Types of Drilling Rigs and Structures

Rigs are generally categorized as onshore (land) or offshore (marine). Onshore rigs are all similar, and many modern rigs are of the cantilevered mast, or "jackknife" derrick type. This type of rig allows the derrick to be assembled on the ground, and then raised to the vertical position using power from the drawworks, or hoisting system. These structures are made up of prefabricated sections that are moved onto the location by truck, barge, helicopter, etc., and then placed in position and pinned together by large steel pins. Some cantilevered land rigs have their mast permanently attached to a large truck to enhance their portability. Figure 1 shows a typical large land rig with a drilling mast.

Figure 1

(We will return to this figure throughout this section.) On location the mast is usually set upon a sub structure 8 ft to 40 ft (2.4 m to 12.2 m) high. The older standard derrick is the familiar four-legged structure that had to be completely disassembled every time the rig was moved (or else left in place over the well). These derricks are not often used on land today. Rigs are rated according to their drawwork's horse power, mud pump horsepower, and load-bearing capacity. The load-bearing capacity can be translated to a depth limitation depending on the size of the drillpipe. A few rigs are capable of drilling to depths of 30,000 ft (9144 m) and hoisting loads of

1,500,000 lb (680,440 kg). Some modern rigs employ an independent jacking system with hydraulic cylinders to support the heavy load generated by a casing string's weight, thereby increasing the capacity of the rig. Offshore drilling rigs fall into one of several categories, each designed to suit a certain type of offshore environment: Barge rigs Submersible rigs Jack-up or self-elevating rigs Semisubmersible rigs Drillships Structure rigs BARGE RIG: The barge rig is most often a flat-bottomed vessel with a shallow draft, equipped with a derrick and other necessary drilling equipment. It is usually towed to the location and then has its hull filled with water, which allows it to rest on the bottom, providing a solid support for drilling activities. Obviously, this type of rig is only used in relatively shallow, swampy areas such as the river deltas of West Africa, the inland waters of the Louisiana swamps, or the shallows of Lake Maricaibo, Venezuela. Barge rigs are generally capable of drilling in water depths of less than 12 ft (3.7 m), or, in the case of a posted barge, perhaps to 20 ft (6.1 m). A posted barge has a lower hull that rests on the bottom and an upper deck that is sup ported by posts from the lower hull. SUBMERSIBLE RIG: A submersible rig is a larger version of a posted barge, and is capable of working in water depths of 18 ft to 70 ft (5.5 m to 2.14 m). Often the hull of a submersible rig will have steel floats or "bottles" that can be filled with water (ball lasted) to help stabilize the vessel on bottom. JACK-UP RIG: This is a self-elevating drilling rig, illustrated in Figure 2 , designed to operate in depths from 30 ft to 350 ft (9 m to 107 m).

Figure 2

After being towed to the location (or in some cases being self-propelled), the legs are lowered by electric or hydraulic jacks until they rest on the seabed and the deck is level, supported perhaps 60 ft (18 m) above the waves. Most jack-up rigs have three to five legs, and are either vertical or slightly angled for stability. The legs may have steel feet, called "spud cans," or they may be attached to a large steel mat. When moving to a location the legs are raised high above the deck, creating a some what cumbersome vessel that must move at slow speeds and only in good weather. The derrick, or mast, on a jack-up may be located over a drilling slot indented in one side of the structure, or the drill floor may be cantilevered over the side of the deck, allowing the rig to service wells on stationary platforms, or caissons, offshore ( Figure 3 ).

Figure 3

SEMISUBMERSIBLE RIG: Unlike the other offshore vessels, the semisubmersible drilling rig does not rest on the seafloor. This rig is a floating deck sup ported by submerged pontoons and kept stationary by a series of anchors and mooring lines, and, in some cases, position-keeping propellers ( Figure 4 , pontoon type, and Figure 5 , twin hull type).

Figure 4

"Semis" can either move under their own power or must be towed to their location.

Figure 5

They have a water-depth-operating range of 20 ft to 2000 ft (6 m to 600 m), and differ from each other principally in their hull configuration and their number of stabilizing columns. Most types have a rectangular deck; others may be wedge shaped, pentagonal, or even triangular. The two most usual hull arrangements are a pair of parallel pontoons or an individual pontoon at the foot of each stabilizing column. The columns and pontoons are ball lasted to provide a low center of gravity, adding to the semi's stability. Although the semi can operate in deeper water than a jack-up, it is still limited by the capabilities of the mooring equipment and the "riser" (the conduit that connects the drill floor to the sub-sea equipment located at the borehole on the seafloor). DRILLSHIPS: Drillships are most often utilized for extremely deep water drilling at remote locations. A "floater" like the semisubmersible, a drillship must maintain its position at the drilling location by anchors and mooring lines, or by computercontrolled dynamic positioning equipment. A series of controllable pitch propellers, or "thrusters," shift position and speed to maintain the ship over the wellbore. The drilling slot, or "moon pool," is through the ship's midsection, as shown in Figure 6 and Figure 7 .

