Walden University

College of Social and Behavioral Sciences

This is to certify that the doctoral dissertation by Carolynn Cobb has been found to be complete and satisfactory in all respects, and that any and all revisions required by the review committee have been made. Review Committee Dr. Elisabeth Weinbaum, Committee Chairperson, Psychology Faculty Dr. Charlton Coles, Committee Member, Psychology Faculty Dr. Lisa Scharff, University Reviewer, Psychology Faculty

Chief Academic Officer Eric Riedel, Ph.D.

Walden University 2013

Abstract The Use of an Animated Pedagogical Agent as a Mnemonic Device to Promote Learning and Motivation in Online Education by Carolynn Cobb

M.S., Walden University, 2008 B.S., The University of Texas, 1984

Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Clinical Psychology

Walden University November 2013

Abstract This study was an investigation of the effectiveness of an animated pedagogical agent (APA) as a mnemonic device to promote learning and motivation. APAs are animated interface characters that serve as facilitator, guide, expert, coach, and peer in multimedia learning. Cognitive theory of multimedia learning (CTML) suggests that poorly designed materials may impose cognitive barriers to learning and inhibit student motivation. No previous research has employed a mnemonic device APA (MAPA) to determine if learning is enhanced with its use. A convenience sampling of adult learners (N = 63) from an online university participant pool and social networking sites participated in this true experimental quantitative study, and were randomly assigned to MAPA and control groups that both took an online course about mental fitness. Research questions examined the effect of a MAPA on learning and motivation. The dependent variables were measured by 9 confidence questions from the Instructional Materials Motivation Survey and a learning measure based on the course contents. Rank transformation with ANOVA and the Mann-Whitney U indicated that MAPA students scored significantly higher on the learning measure than did the control group. T-test comparison of motivation scores revealed no difference in motivation between the groups. Better understanding of MAPAs among instructional designers could increase student learning, satisfaction, and ultimately the retention of online students. In turn, student retention could have positive impacts, such as increased self-efficacy and higher pay for the individual. Student retention could also have community benefits, such as economic growth and decreased need for social services.

The Use of an Animated Pedagogical Agent as a Mnemonic Device to Promote Learning and Motivation in Online Education by Carolynn Cobb

M.S., Walden University, 2008 B.S., The University of Texas, 1984

Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Clinical Psychology

Walden University November 2013

UMI Number: 3603200

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Acknowledgments I would first like to thank all of those who participated in this study, without you this study would not exist. Secondly, thanks go to Shane Frensley for his technical expertise and support. Additionally, thank you to Dr. Julie Boesen, Dr. Scott Hilborn, and Dr. Susan Frensley for content review of my lesson and learning measure. Special thanks also go to Dr. Coles, Dr. Scharff, and Dr. Weinbaum for your guidance, insight, feedback and support in the completion of this study. It has been a long yet interesting process and I have grown in many ways throughout the endeavor. Finally, this study would not have been possible without the support and encouragement of my partner, Susan. Thank you for putting up with me during this process and for the past 28 years.

Table of Contents List of Tables .......................................................................................................................v List of Figures .................................................................................................................... vi Chapter 1: Introduction ........................................................................................................1 Background of the Study ...............................................................................................1 Problem Statement .......................................................................................................10 Purpose of the Study ....................................................................................................11 Nature of the Study ......................................................................................................12 Research Questions and Hypotheses ...........................................................................12 Theoretical Base...........................................................................................................14 Definitions of Terms ....................................................................................................15 Assumptions.................................................................................................................18 Limitations ...................................................................................................................19 Delimitations ................................................................................................................20 Significance of the Study .............................................................................................21 Summary ......................................................................................................................22 Chapter 2: Literature Review .............................................................................................23 Introduction ..................................................................................................................23 The State of Online Learning .......................................................................................24 Theories of Learning and Memory ..............................................................................26 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 26 Dual Coding Theory ............................................................................................. 26 i

Cognitive Load Theory ......................................................................................... 27 Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning ........................................................... 34 Mnemonic Devices ............................................................................................... 45 Motivational Instruction Design ..................................................................................51 The ARCS Model ................................................................................................. 51 Measuring the ARCS Model ................................................................................. 53 Animated Pedagogical Agents .....................................................................................53 Social Agency Theory........................................................................................... 55 Physical Attributes of the Animated Pedagogical Agent ...................................... 57 Agent Role ............................................................................................................ 59 Effect on Motivation ............................................................................................. 59 Effect on Learning ................................................................................................ 63 Summary ......................................................................................................................66 Chapter 3: Method .............................................................................................................69 Introduction ..................................................................................................................69 Research Questions ......................................................................................................69 Research Design and Approach ...................................................................................69 Setting, Sample and Size..............................................................................................70 Lesson Design ..............................................................................................................71 Animation Software .............................................................................................. 73 Course Design Software ....................................................................................... 73 Background Music ................................................................................................ 73 ii

Moodle .................................................................................................................. 74 Instrumentation and Materials .....................................................................................74 Learning Pretest and Posttest ................................................................................ 74 Instructional Materials Motivation Survey (IMMS) ............................................. 75 Data Collection and Analysis.......................................................................................76 Data Collection Process ........................................................................................ 76 Data Analysis ........................................................................................................ 77 Hypothesis 1: Motivation .............................................................................................77 Hypothesis 2: Learning ................................................................................................77 Protection of Participants .............................................................................................78 Chapter 4: Results ..............................................................................................................80 Description of Participants and Data Collection ..........................................................80 Findings........................................................................................................................82 Hypothesis I: Motivation ...................................................................................... 82 Hypothesis II: Learning ........................................................................................ 83 Non-Parametric ..................................................................................................... 86 Summary ......................................................................................................................86 Chapter 5: Discussion ........................................................................................................87 Research Questions and Hypothesis ............................................................................87 Interpretation of Results ...............................................................................................88 Limitations ...................................................................................................................89 Study Dropouts ..................................................................................................... 89 iii

Learning Measure ................................................................................................. 91 APA versus MAPA ............................................................................................... 91 One School ............................................................................................................ 92 Limited Material ................................................................................................... 92 Other Narrow Demographics ................................................................................ 93 Importance of the Study ...............................................................................................93 Social Implications................................................................................................ 94 Recommendations ........................................................................................................95 Summary ......................................................................................................................97 References ..........................................................................................................................99 Appendix A: Motivation Measure ...................................................................................136 Appendix B:Learning Quiz (Cobb, 2012) .......................................................................137 Appendix C: Mental Fitness Lesson ................................................................................140 Appendix D: Example Images .........................................................................................152 Appendix E: Demographic Fields ....................................................................................153 Appendix F: Counseling Resources .................................................................................154 Curriculum Vitae .............................................................................................................155

iv

List of Tables Table 1. Participant Demographics. .................................................................................. 81 Table 2. Completer Demographics by Group. .................................................................. 82 Table 3. Posttest Rank Scores. .......................................................................................... 86 Table 4. Levenes Test for Rank of Posttest Scores. ........................................................ 86 Table F1. Demographic Fields. ....................................................................................... 153

List of Figures Figure 1. The learning management interface .................................................................. 75 Figure 2. Distribution of learning test scores .................................................................... 85 Figure E1. Example of MAPA image ............................................................................. 152 Figure E2. Example of control image ............................................................................. 152

vi

1 Chapter 1: Introduction Background of the Study Higher education can be rewarding to the individual and society in many ways; it yields socioeconomic, psychological, and intellectual gains (Baum & Payea, 2005; Institute of Higher Education Policy, 2005). By improving the average education level of a population, there is an additional 515% boost in economic growth for each year of increased educational attainment (McClenney, 2011). Education also affects potential earnings, decreases reliance on public assistance, is correlated with higher perception of health, and it increases the likelihood of volunteerism (Baum & Payea, 2005). According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (2011), education may be the key to higher earnings and continued employment. A comparison of unemployment rate by level of education indicated that in 2011: a) high school dropouts had the highest unemployment rate at 14.1%, b) individuals with an Associates degree had an unemployment rate of 6.8%, c) while those with a Bachelors or Masters degree had unemployment rates of 4.9% and 3.6%, respectively. Earnings were highest for individuals with professional and doctoral degrees (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2012). Online education offers the opportunity of higher education for many people who might not be able to attend a traditional school due to schedule requirements, professional or personal commitments, educational history, and physical constraints (McCain, 2009). Between 2002 and 2006, online enrollment in higher education grew at a substantially higher rate than traditional enrollment. In the fall of 2007, approximately 3.9 million students took at least one online course (Allen & Seaman, 2008).

