, there appears to be little evidence to support the view, that younger children have any unique language learning capacity nor
are they necessarily better or faster second or foreign language learners

than older pupils. On the other hand prolonged exposure to language acquisition should benefit children both in t e r m s of a t t i t u d e s and competences provided that programmes are professionally planned and
taught and provided that appropriate curricular alignment is maintained between primary and post-primary schools. Most other European countries appear to be introducing pilot schemes in foreign language teaching. The question of introducing similar innovations in Ireland is an extremely complex issue which requires considerable reflection and debate. This report aims to contribute towards that debate.
REFERENCES
1. National Parents Council - Primary (1989). The Cost of Free Education: A Survey on the Cost to Parents of Free Primary Education in Ireland. National Parents Council - Primary National Parents Council - Primary, Modern European Languages in the primary School: Issues in Education No. 2. ( 1989). National Parents Council - Primary.
Williams K.. (1989). Reason and Rhetoric in Curriculum Policy: An Appraisal of the Case for the inclusion of Irish in the School Curriculum Studies Vol 78. No. 310.
2.
3.
62
4.
Mac Aogain E.. (199O), Teaching Irish in Schools: Towards a Language Policy for 1992,
Institiuid Teangeolaiocta Eireann.
63
IRISH NATIONAL TEACHERS' ORGANISATION
EDUCATION COMMITTEE
QUESTIONNAIRE - FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING

'APPENDIX A1 SECTION 1
Q. 1. Description of School
a.
1-5
Size
6-10 11-15 16-25 26
b.
Location
Urban Town
Rural Area Town /City
c.
Sex
Mixed
Boys
Girls
Jnr. Mixed
d.
Type of School
Full Stream (inf. - 6th)
Infants Junior
Middle Senior
64
Description Ordinary Special Lan Ghaeilge Multidenominational Disadvantaged
f.
Teaching Medium
Lan Ghaeilge Gaeltacht
Ordinary
SECTION 2
Q.2. Does you school provide foreign language teaching?

Yes No
Q.3. If yes, please indicate:During school hours Extra Curricular
Q.4. Please indicate the foreign languages which are taught

French German Spanish Italian Other
65
Q.5. Who teaches foreign languages in your school? Staff Member External Irish Teacher Foreign Teacher Q.6. Does the teacher hold a teaching qualification?
No
Q.7.
If yes, please specify.
SECTION 3
Q.8.
At what age are children introduced to foreign language teaching?
4-7 7-10 10+
Q.9. No. of children availing of foreign language provision in your school. Girls
Boys
Total Q.IO. On what basis are children selected for foreign language teaching?
Age Language Ability

Ability to Pay
Other
66
Q. 11. Amount of teaching time available per week Q.12 If extra curricular, please specify annual charge per pupil
Q.13. Please indicate arrangements for continuity in foreign language teaching .,..................................,,,. Q.14. Is there liaison with post primary schools regarding the teaching of foreign languages.
Yes No
Q.I 5. Please indicate staff attitude towards foreign language teaching

Favourable
Noncommital
Opposed
67

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FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS:

ISSUES AND RESEARCH

FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING IN PRIMARY

SECOND AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE IN PRIMARY EDUCATION: ISSUES AND RESEARCH

SURVEY ON THE PROVISION OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN IRELAND

Foreign Language Teaching in Primary Schools: Issues and Research

Irish context. Mr. Harris's paper forms Part I of this Report.

Foreign Language Teaching in Primary Schools: Issues and Research

SECOND AND FOREIGN LANGUAGES IN PRIMARY EDUCATION: ISSUES AND RESEARCH

The paper is in five sections:

Foreign Language Teaching in Primary Schools: Issues and Research

ARGUMENTS FOR THE

Foreign Language Teaching in Primary Schools: Issues and Research

second language (e.g. Burstall, Jamieson, Cohen & Hargreaves, 1974;

Foreign Language Teaching in Primary Schools: Issues and Research

Foreign Language Teaching in Primary Schools: Issues and Research

grounds because of the importance of French, but if one wishes

imperative." Stern, 1982, page 13.

conclusive evidence, however, comes from evaluations of the various

differing second language achievement produced by a range of programmes.

Foreign Language Teaching in Primary Schools: Issues and Research

language teaching at primary level, the evidence generally shows that, in

though that difference was not statistically significant.

Foreign Language Teaching in Primary Schools: Issues and Research

(1974) also point to the lack of co-ordination between primary and

long term negative effects on either general academic progress or on native

Foreign Language Teaching in Primary Schools: issues and Research

depends very much on the approach to teaching which is involved (Murphy,

Foreign Language Teaching in Primary Schools: Issues and Research

HISTORY OF THE EARLY TEACHING OF MODERN LANGUAGES

Foreign Language Teaching in Primary Schools: Issues and Research

Foreign Language Teaching in Primary Schools: Issues and Research

Foreign Language Teaching in Primary Schools: Issues and Research

cycle of initial enthusiasm and high expectations in the 1960's, followed by

Foreign Language Teaching in Primary Schools: Issues and Research

CURRENT PRACTICE IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES

Foreign Language Teaching in Primary Schools: Issues and Research

Foreign Language Teaching in Primary Schools: Issues and Research

Foreign Language Teaching In Primary Schools: Issues and Research

experiment to pilot the teaching of foreign languages in selected primary

Foreign Language Teaching in Primary Schools: Issues and Research

The project will be monitored by teams of evaluators in each of the 27

language provision in the school system by increasing the dominance of one

Norway: English is taught to all children from age 10.

Foreign Language Teaching in Primary Schools: Issues and Research

Foreign Language Teaching in Primary Schools: Issues and Research

FOREIGN LANGUAGES AT PRIMARY LEVEL: ISSUES IN THE IRISH CONTEXT

Organisation. 1976. 1985).

Foreign Language Teaching In Primary Schools: Issues and Research

programme of instruction in the target language, virtually all parents will be

Foreign Language Teaching in Primary Schools: Issues and Research

Foreign Language Teaching in Primary Schools: Issues and Research

Foreign Language Teaching in Primary Schools: Issues and Research

Foreign Language Teaching in Primary Schools: Issues and Research

discussion of the teaching of second and foreign languages:

Foreign Language Teaching in Primary Schools: Issues and Research

Foreign Language leeching in Primary Schools: Issues and Research

Finally, in this regard, mention should be made of the notion of content-

Foreign Language Teaching in Primary Schools: Issues and Research

Foreign Language Teaching in Primary Schools: Issues and Research

languages are often taken as second languages in addition to French. Only

Foreign Language Teaching in Primary Schools: Issues and Research

Foreign Language Teaching in Primary Schools: Issues and Research