Figure 6

Most drillships have greater storage capacity than other types of rigs, allowing efficient operation at remote locations.

Figure 7

STRUCTURE RIGS: Structure rigs are mounted on a fixed drilling and production platform, with all necessary auxiliary equipment secured on the deck. The derrick and substructure are usually --capable of skidding to different positions on the platform structure; following the drilling and completion of multiple wells, the rig may be dismantled and removed during the production phase of the program. Subsequent remedial work on these platforms may require the rig to be replaced. In some cases, the configuration of wells on the platform allows a jack-up rig to service the location. Permanent drilling and production structures vary widely in design and capabilities. A few of the most common designs are piled-steel platforms concrete gravity structures caisson-type monopod structures guyed towers tension leg platforms An example of the most common piled-steel platform, with a drilling rig installed on its deck, is shown in Figure 8 .

Figure 8

Drilling from these structures is not significantly different than other drilling operations, so we will not discuss their details in this module.

Basic Rig Functions

The four basic drilling functions are hoisting rotating circulating controlling The principal components of a rig that perform these functions are shown in Figure 1 .

Figure 1

The derrick supports the crown block and traveling block, which are operated via the drawworks and its drilling line. The kelly and swivel are connected to the drillstring and are suspended from the hook beneath the traveling block, allowing the kelly and drillstring to be turned by the rotary table. (Note that many modern rigs employ top-drive units in place of a kelley). A drilling fluid circulation system pumps mud from the pits through stand-pipe, hose, swivel, and drillstem, returning the mud and cuttings up the annulus and back to the pits. The blowout preventer (BOP) stack and its operating equipment allow the drilling crew to maintain control over subsurface pressures.

HOISTING The mast and the substructure it sits upon support the weight of the drillstem and allow vertical movement of the suspended drillpipe. The substructure also supports the rig floor equipment and provides workspace for its operation. The drillstring must be removed from time to time; the length of drillpipe section that can be disconnected and stacked to one side of the derrick is determined by the height of the mast. A joint of drillpipe is about 30 ft (9.1 m) long, and a mast that will allow the pulling and stacking of pipe, in three-joint sections (90 ft or 27.4 m), is about 140 ft (42.7 m) high. The drawworks is a spool or drum upon which the heavy steel cable (drilling line) is wrapped. From the drawworks, the line is threaded through the crown block at the top of the mast and then through the traveling block, which hangs suspended from the crown block ( Figure 1 ).

Figure 1

By reeling in or letting out drill line from the drawworks drum, the traveling block and suspended drillstem can be raised or lowered. In order to safely manage the

movement of such a heavy load with precision, the driller relies on an electrical or hydraulic brake system to control the speed of the traveling block and a mechanical brake to bring it to a complete stop. The drawworks also features an auxiliary axle, or "catshaft," with rotating spools on each end called "catheads." One spinning cathead is used to provide power to tighten the drillpipe joints via a cable from the cathead to the rotary tongs. The other cathead is for "breaking out" or loosening the pipe joints when the pipe is being withdrawn in sections. The wire rope drilling line that is spooled onto the drawworks drum undergoes a certain degree of wear as the block is raised and lowered in the derrick. For this reason the line is routinely "slipped" (moved onto the drawworks drum) and replaced with a new section from the continuous spool on which it is stored. The line is clamped at the storage spool end by a deadline anchor. The hook is attached to the traveling block and is used to pick up the drillstem via the swivel and kelly when drilling, or with elevators when tripping into or out of the hole. ROTATING The swivel allows the drillstem to rotate while supporting the weight of drillstring in the hole and providing a pressure-tight connection for the circulation of drilling fluid ( Figure 1 ). The drilling fluid enters the swivel by way of the "gooseneck," a curved pipe connected to a high pressure hose. Connected to the swivel is the kelly, a three, four-, or six-sided 40 ft (12.2 m) length of hollow steel, which is used to transmit the rotary movement of the rotary table to the drillstring. (The term drillstem refers to the kelly and attached drillpipe, drill collars, and bit. The term drillstring refers to the drillpipe and drill collars. However, most folks in the oil patch disregard these rules and use whichever they please!) The kelly cock is a special valve on the end of the kelly nearest the swivel, which can be closed to shut in the drillstem. A lower kelly cock is also available on the bottom end of the kelly to perform the same function when the upper kellycock is not accessible. The flat sided-kelly fits through a corresponding opening in the kelly drive bushing, which in turn fits into the master bushing set into the rotary table. The rotary table is turned by the rig's power source, the table turns the bushings, the kelly bushing turns the kelly, the kelly turns the drillpipe, and so on . . . down to the bit. Note that in place of this conventional rotating system, many modern rigs have gone to the use of power swivels and topdrive units.