2 However, student retention is an area of concern for most institutions of higher education: retention rates for online courses have been estimated at 10% to 20% lower than face to face courses (Carr, 2000). Others have found smaller (3% difference), yet significant gaps between persistence in online courses when compared to face-to-face courses (Xu & Jaggars, 2013). One study from Fall 2002 to Fall 2004 found online MBA students had a dropout rate that was six times the dropout rate of the campus based MBA program and seven times higher in another graduate level program compared to the campus version (Patterson & McFadden, 2009). According to the National Governors Association (NGA), by 2020 the nation is expected to need 14 million more college-educated workers than will be available (NGA, 2003). President Obamas 2009 stimulus package included $2.5 billion to help states reduce attrition and increase college completion (Field, 2009). Understanding why students drop out of college is a concern of the nation and institutions of higher learning (Poellhuber, Chomienne, & Karsenti, 2008). The decision to drop out may be influenced by several reasons. Rovai (2003) proposed a theoretical model, called composite persistence, which merged Tintos (1987) student integration model and Bean and Metzners (1985) student attrition model. Composite persistence is composed of four elements: (a) student characteristics and (b) student skills prior to admission as well as (c) external factors and (d) internal factors that affect students after admission. In a recent study of barriers to online learning, lack of motivation and poor instructional design were reported by 36% of the participants as factors influencing dropout (OConnor, Sceiford, Wang, Foucar-Szocki, & Griffin, 2003). Students individual factors, such as self-efficacy and time management skills, as

3 well as environmental factors, such as family and technical support, play a dual role in the decision to drop out by influencing and being influence by each other (Street, 2010). Additionally, student perceptions of the learning experience are thought to influence persistence in online courses; these perceptions also contribute to course satisfaction (Kenny, 2003), motivation to learn (Maltby & Whittle, 2000), and dropout rate (Carr, 2000). One large-scale study found several factors that influenced students ability to persist in online programs, such as less social interaction in courses, insufficient time for studies due to work and family commitments, administrative issues, and motivation (Muilenburg & Berge, 2005). External factors associated with dropping out included job change, family commitments, heavy workload, and lack of support from family and employers (Willging & Johnson, 2004). Internal factors that influence the decision to dropout, such as student motivation, satisfaction, perceived relevance of the material, may be influenced by course design that focuses on making courses interesting, engaging, and relevant to the lives and goals of learners (Park & Choi, 2009). Some efforts to reduce attrition have focused on better understanding the differences between those students who prefer online courses and those who prefer traditional classroom settings. Pontes, Hasit, Pontes, Lewis, and Siefring (2010) analyzed the National Postsecondary Student Aid Survey (NPSAS) from 2003-2004, in which 80,000 students participated. Pontes et al. (2010) suggested that students who preferred online courses were older, employed, independent from their parents, and did not attend college directly after high school, among other factors. But those who preferred distance education were also at higher risk to drop out due to the same factors (Horn, Premo, &

4 Malizio, 1995; Pontes et al., 2010.) Further, there may be a generational difference between traditional learners and those enrolling in higher education today (Schroeder, 1993; Taylor, 2011). Schroeder (1993) posited that there may be a disparity between the learning characteristics of new students and faculty. Students entering college showed a preference for concrete learning experiences, more structure, and practicality as evidenced by the extroversion/sensing (ES) pattern (concrete active) on the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (Myers, McCaulley, Quenk, & Hammer, 1998). Most faculty members, on the other hand, preferred the introversion/intuition (IN) pattern (abstract reflective). Individuals with the IN pattern are interested in ideas, theory and depth of understanding and are typically introspective and scholarly. Taylor (2011) suggested that increasing relevance of material might improve learning for current students. According to Taylor, content developers should leverage technology, implement multimedia presentations, use online resources and create programs that emphasize preclass preparation and increased participation to engage the technology-savvy learners currently enrolled in courses. Other differences have been noted between individuals born before and after 1980. In 2001, Prensky (2001a, 2001b) suggested that individuals who have been raised with digital tools are different from those who learned to use technological devices later in life. According to Prensky (2001a), those born with technology, he termed digital natives, are accustomed to fast-paced interaction, need instant gratification, constantly multi-task, and prefer graphics over text. Older individuals, termed digital immigrants,learned to use information and communication technology (ICT) such as computers, cell phones, and other technological equipment later in life. Digital

5 immigrants adapted to the new environment (technology), yet maintained their older technology accent as they transitioned to the new technology. Digital immigrants, for instance, might print out digital documents in order to read them. Tapscott (1998) suggested the new generation, which he termed net generation, born between January 1977 and December 1997, prefer experiential learning. According to Tapscott (1998), old techniques of instruction-based coursework are no longer suited to the new audience, because they fail to motivate, or meet the emotional, intellectual, and social needs of the learners. Papert (1998) posited that learning is different due to the Internet because information is gained by exploration in which the learner finds one solution that may lead to another question, and continue to create problems and solutions, one after the other, until a much more complex solution than ever possible before is discovered. Instead of following step-by-step, linear lines of deductive reasoning, the newer generation uses bricolage (tinkering or trial and error; Turkle, 1995). Information is randomly accessed via hyperlinks and search engines. Due to the methods with which they communicate daily, todays generation is considered to be more collaborative, building on knowledge through the exchange of information, as is the case with Wikipedia, for instance (Kolikant, 2010). According to Lenhart and Madden (2007), 91% of teens use social networking sites, mostly to keep in touch with friends they see on a regular basis. However, as Lusk (2010) suggested, this technology could be used in education in several ways, such as promoting creativity, or to learn problem-solving and negotiation skills.

6 Prensky (2001a; 2001b) called for dramatic changes to curriculum design and facilitation, suggesting that digital natives were bored with traditional courses and the digital immigrant faculty members could not speak the digital native language. Prensky (2001b) further suggested integrating the skills of the digital native in higher education through the use of digital games, which would be designed much like video games and animated simulation. Cabanero-Johnson and Berge (2009) posited the use of virtual simulations to create learning environments in low-risk virtual worlds. Learners entering college may not show a distinctive pattern of advanced technology use compared to older students (Bennett, Maton, & Kervin, 2008; Guo, Dobson, & Petrina, 2008; Helsper & Eynon, 2010; Jones, Ramanau, Cross, & Healing, 2010; Kennedy, Judd, Churchward, Gray, & Krause 2008; Margaryan, Littlejohn, & Vojt, 2011). Even though technology, such as e-mail and texting, was widely used in the home and socially, more advanced technologies were more limited, for example, downloading podcasts, blogging, creating Web pages, RSS news feeds, VoIP, and wikis used for learning (Kennedy et al., 2008). Students seem to use technology in response to curriculum requirements, past experiences, and the attitude of the faculty toward technology, rather than personal learning preferences (Brown & Czerniewicz, 2008; Margaryan et al., 2011). One study, which tasked students with creation of group digital narratives (multimedia stories) about the transition of young people to university, suggested that digital natives are not all as technologically savvy as first suspected (Lovell & Baker, 2009). Indeed several participants voiced anxiety due to anticipation and use of the technology such as video editing required by the assignment. It seems that,

7 as with other generations, the net generation/digital natives have adopted the use of technology in education to some degree, but have not yet fully taken advantage of emerging technologies in the classroom. Margaryan et al. (2011) suggested that students may not have an understanding of how technology might enhance learning and posited that faculty must research new ways to meet the needs of students. Lei (2009) proposed that new teachers have skills with basic technologies from growing up in the digital age; yet, the skills required for classroom technologies and advanced uses of communications tools are lacking. Further, young teachers need help bridging the gap between technology and teaching (Lei, 2009). Some offered that employers and social institutions might collaborate with education to create new opportunities for learning with technological advancement (McCarthy & Vickers, 2008). Taylor (2011) suggested that, it is the responsibility of faculty and curriculum designers to integrate technology into coursework in order to engage, motivate, and meet the needs of todays learners. There are several technologies that might be used in course material, for instance, podcasts, multimedia presentations, blogs, video conference tools, existing Web sites, and computerized simulations (Taylor, 2011.) Lai, Tsai, and Yu (2011) used a system of dual-slide PowerPoint presentations with images or visual aids on one screen and annotations about the image on the second screen. Thinyane (2010) called for use of the mobile phone in education as 98.1% of the students in a South African study had access and skills for advanced usage. The particular technology used does not seem to be as important as the way it is used. Pensky (2001a), for instance, proposed that digital natives respond best to fast-paced, entertainment-like media that allows random access to

8 material rather than linear, step- by-step instruction. Others have posited that the key to high-quality online courses is instructional design tailored to the learning needs of the students (McCracken, 2008-2009; Rovai, 2003). Keller (2008) proposed that instructional design contributes to learner motivation and satisfaction with a course through increased participation, interest, and engagement. One pedagogical tool that might help bridge the gap between the needs of digital natives and digital immigrants, and traditional course material, is the use of an animated pedagogical agent (APA), that is, lifelike animated characters in online or computerbased programming (Keller, 2008). APA advocates have posited that these lifelike characters facilitate learning in a multimedia environment through increased humanlike interaction, subsequently rendering a more engaging and motivating experience (Moreno & Flowerday, 2006). Further, APAs are thought to support problem solving, comprehension, and knowledge transfer (Dehn & van Mulken, 2000). Clarebout, Elen, and Johnson (2002) suggested that APAs were particularly useful in open learning environments in which the learner has a high degree of control. Researchers have posited that APAs support learning by providing coaching, companionship, and feedback that ultimately aids engagement in the learning experience (Clarebout et al., 2002). APAs may also serve as social models, influencing attitudes and beliefs, for instance, regarding appropriate career choices for young women (Rosenberg-Kima, Baylor, Plant, & Doerr, 2008). Social agency theory (Moreno, Mayer, Spires, & Lester, 2001), hypothesizes that the presence of an APA induces societal rules in which more capable individuals play a

9 role in the development of an individual or child (Vygotsky, 1978) who has less knowledge in the subject area. Due to social agency theory and the persona effect, Moreno (2005b) posited that the presence of an APA may promote learning. However, open learning environments in which the learner has control and freedom to explore the microworld of the learning environment, pose potential problems in that the student may become overwhelmed by the choices and technology offered (Moreno et al. 2001). In such cases, the APA can be designed to offer guidance and encouragement when the student becomes frustrated (Baylor & Rosenberg-Kima, 2006). Not all research supports the social agency theory however; Choi and Clark (2006) compared an APA to an electronic arrow with voice narration and found no significant difference between the APA and the arrow. Further, the look of the APA and the voice used for narration may contribute to learning transfer, but only when the agent is perceived to be attractive (Domagk, 2010). Technology has progressed to a point where development of APAs that are highly human-like, sophisticated and three-dimensional is more affordable and available. Software programs, such as Poser (Smith Micro, 2011) and iClone (Reallusion, 2011), offer the opportunity to add APAs with relative ease to instructional designers and faculty who seek to explore new ways to meet the needs of todays digital natives and digital immigrants via multimedia learning. How will such new technologies be used? A review of the literature suggests that APAs seem to be used mostly as facilitators, substitute teachers, coaches, peers, and talking entities that might make gestures (Baylor & Kim,

10 2009). However, APAs have not undergone scholarly examination, in a fully animated capacity, making use of the imagery available with 3-D animation software. The effect of imagery on learning has a long history. Imagery techniques have been used since 500 B.C. when the Greeks began using a mnemonic technique called the method of loci (Baddeley, Eysenck, & Anderson, 2010). In the method of loci, an individual thinks of a familiar building and mentally walks through the building moving from room to room. In each room, one imagines the item to be remembered using vivid imagery. At recall, the individual mentally walks through the rooms of the building mentally seeing the items to be recalled. In one study, individuals were able to recall more than 95% of a list with over 40 items after one study session (Ross & Lawrence, 1968). Other mnemonic methods, such as the pegword and keyword systems also rely on visual imagery to create vivid encoding of information for easy retrieval (Dehn, 2008). Hwang and Levin (2002) found that students did not have to create the mnemonic images as they were able to learn from images created by instructors in a test of a complex mnemonic system designed to teach middle-school students the history of inventions. Recent research indicated that mnemonic devices may be useful with additional populations, such as those with Alzheimers disease and other mental disabilities (Scruggs, Mastropieri, Berkeley, & Marshak, 2010). Problem Statement The use of APAs has become increasingly popular in online material serving as facilitator, expert, motivator, tutor, change agent, and peer (Craig, Graesser, Sullins, & Gholson, 2004; Johnson, Rickel, & Lester, 2000; Kim & Baylor, 2008; Kim, Baylor &

11 PALS Group, 2006; Lusk & Atkinson, 2007; Moreno & Flowerday, 2006). However, research on the effect of an APA on motivation and learning is inconsistent. Nor is there any known research to date using an APA as a mnemonic device to help learners integrate newly learned information into long-term memory to promote learning. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this quantitative, true experimental study was to extend research in the cognitive theory of multimedia learning (CTML; Mayer, 2009) and the ARCS model (Keller, 1987, 2010) that relates the design of multimedia courses, to motivation and learning. The study incorporated two conditions, APA as a mnemonic device (experimental condition, MAPA) and no APA (control), for adults who are interested in or have previously participated in online training. The independent variable was the APA condition. The dependent variables were (a) learning, as defined by the transfer of knowledge indicated by comparing pre- and posttesting of the course content; and (b) motivation, as defined by confidence (self-efficacy) from Kellers ARCS model: attention, relevance, confidence, and satisfaction. The goal of the study was to better understand the use of APAs in order to improve learner motivation and at the same time promote learning. If APAs can increase motivation and learning, it is possible that they can contribute to improved student retention in universities and colleges that offer online courses. This study contributes to positive social change by providing research-based findings regarding the use of APAs as a mnemonic device and an APA's effect on learning and motivation. Increased motivation and increased learning have been shown to promote student satisfaction and reduce the

12 likelihood that students will drop out of online courses (Park & Choi, 2009). Increased retention could contribute to the financial, psychological, and emotional well-being of students. Increased education has been shown as well to promote volunteerism, decrease reliance on public assistance, increase voting rates (Baum & Payea, 2005), and positively impact the economic growth of the nation (McClenney, 2011). Nature of the Study This study sought to explore the use of an APA in fully animated scenes as a mnemonic device to promote learning and motivation. Building on knowledge of mnemonic devices, such as methods of loci, keyword, and pegword, the experiment incorporated bizarre imagery and memorable animated scenes using the APA as actor and navigator. The quantitative method of study was the appropriate research design choice for this study to measure motivation and learning as affected by the mnemonic APA. Two groups of participants (MAPA and control) viewed a 14-minute online lesson on the topic of mental fitness (see Appendix C). Learning was measured by pretest/posttest (see Appendix B), while motivation was measured post-lesson, using self-efficacy questions adapted from the instructional materials motivation survey (IMMS, Keller, 2010, see Appendix A). Chapter 3 describes the study methodology including research design, target population, setting, sample, and population that was used. Research Questions and Hypotheses Research Question 1 Does the use of an APA as a mnemonic device in an online mental fitness training program enhance learner motivation in comparison to a control group?

13 Research Question 2 Does the use of an APA as a mnemonic device in an online mental fitness training program improve learning in comparison to a control group? Hypothesis 1 H0: The MAPA and control groups will have no significant difference in motivation as measured by confidence (self-efficacy) questions from the instructional materials motivational survey ([IMMS], Keller, 2010). H1: Learner motivation as measured by confidence (self-efficacy) questions from the IMMS (Keller, 2010) will be significantly higher when an APA is present using mnemonic imagery in comparison to a control group with no APA. Hypothesis 2 H0: The MAPA and control groups will have no significant difference in learning as measured by pre and post knowledge assessment of the course material. H2: The MAPA group will show a greater change in test scores from pre to post knowledge assessment than the control group.

14

Theoretical Base This study is grounded on three primary theories: cognitive load theory (CLT), CTML, and the ARCS model of instructional design. The cognitive load theory (Sweller, 1988) suggests that humans have a limited capacity of working memory and an unlimited storage capacity of long-term memory. Learning occurs when information is absorbed and manipulated in working memory and integrated into previous knowledge within long- term memory. The goal of cognitive load theory is to optimize the mental load placed on the learner by the learning material and the instructional design during the learning process. The CTML (Mayer, 2009) is specifically focused on multimedia (words and pictures) instruction to promote learning. It is based on three principles: (a) humans have a dual channel system for learning, visual for pictorial processing and auditory for verbal processing, (b) each channel has a limited capacity for processing information at any given time, and (c) learning involves active processing. Cognitive theory of multimedia learning suggests that instructional design should be compatible with the way humans learn and how humans process information (Mayer, 2005). According to Mayer (2005) there are three memory stores represented in the cognitive model of multimedia learning: (a) sensory memory (visual and auditory), (b) working memory, and (c) long-term memory. As with cognitive load theory, the majority of processing occurs in working memory as information is held and manipulated just prior to integrating the information into long-term memory. Active engagement in the learning process occurs during five

15 processes according to CTML: (a) selecting relevant words, (b) selecting relevant images, (c) organizing words, (d) organizing images and (e) integrating representations of the words and images with prior knowledge (Mayer, 2009). The ARCS model is the third theoretical basis for this study (Keller, 1987). ARCS is an acronym for four factors that influence the motivation to learn: attention, relevance, confidence, and satisfaction. The expanded version of the ARCS-V includes volition for self-regulatory behavior (Keller, 2010). According to Deimann and Keller (2006) volition is the element that contributes to persistence, ones ability to maintain attention and continue work even when distractions interrupt or motivation lags. Keller (2010) created the instructional materials motivational survey (IMMS) to measure learners motivational attitudes and reactions to the learning materials. The IMMS was designed to be situation specific, that is, applicable to any course (face-to-face, computer based, online, etc.). The questions measure how motivated students are with the current course. Further, it is recommended by Keller (2010) that the questions should be adapted to fit the situation (wording and tense changes) without altering the substance of the items. It is also possible to use only questions from one subscale independently. Definitions of Terms Active processing: to put forth effort and attention toward selecting, organizing, and integrating information into previous knowledge (Mayer, 2009; Wittrock, 1989). Animated pedagogical agent: a lifelike computer based character used to facilitate learning and motivation in multimedia environments (Johnson et al., 2000).

16 Chunking: a method of expanding memory capacity by grouping information into meaningful and familiar consolidated sections (chunks), for instance remembering 1492 as the year in which Columbus sailed the ocean rather than each individual number 1,4,9, 2 (Baddley, 1999). Cognitive load: the cognitive demands required by the material to be learned (Moreno & Park, 2010). Dual channels: the concept that humans possess two separate modes of processing information, one channel for auditory information and a second channel for visual information (Mayer, 2009). Dual coding theory: Paivios (1986) theory that humans have two channels for processing information, visual and verbal. Text is thought to be processed by the verbal system, while pictures are thought to be processed by the image and verbal systems, thus pictures are processed twice and may be remembered better due to the dual coding. Essential processing: the cognitive processing required by the intrinsic complexity of the material to hold and manipulate the information in working memory (Mayer, 2009). Expertise-reversal effect: instruction designed for low knowledge learners, may lose effectiveness as learners gain knowledge of the subject matter (Kalyuga, 2005). Extraneous cognitive load / processing: cognitive demand that interferes with the primary goal of the learning task. Extraneous cognitive load is thought to be caused by poorly developed instructional materials (van Merrinboer & Ayres, 2005).

17 Generative processing: the amount of cognitive activity used to make sense of the key elements of the learning material (Mayer, 2009). Cognitive load theory terms generative processing germane cognitive load. According to Mayer (2009), generative processing is attributed to learner motivation. Germane cognitive load: cognitive effort required during learning for schema acquisition and automating previously acquired schemas (Paas, Renkl, & Sweller, 2004). Intrinsic cognitive load: the amount of cognitive effort required by the number of elements that must be held in working memory in order to process the information (Moreno & Park, 2010). Additionally, the previous experience and knowledge of the learner affects the required intrinsic load (Sweller, 1993). Keyword mnemonic: a memory device that combines visual imagery with verbal acoustically linked information (Dehn, 2008). Method of loci: a visual mnemonic device in which the items to be remembered are mentally placed in a familiar building. In order to remember the items, the individual mentally walks through the building and visualizes the items (Dehn, 2008). Mnemonics: a subtype of memory strategies that aid the encoding and retrieval of information by creating links to familiar information, and supplying structure when previous schemas do not exist in order to facilitate retrieval (Dehn, 2008; Levin, 1993). Pegword mnemonic: a visual imagery mnemonic in which the item to be remembered is associated with an image previously established to represent the numbers from one to ten (one-bun, two-shoe, three-tree etc.). The pegword method is particularly useful when items must be remembered in order (Dehn, 2008).