Circulating System Circulation of a drilling fluid to carry cuttings up the hole and cool the bit is an important function of any rotary drilling rig ( Figure 1 ).

Figure 1

The heart of the circulation system is the mud pump (or pumps), which is (are) powered by the rig's prime power source, as are the rotary table and drawworks. Mud pumps are positive displacement pumps that push a volume of drilling mud through the system with each stroke of their pistons. The output of a mud pump can be determined from the piston and cylinder sizes, the number of strokes per minute, and type of piston arrangement. The mud pumps pump the drilling fluid from the mud pit or tanks up the stand-pipe to a point on the derrick where the rotary hose connects the standpipe to the swivel. This flexible, high-pressure hose allows the traveling block to move up and down in the derrick while maintaining a pressure-tight system. The circulating drilling mud moves through the swivel, kelly, drillpipe, and drill collars, exiting through the bit at the bottom of the hole. The mud moves up the annular space between pipe and hole (or casing), carrying the drilled rock in suspension.

At the surface, the mud leaves the hole through the return line and falls over a vibrating screen called the shale shaker. This device screens out the cuttings and dumps some of them into a sample trap and the rest into the reserve pit. Once cleaned of large cuttings, the mud is returned to a mud tank, from which it can be once again pumped down the hole. Fine particles are removed by centrifugal force by flowing the mud through desanders, desilters, or a centrifuge. A degasser is used to remove small amounts of gas picked up in the mud from the subsurface formations.

Controlling Controlling the subsurface pressures encountered while drilling is an important part of the operation. One of the purposes of the drilling mud is to provide a hydrostatic head of fluid to counterbalance the pore pressure of fluids in permeable formations. However, for a variety of reasons the well may "kick"; that is, formation fluids may flow into the wellbore, upsetting the balance of the system, pushing mud out of the hole, and exposing the upper part of the hole and equipment to the higher pressures of the deep subsurface. If left uncontrolled, this can lead to a "blowout," with the formation fluids forcefully erupting from the well, often igniting, and endangering the crew, the rig, and the environment. The blowout preventers are a series of powerful sealing elements designed to close off the annular space between the pipe and hole where the mud is normally returning to the surface. By closing off this route, the well can be "shut-in" and the mud and/or formation fluids forced to flow through a controllable choke, or adjustable valve. This choke allows the drilling crew to control the pressure that reaches the surface and to follow the necessary steps for "killing" the well and restoring a balanced system. Figure 1 shows a typical set of blowout preventers, including the annular preventer, which has a rubber sealing element that is hydraulically squeezed to conform tightly to the drillpipe in the hole.

Figure 1

Also shown are ram type preventers. These include pipe rams, which close around the pipe with rubber-lined steel sealing elements, and blind rams, which seal off the wellbore when there is no pipe in the hole. Shear rams are a type of blind ram that can crimp the pipe in two with a powerful hydraulic force to seal off the hole. Blowout preventers are opened and closed by hydraulic fluid stored under 1500 to 3000 psi (10,000 to 20,000 kPa) in an accumulator. The choke manifold houses the series of positive and/or adjustable chokes that are usually controlled from a remote panel on the rig floor. Often, a rig that is encountering frequent gas kicks will also have a mud-gas separator, which saves the drilling mud that is expelled along with a large flow of formation gas, and separates the gas for safe flaring at some distance from the rig.

Power Generation/Transmission System Hoisting, rotating, and circulating equipment is supplied with power from a prime power source, usually diesel engines. Engine capacity may range from 500 to 6000 Hp, and power may be transmitted to the rig either mechanically or electrically. Mechanical drive rigs have a combination of belts, sprockets, clutches, and pulleys, which transfer power from the diesel engines to the drawworks, pumps, and rotary table. The more modern diesel-electric rigs use their engines to drive generators that produce electricity. This electricity is sent through cables to a switch and control house from which point it is relayed to power the electric motors of each end user ( Figure 1 ).

Figure 1