18 Redundancy: presenting text and narration concurrently with corresponding animation causes the redundancy effect. According to Mayer (2009) people learn better from animation and narration (without corresponding text), when the text is identical to the narration it seems to distract from processing. Scaffolding: modeling a learning strategy or problem-solving skill, then gradually transition the activity to the learner (Clark, 2005). Schemas: a mental model that organizes information for storage in long-term memory (Sweller, 2005). Seductive detail: extraneous visuals or information within a lesson that is interesting but not key to the learning objective of the material (Clark, 2005). Signaling: highlighting, animating, bolding or otherwise drawing attention to essential information within a lesson (Mayer, 2009). Split-attention: when two integral pieces of information are presented in separate locations (by time or space) the learner must hold them in working memory longer in order to integrate the two. According to Ayres and Sweller (2005) cognitive load is increased by the separation of information causing split-attention. Assumptions This study assumes that participants exerted at least minimal effort toward the online lesson and answered questions from the IMMS and knowledge measure tests honestly. Additionally, the study assumes participants had the equipment capable of running the lesson administered during the study via the internet. It was assumed that

19 most adults who participated in the study had some degree of interest in the topic of mental fitness. It is assumed that the design, look, age, gender, race, voice, and realism of the APA were important considerations adding to the ability of the APA to motivate and facilitate learning. Therefore, the APA was designed to appear to be African American, female, thought to be attractive by the researcher, and rendered as a realistic human character in order to offer the best possible probability that the APA would have an effect on learning and motivation. It was assumed that courses designed based on the CLT and CTML principles could reduce cognitive overload and increase engagement, and cognitive processing. Further was assumed that a reduction of cognitive overload and increased cognitive processing would result in better learning in both conditions of the experiment. It was assumed that efforts taken in the design process to adhere to CLT and CTML principles were valid. Limitations This study presented an abbreviated lesson as compared to a full course offered over a quarter or semester term. Findings are therefore limited to results from one lesson. Participants were limited to adults who had access to the Internet. Individuals who were connected via the Internet with computer systems able to run animation programs may be more computer literate than those individuals who do not have such access. This limitation precluded individuals who might be less technical and thus, might benefit most from the aid of an APA to motivate students and aid the learning process.

20 The majority of participants came from the Walden University Participant Pool; therefore, the data may not be generalizable to individuals in traditional institutions who are taking one or two online courses, or to corporate learners, who may have different objectives and motivation for learning than students who are pursuing a degree. While APAs have been studied in various roles and instantiations, this was the first known attempt to study the use of an APA as a mnemonic device; therefore there was no comparative data available under this particular condition. Additional studies will have to be run in order to draw conclusions. There was no attempt to measure cognitive load in this study. Using an APA in fully animated scenes designed to promote memorable encoding of information could create extraneous processing, which is thought to decrease the students ability to learn. However, the study only measured learning and motivation; whether the MAPA created extraneous cognitive load or not was inconclusive. Delimitations This study focused on adults who had access to the Internet and had an interested in or had previously taken online courses. Participants were drawn from the Walden University Participant Pool, as well as from a website available to the public, and from social networking such as LinkedIn. Since the primary target population was students of online institutions, using the Walden University Participant Pool was appropriate. A few individuals from other online universities also participated due to recruitment methods mentioned above.

21 This study did not attempt to explore the physical attributes of the APA, such as gender, ethnicity, role, or attractiveness, because those elements had been studied in previous research. The appearance and functionality of the APA was designed to best influence motivation, according to previous findings, as mentioned earlier. Further, the study was limited by language barriers. The lessons and measures were administered in English. This limitation precluded the participation by individuals from non-English speaking cultures. Significance of the Study This study is significant in that the findings could provide a better understanding of how APAs might impact the motivation and learning of students in online education. By understanding ways to improve motivation and increase learning, the study might inspire further exploration of the use of APAs in ways that may lead to continued improvement in the effective use of technology in online coursework, and thus could lead to reduced attrition in programs that use online courses. Improving retention rates at colleges and universities that offer online courses could dramatically affect the economic and psychological wellbeing of students who are currently dropping out prematurely. Additionally, this study was the first to examine the use of an APA as a mnemonic device. If APAs can promote learning by functioning as a memory aid, new applications of APAs could impact areas of business, advertising, corporate learning, psychological intervention; they could also impact populations with memory deficits such as Alzheimers, attention deficit disorders, learning disabilities, traumatic brain injuries and mental retardation.

22 Summary This study explored the use of a mnemonic APA in fully animated scenes that were designed to promote student learning and motivation. Chapter 1 discussed the problem that students drop out of online courses at a higher rate than traditional courses, yet the number of students taking online courses continues to increase. Therefore, it is predicted that the dropout rate will continue to affect more and more students each year. Better ways to retain students in online courses are required. One solution could be to create courses that can motivate students to stay engaged in class. APAs have been used in online material in a limited capacity. This is the first research using the APA as a mnemonic device to promote learning and motivate the learner simultaneously. Chapter 2 reviews the literature on the theoretical bases for the study, and on the development and use of APAs. Chapter 3 describes the research methodology, including measures taken in this study. Chapter 4 will present the results of the study, including descriptive statistics and findings. Chapter 5 discusses the implications of the studys findings as well as limitations and suggestions for future research

23 Chapter 2: Literature Review Introduction The purpose of this study was to explore whether a relatively new tool, APA, could be used in a novel capacity, as a mnemonic device, to increase motivation and learning in online education. The goal was to offer an alternative instructional design method that might improve persistence in online education. This study involved several theoretical and conceptual aspects in multiple domains: cognitive load, online learning, memory, instructional design, and animated pedagogical agents. The literature review is organized according to these five categories and is designed to present a comprehensive review of the pertinent literature. Multiple databases were searched during the literature review: Academic Search Complete, Sage Journals, ERIC, ProQuest Central, PsycARTICLES, PsychBOOKS, PsycEXTRA, PsycINFO, Psychology: A SAGE Full-Text Collection, Mental Measurements Yearbook. The following keywords were used: animated pedagogical agent, APA, ANOVA, bizarre imagery, boundary, cognitive load theory, cognitive theory of multimedia learning, CTML, criticism, distance learning, dropout, dual coding theory, essential processing, extraneous processing, generative processing, germane cognitive load, intrinsic cognitive load, instructional materials motivation survey, keyword, limitation, memory, method of loci, mnemonic, motivation, online learning, pegword, persistence, redundancy, sample size, seductive detail, signaling, social agency theory, split-attention.

24 The State of Online Learning Online learning is considered by many to be a growth industry (McCracken, 2008-2009). Between 2002 and 2007 the number of online students increased 145% to nearly 4 million (Allen & Seaman, 2008). However, persistence rates and grades have been found to be significantly lower in online courses than face-to-face formats (Xu & Jaggars, 2013). While distance education courses provide much flexibility students who are typically interested in distance learning have more risk factors for non-completion of a degree than do students enrolled in face-to-face courses (Cominole et al., 2006). Such risk factors include delayed enrollment (not directly after high-school), part-time enrollment, financial independence, caring for dependents (children or elders), being single parent, and not having graduated from high-school. Typically, students who enroll in online courses work more hours than brick and mortar students (Dutton & Dutton, 2005). Attrition may be due to the interaction among many variables (Reynolds & Weagley, 2003; Willging & Johnson, 2004). Factors contributing to attrition include lack of social interaction, underdeveloped academic skills, poor technical skills, student perceptions about online experiences, insufficient time and support for studies, and weak motivation (Chen & Jan, 2010; Hughes, 2007; Muilenburg & Berge, 2005; Park & Choi, 2009; Sitzmann, Ely, Bell & Bauer, 2010). One study explored the amount and quality of online interaction in distance education courses in reference to the course design (Garrison & Cleveland-Innes, 2005). Moore (1989) suggested that interaction is crucial in the distance educational

25 environment. Belonging to a sense of community has also been positively associated with cognitive learning (Rovai, 2003). According to Garrison and Cleveland-Innes (2005), successful online courses facilitate clear discussion threads and move discussions through levels of thinking to deeper knowledge construction. Additionally, the teaching presence seemed to be a key to the facilitation of deep learning and critical thinking. The way students approached study was strongly influenced by the instructional design and instructors approach. Interaction alone did not seem to promote deep learning. In Garrison and Clevland-Inness study (2005) they also determined that the necessary teaching presence could be facilitated by other students. Yet, research has shown that when online conferences turn to personalized conversations, rather than scholarly discourse, there is a breakdown in student interest and engagement (Pawan, Paulus, Yalcin, & Chang, 2003). In an effort to better understand the factors that influence dropout rates, Park and Choi (2009) compared data from students who dropped out and those who persisted. Family support, satisfaction with the experience, and course relevance were able to predict dropout or persistence. The Park and Choi study suggested that course developers could influence dropout by enhancing the perceived relevance of the course material by students. Relevance is achieved when the course material is perceived by the student as meaningful and applicable to his or her life and goals (Keller, 2008; Pittenger & Doering, 2010). Motivation is another area of interest in online education. Komarraju and Karau (2008) found that instructional techniques used in course work were significantly

26 associated with student academic motivation. Students in Komarraju and Karaus study indicated a desire to see more technology interwoven in course material. Artino and Stephens (2009) suggested instructional designers may improve motivation in online courses through course work that promotes self-efficacy and minimize negative achievement emotions. Further, designers must minimize student boredom and frustration with the course material in order to promote self-regulated learning. Theories of Learning and Memory Introduction The basis for this study centers on theories that bridge cognitive processes and schematic encoding. In order to create learning materials for online courses that aid learning, one must first understand how information is processed and what inhibits or facilitates that learning mechanism. Following are several theories that add to the understanding of such cognitive processes and methods of encoding information in memory. Dual Coding Theory A major influence in theories of learning and memory is the dual coding theory (DCT; Paivio, 1991). Dual coding theory assumes that humans have two channels for processing information, a verbal channel and an image channel. According to Paivio (1991) there are three levels of processing in DCT: representational processing, referential processing, and associative processing. Words (logogens) and images (imagens) are produced via representational processing. Referential processing occurs when objects are named and images are articulated, involving cross-system activation.

27 Associative processing activates representations of one system that is associated with a representation from another system (i.e., one word is associated with an image). Cognitive tasks involve at least one type of processing and may involve all three types of processing. Cognitive Load Theory CLT is an instructional theory based on human cognitive architecture and stipulates that humans have a virtually unlimited long-term memory (LTM) that interacts with a very limited working memory (WM; Paas, Renkl, & Sweller, 2004; Sweller 1988, 2005, 2010). LTM is the store that holds cognitive schemas, and problem-solving strategies that are an accumulation of an individuals experiences and knowledge learned to date. Working memory is thought to be a limited capacity system that unites short-term and long-term memory (Baddeley, 1986). Typically, individuals have the capacity to hold three to five pieces of information at any given time (Cowan 2010). Further, this information remains in working memory for as little as 2 seconds if it is not being manipulated. According to CLT, instructional design influences learning by controlling cognitive load, of which there are three types: intrinsic, extraneous, and germane. Intrinsic cognitive load is that which is demanded by the material due to the complexity and manner in which the elements that must be processed in working memory at the same time interact with each other (Sweller 1993, 2010; Sweller & Chandler, 1994). Information that is by nature extremely complex, or has many interactive elements, can be separated into elements that are treated as if they are not interactive, thus reducing intrinsic load.

28 Extraneous cognitive load is information that goes against the basic principles of cognitive load theory (discussed later), thereby creating a type of interference with cognitive processing. The amount of extraneous cognitive load is thought to be primarily the result of instructional design. Courses that impose excessive demand on working memory are thought to increase extraneous cognitive load by design considerations such as: poorly written instructions, distracting graphics, information that is more advanced than the learners current knowledge base supports, elements of text and graphics which are separated by space or time (Kalyuga 2010; van Merrinboer & Sweller, 2010). According to Sweller (2010), CLT was created to reduce extraneous cognitive load in instructional design. Since the conceptualization of cognitive load theory much research has focused on reduction of extraneous load. Effects such as split-attention (Ayres & Sweller, 2005), completion (Paas & van Merrinboer, 1994), and modality (Low & Sweller, 2005) are just a few examples of the type of extraneous cognitive load effects attributed to cognitive load theory. Germane cognitive load is that which is used to productively process the material. Intrinsic and extraneous cognitive load are thought to be additive. CLT attempts to reduce intrinsic and extraneous cognitive load in order to afford working memory to germane cognitive load. Five basic principles of cognitive load theory. The fundamental principles that guide cognitive load theory provide an understanding for human cognitive architecture (Sweller, 2010). Sweller suggested the human cognitive architecture is analogous to evolution by natural selection in that both create novel information, which is stored for

29 later use and is self-perpetuating. Geary (2007) posited two types of human knowledge: biologically primary knowledge and biologically secondary knowledge, which is acquired consciously and is culturally dependent. Primary knowledge for example, is information acquired unconsciously such as learning to speak a first language, recognizing faces, or basic social interactions. This type of knowledge is stored directly in LTM and does not require WM for processing. Secondary knowledge is the type of information taught in educational systems, such as reading, writing, mathematics, etc. Cognitive load theory applies to biologically secondary knowledge and is governed by the five basic principles of cognitive load theory (Sweller, 2010). Information store principle. The first principle of cognitive load theory is the information store principle. According to Sweller (2010), LTM is the main driver of activity involved with human cognition, although it is not simply a storage vault of unrelated data. Since de Groot (1965, 1966) investigated differences between expert chess players and novice players, long-term memory has been viewed as a central element of human cognition. The main difference between master chess players and novice players is the capacity to store problem solving and object and pattern recognition (Bilali, Langner, Erb, & Grodd, 2010). Information required in long-term memory for an individual to be competent in a subject matter is thought to be numbered in the tens of thousands (Sweller, 2010). LTM is generally composed of cognitive schemas that are used to store and organize information. As individuals develop more skill the schemas become more complex. Learning that takes place over time integrates schemas into large amounts of data (Ayres & Paas, 2009).

30 Borrowing and reorganizing principle. Based on schema theory, the borrowing and reorganizing principle posits that information in the long-term memory was acquired by learning from others. According to CLT humans borrow what they observe or read / hear from others and integrate this information into existing schemas in LTM. Memories are constructed from schemas, which are composed of multiple elements of information banned together as a single element (Sweller, 2010). The process of learning involves borrowing what the instructor knows (her schemas) on the subject and organizing those schemas into the learners newly acquired schemas. Further, it is thought that humans may have developed a capability to use a specific component of working memory to learn from auditory and visual information, which may render learning from animations more successful if the animation involves human movement, rather than a mechanical object in the animation (Wong et al., 2009). Randomness as genesis principle. Cognitive load theory stipulates that individuals problem solve by generating solutions from knowledge available in the longterm store (Sweller, 2010). When there is no previously learned solution in LTM, random generation creates options which are then tested to determine effectiveness. Sweller (2009) suggests the process of random generation followed by testing for effectiveness is the method by which all creativity is generated. Narrow limits of change principle. According to CLT, when information is new to a learner, he can only process two to four elements of information, thus large, rapid changes to long-term memory are mediated by the limited capacity of working memory (Sweller, 2010). The principle of narrow limits of change explains why the long term

31 memory store is not lost or totally rewritten by functionality of the borrowing and reorganizing principle. Sweller posited instructors should use borrowed information rather than requiring learners to generate options by random problem solving as working memory is at a premium. Environment organizing and linking principle. When an individual is an expert in the subject matter, there seems to be no limits to the amount of information that working memory can process from long-term memory (Sweller, 2010). The environment organizing and linking principle builds on the concept of long-term working memory (Ericsson & Kintsch, 1995), which allows large amounts of previously construed information stored in LTM to be moved from LTM to WM for processing. The five principles of the cognitive load theory define the core of cognitive load theory and work together to provide guidance and understanding of human cognitive architecture. Sweller (2010) posited that learning is a function of the information store principle as evidenced by change in LTM. The borrowing and reorganizing principle posits that individuals learn from others rather than problem solving. Methods used to acquire knowledge from others include observation, listening, reading, and copying (Mayer, 2004). Slowly the long-term memory store is altered by the random genesis principle, yet the narrow limits of change principle supports the idea that the long-term memory store is protected against rapid change. Finally, the environment organizing and linking principle allows large amounts of long-term memory to be retrieved and manipulated in working memory.

32 Limitations of cognitive load theory. While CLT has inspired an increasing number of research studies in the domain of instructional design and education (Brnken, Plass, & Moreno, 2009), there are questions yet to be answered regarding the underlying conceptual assumptions of CLT (Schnotz & Kirschner, 2007). One area of concern references the definitions of the three cognitive load types (intrinsic, extraneous, and germane). Brnken et al. (2009) suggested load types may be interrelated, for instance, intrinsic load, which is defined as load needed to process the information based solely on the demands of the material, may require more germane load (mental effort invested) when the material is intrinsically difficult. Thus, germane load can be dependent on intrinsic load. Further, the load required may also be dependent on the learners prior knowledge. Novice learners may not be able to process as much information as more experienced learners (see expertise-reversal effect). This creates a challenge regarding the ability of CLT to predict the degree of difficulty of materials by learner, in order to understand the required cognitive load. Another challenge in CLT is the difficulty measuring each type of cognitive load (Brnken et al. 2009; de Jong, 2010). Researchers have attempted to measure cognitive load through three main types of measure: (a) indirect measures, such as self-report (Khl, Scheiter, Gerjets, & Edelmann, 2011), (b) physiological measures such as heart rate (Lahtinen, Koskelo, Laitnen, & Leino, 2007) or pupil reactions (van Gog et al. 2009), and (c) dual task measures (Brnken, Plass, & Leutner, 2003). Physiological measures are somewhat intrusive and may be less sensitive as individuals age (de Jong, 2010). Dual tasks introduce a second task such as monitoring the change of a computer monitor

33 screen color (DeLeeuw & Mayer, 2008) with the learning task. The speed and accuracy of detecting the secondary task is thought to indicate the degree to which cognitive load is used. Studies using dual task measures are limited (Ayres, 2001; Brnken, Steinbacher, Plass, & Leutner, 2002; Chandler & Sweller, 1996; Ignacio Madrid, van Oostendorp, & Melguizo, 2009; Paas & van Merrinboer, 1994; Sweller 1988). Often cognitive load is measured as a single concept, rather than distinguishing between intrinsic, extraneous and germane load; therefore, researchers are often not able to delineate which type of load was affected. Researchers frequently use self-report measures which require the student to subjectively differentiate between different types of cognitive load by answering questions regarding the difficulty of the material or the amount of effort required. Results from this type of measure have been inconsistent and raise questions of validity (de Jong, 2010). According to Moreno (2010),There are no standard, reliable, and valid measures for the main constructs of the (CLT) theory (p. 136). Moreno (2010) suggested that CLT should be extended to consider student motivation and prior knowledge beyond the subject matter to include the students prior experiences which might apply to the learning task. Learning, according to cognitiveaffective theory of learning (Moreno, 2005a; Moreno & Mayer, 2007) is an interaction between several learner characteristics, such as prior knowledge, experience, beliefs, affect, skills and aptitudes, and motivation. The amount of mental effort expended may be more important than the cognitive load during learning. Further, the amount of effort

34 students expend may be dependent on the level of competency the student perceives she has to succeed at the learning task (Moreno, 2010). The main criticism of CLT has been the inability to measure cognitive load (de Jong, 2010). In order to move the theory forward researchers have been challenged to better define the impact of instructional design considerations on the cognitive processes and measure cognitive processes, such as working memory, effort, and motivation expended during learning. Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning The cognitive theory of multimedia learning (CTML) was adopted from the cognitive load theory and applied specifically to designing instruction using words and images in a manner that optimizes cognitive load (Mayer, 2009; Mayer & Moreno, 2010). Based on cognitive research of Baddeley (1999) and Paivio (1986) CTML assumes that learners have two channels with which to process multimedia information: a visual processing channel for images and pictorial information, and an auditory channel for verbal material. Secondly, CTML assumes learners have a limited capacity with which to process material via each channel at one time (Baddeley, 1999; Chandler & Sweller, 1991). Finally, CTML assumes learners must actively participate in the cognitive process during learning to decide what to process and integrate the incoming data with previous knowledge. As with CLT, CTML identifies three main processing demands during learning. Mayer has named them to fit the multimedia learning environment: extraneous processing (extraneous cognitive load), essential processing (intrinsic cognitive load) and generative processing (germane cognitive load).

35 Three types of processing. Extraneous processing is processing that does not add to learning. It is extra work on the cognitive system. According to Mayer and Moreno (2010) extraneous processing is caused by poorly designed learning material or nonessential information. Garner, Gillingham and White (1989) termed extraneous information within a course as seductive details. That is, interesting, but nonessential elements of a lesson, such as an interesting story which takes the student on a detour away from the important components of instruction. Extraneous overload can occur when the learner is presented too much non-essential information or the layout of the material requires extra cognitive processing. Mayer and Moreno (2010) suggest that multimedia designers should limit extraneous material, thereby reducing the risk of extraneous overload. Essential processing is the base amount of cognitive processing required to comprehend the material. If the material is extremely difficult for the learner, it will require more essential processing. According to Mayer and Moreno (2010) learners can experience essential overload if the learner does not possess the cognitive capacity to process the material. Further, essential overload may occur if the learner is unfamiliar with the terms being used, the material is moving at a fast pace, or the material is complex. Generative processing is the processing that contributes to learning (Mayer & Moreno, 2010). This is the function of attending to the material, then organizing and integrating the material into previously developed schemas (Sweller, 1999). This type of processing occurs in working memory (Mayer, 2009). Once the information is organized

36 in working memory, it is integrated into previous knowledge in long-term memory. The goal of multimedia learning is to limit extraneous processing, manage essential processing and enhance generative processing. Designing to reduce extraneous processing. Mayer (2009) proposed five methods of instructional design to reduce extraneous processing. Coherence principle. The most elementary method is to simply delete extraneous information (words, sounds, and pictures) from the material. Mayer (2009) posited removing irrelevant words or pictures from a multimedia lesson increases knowledge transfer. The extra material is thought to reduce cognitive capacity available for essential and generative processing. Learners may have difficulty determining what is important and may not be able to organize and integrate the irrelevant information into meaningful concepts. Learners may mistake the irrelevant information as the key points one should remember, thus attending to the wrong information (Harp & Mayer, 1998). Signaling principle. The second method Mayer (2009) proposed to reduce extraneous processing is signaling. That is, highlighting the key words or images to which the learner should attend. Recently, Moreno, Reislein, and Ozogul (2010) used the gestures of an APA (an on screen character used to facilitate training) to draw attention to relevant information in a multimedia lesson. Gestures of the APA promoted learning more than not signaling. According to Mayer (2009) there are several methods with which one could implement signaling, such as using vocal emphasis on key words, or bold / italicized type highlighting important points. Craig, Gholson, and Driscoll (2002) emphasized key elements of a lesson by highlighting certain parts of the screen as an

37 APA explained the process of lightning formation. In this study, learning was best when images and animation flashed and directed attention to the key points as compared to a static picture condition. By emphasizing what is important to the student, the instructional designer may reduce extraneous processing and aid generative processing by proving organizational aids. Amadieu, Marin, and Laimay (2011) used a cueing process of zooming in on important information. Cueing was found to reduce extraneous cognitive load and improve retention of the material. Redundancy principle. When typed words identical to the narration are shown on a screen along with pictures or animation, it creates extraneous processing. Removing the typed (redundant) words in this situation is Mayers (2009) third method to reduce extraneous processing. Theoretically, the visual channel must attend to the typed narration and the images on the screen, while the audio channel is also attending to the same narration; therefore, removing the typed narration can reduce the cognitive load. Spatial and temporal contiguity principles. Finally, spatial and temporal contiguity are the fourth and fifth methods to reduce extraneous processing (Mayer, 2009). Words and images that are presented at the same time and in the same area of the screen are more effective than separating the words and pictures by time or space. Theoretically, Mayer proposed that words and pictures presented at the same time are available in working memory at the same time and thus, more accessible to the student for organizing and integrating into meaningful information. The spatial contiguity effect is also known as the split attention effect (Chandler & Sweller 1991, 1992; Sweller & Chandler, 1994; Sweller, Chandler, Tierney, & Cooper,

38 1990). Instructional design is thought to split the learners attention as they attempt to integrate two forms of information into one schema depicting the data. When the material is designed so that learners must integrate verbal and visual information, learning is inhibited. For instance, when a diagram is represented with a key list to the right indicating the various elements of the diagram, it would be in the split attention format, whereby learners have to search and match the information together (Ginns, 2006). If however, the diagram had labels indicating the parts and the key information together in one picture, it is considered integrated. It is theorized that split attention can occur across time (temporal contiguity) as well. In a study on learning from film with a soundtrack Baggett (1984) found that learners could retain and integrate visual and auditory information that was separated by time for approximately 7 seconds. After 7 seconds, learning began to decline when the sound was presented before or after the image. More recently, Florax and Ploetzer (2010) found a split-attention effect which influenced retention of material in a lesson about processing information in the human nervous system. The split-attention effect was mostly attributed to text segmentation. Other researchers (Ciernaik, Scheiter, & Gerjets, 2009) found split-attention effects in both simple and complex facts about a lesson on physiological processes in the kidney. Another distinction has recently been made between learning materials that are separated spatially and spatially stacked materials (Jang, Schunn, & Nokes, 2011). Spatially stacked materials are created with layers of instruction that can be accessed as needed. Spatially distributed materials led to faster and better overall learning.

39 Mayer (2009) suggests there may be special situations in which these methods to reduce extraneous processing are more effective than others, for instance, it may be more helpful for learners with low working memory or learners who have less preknowledge of the topic to remove all irrelevant sounds and words from a lesson. Additionally, signaling may be more advantageous to individuals who have lower reading skills or when the lesson is disorganized. Further, signaling is not thought to aid in understanding of conceptual material (de Koning, Tabbers, Rikers, & Paas, 2011). Methods to manage essential processing. Essential processing is that which occurs in effort to comprehend the material (Mayer, 2005). When the information is extremely complex, the learner is new to the information, the lesson has many elements, or is fast paced, the task of essential processing becomes burdensome (Kirschner, Paas, & Kirschner, 2009). Following are three methods empirically supported to help learners manage essential processing. Segmenting principle. The segmenting principle stipulates that multimedia learning is best represented in user-paced increments rather than whole paragraphs or continuous text or narration (Mayer, 2009). When text or narration is broken up (segmented) into small components and linked together so that the learner can control the pace of learning, research has shown learners perform better in problem-solving transfer (Mayer & Chandler, 2001; Mayer, Dow, & Mayer, 2003). As mentioned earlier, learners are only able to hold and process up to four elements of new information in working memory at one time; therefore, some learners may not be able to comprehend the first step of a lesson before the next is displayed (in a non-segmented lesson). By allowing the

40 learner to control the pace, information from working memory can be processed before moving forward. Additionally, by dividing the information into small bite size pieces the instructional designer reduces the cognitive load required to process the information. Pre-training principle. Since working memory is limited, individuals are able to process the information better if they already understand the basic concepts. The pretraining principle suggests that for novice learners, teaching the key words or components of a system can limit the demands of essential processing by offloading it to the pretraining session (Mayer, 2009). Research shows better problem-solving transfer when the key elements were pretrained (Rey & Buchwald, 2011). Pretraining seems to be particularly helpful for novices in the field. A lesson teaching mathematics from spreadsheet applications found an effect for pre-training with low-experienced learners, but not with high-experienced learners (Clarke, Ayres, & Sweller, 2005). Modality principle. The modality principle states that learning occurs at a deeper level when the material is presented as pictures and spoken words, rather than written words (Mayer, 2009). This principle can be explained by the dual-channel processing theory (Paivio 1991) discussed earlier, in which words as text enter the cognitive system via the visual channel and thus compete with pictures, which also reside on the same visual channel. Mayer (2009) suggests that in some cases the learner may experience an overload of essential processing for the material. Such a case would be when the material is presented as pictures and words (text) in the same visual channel. Of course, the method to combat this type of overload would be to use voice over narration rather than on-screen text.

41 While Mayer (2009) considers effects of the modality principle as a method to decrease intrinsic cognitive load, other cognitive load theorists suggest the modality principle (modality effect) is a guide to decrease extraneous load (Wouters, Paas, & van Merrienboer, 2008). Mousavi, Low, and Sweller (1995) and Low and Sweller (2005) refer to the modality effect in terms of a slightly different observation than Mayer (2009). The modality effect observed by Mousavi, Low, and Sweller refers to an increased effectiveness of cognitive capacity when information is presented by using both the auditory and the visual channels simultaneously. Mayer (2009) refers to this phenomenon in his spatial and temporal contiguity principles (mentioned above). By presenting the information in both channels, rather than only in one channel, working memory is thought to be better supported. Mayer (2009) is more specific regarding the modality principle, in that he is concerned with the effectiveness of presentations with pictures and spoken narration compared to pictures and printed narration. Research supports Mayers (2009) claim that images and auditory narration are more effective than images with text narration in problem solving learning transfer (Mayer & Moreno, 1998; Mayer, Dow, & Mayer, 2003; Ginns, 2005; Harskamp, Mayer, Suhre, & Jansma, 2007). In a meta-analysis of the modality effect, Ginns (2005) found there are two moderators for the effect, element interactivity and the pacing of the presentation. When many elements interact in a presentation, requiring the learner to hold certain elements in memory in order to learn the next element, the limited capacity of working memory is thought to become overloaded. The second moderator found in Ginns (2005) meta-analysis was regarding

42 pacing of a presentation. When the learner controls the pace of a presentation there is more time to view the images and printed text to develop schemas of the material before moving on. If the system automatically proceeds, the overload may be based on the temporal contiguity (Tabbers, Martens, van Merrinboer, 2004). Methods to manage generative processing. Generative processing is that which contributes to learning. One reason learners do not optimize generative processing is thought to be a lack of motivation (Mayer, 2009), such as when cognitive capacity is available, yet the presentation is boring to the learner. In such a case, Mayer (2009) proposed that the lack of engagement is due to generative processing underutilization. Moreno and Mayer (2010) suggest several techniques which might be used to increase generative processing and thus, engage the learner. Multimedia principle. The first technique to promote generative processing is using both words and pictures to illuminate the information (Mayer, 2009; Moreno & Mayer, 2010). Again, based on the dual coding theory (Paivio, 1986), the combination of words and pictures presented together is thought to allow the learner to integrate the information and build necessary connections to establish schemas and store the information in long-term memory. The notion that people learn more from the combined multimodal presentation is supported by research. In one study, (Bruny, Taylor, & Rapp, 2008) even simple images integrated into multimedia presentations created learning advantages over text only conditions. Another recent study in which students learned about masterpiece paintings, found that the group which learned from viewing

43 reproductions of the art and descriptions performed better on a transfer task than the groups who learned from only one input source (Moreno & Morales, 2008). Personalization principle. Moreno and Mayer (2010) suggest that narration or text is best delivered in less formal more conversational verbiage, for instance, using the words you and your to make the words more personal. Theoretically, the personalization principle suggests learners may be apt to commit more cognitive processing to the lesson when there is a since of social involvement. According to Reeves and Nass (1996) individuals perceive computers as social entities with the same cultural rules that apply to humans. Therefore, by priming social cues when using conversational verbiage, the instructional designer may engage the learner to participate in a social activity, therefore create an obligation that the learner attempt to make sense of the information. Research supports the personalization principle, Mayer and colleges conducted ten experiments in which learners received personalized messages or received non-personalized messages, the personalization groups performed better on transfer tests with an average effect size of 1.30 (Kartal, 2010; Mayer, 2009; Moreno & Mayer, 2004; Mayer, Fennell, Farmer, & Campbell, 2004). Methods such as using a friendly, conversational voice in a presentation and making the verbiage conversational is thought to prime a social response and promote deeper cognitive processing (Mayer 2009). Guided activity principle. Interactivity and feedback are key elements of the guided activity principle (Moreno & Mayer, 2010). Moreno and Mayer (2007) suggest there are several types of interactivity in a multimedia environment such as: manipulating, controlling, searching, navigating, and dialoguing. When learners are able

44 to interact with the lesson, they can be more engaged and motivated (Lester, 1999). Learners who participated in an interactive lesson about plants performed better than those who learned without interactivity (Moreno et al., 2001). When students are guided to select, organize, and integrate the information in a lesson, they are thought to become more engaged (Mayer & Moreno, 2003). Pure-discovery, however, without the benefit of receiving feedback from the multimedia environment or from an APA has been unsuccessful at producing meaningful learning (Mayer, 2004). Particularly with novice students, unguided exploration is thought to be unproductive (Sweller, van Merrinboer, & Paas, 1998; van Merrinboer, Kester, & Paas, 2006). Feedback principle. The next method suggested by Moreno and Mayer (2010) to increase generative processing is the use of feedback. Feedback is thought to be best delivered when both corrective feedback and explanatory feedback are included (Moreno & Mayer, 1999; Moreno & Mayer, 2010). When the learner has limited knowledge about the subject, feedback provides a scaffolding model so that the learner can develop appropriate schemas. Reflection principle. Finally, the reflection principle suggests that learners must reflect the deeper underlying implications of what they have learned. One example of reflection is the use of elaborative interrogation in which the learner is asked why questions to promote thinking. Learners must explain why they made certain choices in plant type or environmental decisions such as, in a design a plant experiment (Moreno et al., 2001). Limitations of CTML

45 Mayer (2009) suggested that each of the design principles of CTML have what he termed boundary conditions, which limit the application of the principle. For instance, the coherence principle may apply more to learners who have lower working-memory capacity or who may be novices in the subject domain. Other boundary conditions are based on conditions such as the complexity of the material, pacing of the lesson, and the prior knowledge of the learner. Another boundary condition, suggested by Mayer references the use of an onscreen image of the instructor or animated agent. The image principle discourages such application of an instructors image citing a possible extraneous cognitive load condition; however, Mayer (2010) states there may be conditions when learning might benefit from an onscreen agent signaling to important elements on the screen. Each of the design principles would benefit from further research to broaden the understanding of the effects of multimedia instructional design on cognitive processing as explained by CMTL. Mnemonic Devices As mentioned above, the cognitive load theory and the cognitive theory of multimedia learning suggest that information is held in working memory or short term memory briefly and then integrated into long-term memory for storage. People use many memory aids to help remember events and information. Such memory aids have been divided into two categories, internal aids (i.e., mental rehearsal, imagery) and external aids (i.e., reminder notes, placing an item in a special location) (Harris, 1980). Internal aids are by nature methods internal to the person, while external aids have been typically used to prompt individuals about daily functioning (Intons-Peterson & Fournier, 1986).

46 Intons-Peterson and Fournier (1986) explored the use of memory aids and found that college students used external memory aids more often than internal aids. Students considered external aids more dependable, accurate, and easier to use. Internal aids were used when external aids would be inconvenient or undesirable (recalling names at a party). According to Intons-Peterson and Fournier (1986), internal aids seem to affect the encoding of information more than external aids. Therefore, when learning information, the use of internal aids would be preferred. Humans have long been interested in improving the ability to store information in memory for quick retrieval (Baddeley, Eysenck, & Anderson, 2010; Dehn, 2008). Strategies to enhance the ability to remember material have been used for hundreds of years. Such strategies are termed mnemonics and named for the titan goddess of memory and remembrance, Mnemosyne (Yates, 1966). Mnemonic strategies are based on the idea that one can use information already in long term memory to trigger newly learned information upon retrieval (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 1998). Mnemonics are especially valuable when the learner does not have a preexisting schema that relates to the new information (Dehn, 2008). One method first employed by the Romans to remember orations is the method of loci. Method of loci. In the method of loci (rooms), the learner memorized the order of rooms in a familiar building. Then components of the speech (or items to be remembered) were associated with each room in the order in which one would walk through the building. When giving the speech, the orator would stroll through the building in his mind to recall each piece of information (Dehn, 2008). Typically the

47 method of loci uses 10 locations within a familiar building. However, at least one study (Ross & Lawrence, 1968) found that people using this method recalled more than 95% of lists as long as 40 to 50 items. Brain imaging systems have shown more brain activation when individuals use the method of loci, suggesting that the encoding process is possibly more detailed when method of loci is used (Kondo, Suzuki, Mugikura, Abe, et al., 2004). Recently, Nelson and Vu (2010) studied the use of mnemonics to aid individuals in the creation of Internet passwords. In this study, participants were able to create more memorable passwords using mnemonic imagery. Another recent study used an imaging mnemonic with memory-impaired individuals with neurological damage (Grilli & Glisky, 2010). Individuals in this study imagined they were in the scene described by a sentence using as much detail in the visualization as possible. Grilli and Glisky (2010) found that self-imagery enhanced the ability to recall the encoded information. Bizarre imagery effect. It is thought that mental images are more effective when they are bizarre and interactive (Burns, 1996). Bizarre images have been found to be more effective in free recall and recall within less than 5 minutes (immediate recall) (Mercer, 1996). Yet, the long-term effect of bizarre images is not certain. Additionally, the bizarre image effect seems to be dependent on certain constraints, such as the information learned was a mixed list of common sentences and bizarre sentences, where bizarre and common images are thought to compete for recall. Additionally, bizarre images are more memorable than common images when tested for free recall (Burns 1996; Pra Baldi, de Beni, Cornoldi, & Cavedon, 1985; Wollen & Cox, 1981) or delayed recall (Iaccino, Dvorak, & Coler, 1989; OBrien & Wolford, 1982). Thirdly, Burns

48 (1996) found the instruction given to the participants to influence the effect. The bizarre effect was found in the incidental condition but not in the intentional condition. Participants in the intentional group were told the ability to remember underlined words in the sentences would be measured whereas participants in the incidental condition were told the relationship between ability to create imagery and ability to problem solve was being measured (Burns, 1996). Participants usually recall more words from the bizarre sentences than the common sentences. Burns confirmed the bizarreness effect and found that when intentional learning instructions were given, the bizarreness effect was eliminated. The intention to learn seemed to change the way the bizarre images were processed. Other researchers have found the bizarreness effect with intentional learning instructions however (Wollen & Cox, 1981; Hirshman, Whelley, & Palu, 1989). Further, when complex sentences were used, the bizarreness effect was diminished, suggesting that elaborated encoding may negate the effect (McDaniel & Einstein, 1989). Keyword method. The keyword mnemonic method is often used when learning vocabulary words. According to Mastropieri and Scruggs (1998), the keyword method is one of the most researched methods of mnemonics. The key in the keyword method is a concrete word that is acoustically similar which is substituted for the target information (Scruggs, Mastropieri, Berkeley, & Marshak, 2010). For instance, to learn the Spanish word apio, which means celery, in English a learner might choose the word ape to form the key (Wyra, Lawson, & Hungi, 2007). The beginning of the word apio sounds like ape. Next, the keyword method calls for the learner to form an image or be shown a picture that links the keyword with the target information, in this case definition of the

49 word. Therefore, in the above scenario the image might be of an ape eating celery. To retrieve the definition of apio, the learner would think of the picture of the ape eating celery and remember the definition. According to Scruggs and Mastropieri (2000), the keyword method can be used to remember varied types of information, including, foreign-language vocabulary, science, and social studies. Additionally, the keyword method has been successfully used to teach students with cognitive disabilities to remember state capitals (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 1998). One continuing question regarding the keyword method is whether the individual should create his or her own images or if images generated by others are as effective. Campos, Amor, and Gonzalez (2002) found an effect for generation during immediate recall, but not with delayed recall. In another study, Hwang and Levin (2002) developed a complex mnemonic system to study about 18th, 19th and 20th century inventions. After the students learned the mnemonic system, they were either given a picture which depicted the image from the mnemonic strategy or were asked to create their own image. The middle-school students in Hwang and Levins experiment were not able to create their own images using the complex system. However, they were able to learn from the drawings handed them by the instructors. Pegword mnemonics. The pegword method is similar to the method of loci, except it uses numbers instead of locations to link the information to be learned with established schemas. The pegword method uses a rhyming scheme which is associated with peg numbers, for instance, one-bun, two-shoe, three-tree (Dehn, 2008). The learner visually integrates the peg numbers with the items in a list to be learned. To remember

50 that Buzz Aldrin was the second man on the moon, a learner could visualize bees buzzing around a shoe (representing the second peg). In order to use the pegword system, the learner must first learn the peg words. Additionally, concrete words are easier to learn with such a system than abstract information because interactive visualizations are harder to form with concepts such as morality (Baddeley, Eysenck, & Anderson, 2010; Dehn, 2008). Letter mnemonics. One of the most commonly known mnemonic devices is the use of letter strategies such as acronyms, in which the first letter of each word in the information list is used to create a word (Scruggs et al., 2010). For instance, the word HOMES could be an acronym for the Great Lakes (Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior). To remember colors in a color spectrum the first letters of each color, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet (ROYGBIV) have been used in an acrostics technique in the past, which makes a sentence from words beginning with the first letter of the to be remembered word (Scruggs et al., 2010; Baddley et al., 2010). Therefore, the letters ROYGBIV representing the color spectrum might become the following sentence: Richard of York Gave Battle in Vain. Verbal story mnemonic. Another method used to remember unrelated words is the verbal story technique in which the learner links together a series of unrelated words by creating a story with all of the words. A study by Bower and Clark (1969) examined the effectiveness of the verbal story method and found that participants who created narrated stories were able to remember 93% of the target words compared to only 13% of the words remembered in the control group (Bower & Clark, 1969).

51 Motivational Instruction Design Keller (1979) introduced a set of principles common to all learning settings which later became a theory of motivational instructional design. Kellers theory (1987) is known as the ARCS model, an acronym based on key elements of the theory: attention, relevance, confidence, and satisfaction. Later the ARCS model was revised to include volition and self-regulation as a fifth principle of motivation (Keller, 2008). The ARCS Model Attention. According to Keller (2008), the learners motivation to learn is increased when the material gains the learners attention, when curiosity is aroused and the learner is engaged. Strategies to gain learners attention include perceptual arousal, inquiry arousal, and variability (Keller, 2010). Perceptual arousal can be activated by changing the environment. Additionally, perceptual arousal is transitory, in other words learners adapt fairly rapidly to the new stimuli. Inquiry arousal is a type of curiosity in which the learner desires information to satisfy the curiosity. Variability is used to sustain attention once gained. Keller (2010) suggests learners lose interest in information once they habituate to the stimuli. Thus, changing tone, creating interesting graphics and use of animation may help gain the learners attention. Relevance. Secondly, motivation is promoted when the learner perceives the information to be meaningful and related to the learners life and goals (Keller, 2010). Whether the course is a prerequisite to another course, or will lead to new job opportunities, course design which considers the learners goals is thought to increase motivation. Further, the perceived usefulness of the material, such as a learning object

52 within a course, has been found to determine the learners use of the segment (Lau & Woods, 2009). Confidence. Keller (2010) proposed learners have a need to feel competent. Instructional design that builds confidence and a positive expectancy of success in the learner will increase motivation to learn. Instructional designers can integrate opportunities for success within the course material, such as knowledge checks throughout the course. Additionally, learners may have increased confidence when they have some element of control of the lesson. Satisfaction. When learners expect to learn the material and are able to learn the material through a satisfying experience, motivation to learn is supported. Keller (2008) suggests a satisfactory experience includes a sense of fairness, i.e. that the amount of work put into the course was appropriate for the return on such investment of time and effort. Self-Regulation. The final principle suggests that when learners employ strategies of self-regulation, motivation to learn is promoted (Keller, 2008). This final principle basically represents persistence. Design Approach. Kellers (2010) ARCS model also includes a systematic process for instructional design as a problem-solving process rather than a set of preconceived strategies to be applied in all situations. The process consists of ten steps: As with most instructional design processes, Kellers first objective is to (a) gather course information such as description, delivery system and setting. Next, (b) determine the skills required for the target audience, (c) analyze the motivational factors for the

53 audience, (d) analyze the existing materials, listing any gaps between goals for the course and current state of the materials, (e) list the specific learner behaviors of each objective and assessments to verify learning, (f) list potential methods to use in development, (g) select the appropriate design tactics, (h) integrate the motivational plans with the current material, (i) select and develop materials as needed, (j) evaluate and revise based on student reactions. Measuring the ARCS Model Keller (2010) has created two measurement tools, which have been used globally to measure motivation in learning (Bolliger, Supanakorn & Boggs 2010; ChanLin, 2009; Cheng & Yeh, 2009; Cook, Beckman, Thomas, & Thompson, 2009; Deimann & Keller, 2006; Kim & Keller, 2008; Lim, 2004; Loorbach, Karreman, & Streehouder, 2007; Pittenger & Doering, 2010; Wongwiwat-thananukit & Popovich, 2000; Zaharias & Poylmenakou, 2009). The Course Interest Survey (CIS) is a 34-item self-report survey designed to determine the learners perceptions of instructor facilitated courses. The Instructional Materials Motivation Survey (IMMS) measures the learners perceptions of self-directed course materials. Animated Pedagogical Agents Keller (2008) suggested one growing trend in motivational design is the use of APAs to enhance motivation and learning in computer-based learning environments. The research regarding use of APAs to facilitate learner motivation and knowledge learned from courses is limited and has mixed results. Heidig and Clarebout (2011) completed an extensive review of over 70 articles in which pedagogical agents were the main subject.

54 The review extended Clarebout et al. (2002) that reviewed five studies, of which two included a control group. Twenty-six of the 70 studies reviewed in Heidig and Clarebout (2011) pertained to motivation and learning effects. However, many of the studies did not include a control group (no agent condition). Learning was the main consideration in 15 studies that did use a control group, resulting in nine studies in which no difference was found for learning (Atkinson, 2002; Baylor & Ryu, 2003; Craig et al., 2002; Hershey Dirkin, Mishra, & Altermatt, 2005; Domagk, 2010; Dunsworth & Atkinson, 2007; Mayer et al., 2003, Moundridou & Virvou, 2002; Perez & Solomon, 2005), one study (Atkinson, 2002) resulted in small effects for transferred learning, and five studies that found mixed results (Clarebout & Elen, 2006; Domagk, 2010, Holmes, 2007; Lusk & Atkinson, 2007; Plant, Baylor, Doerr, & Rosenberg-Kima, 2009). Holmes (2007), for instance, found increased learning retention in a study that used the APA as a learning partner, who helped students generate ideas in a virtual world environment. However, Moreno et al. (2001) suggested there is no difference between agent and no agent in learning retention, yet found agents beneficial in stimulating interest and motivation. Students in the study learned about plant parts (roots, stems, leaves) in an interactive environment. Students who worked with the APA were able to transfer the information learned to new problem solving tasks, suggesting that learning took place on a deeper level in the APA condition. Moreno et al. (2001) suggested the APA helped expand the students effective working memory by offering narration, rather than on-screen text (see modality effect). In a set of two studies designed to explore the APAs physical appearance and voice, Domagk (2010) found that the APA may promote better knowledge transfer, if the agent is

55 considered appealing. Further, the voice of the agent was found to be an important consideration, as a more pleasant voice, compared to an automated computerized voice, was better able to promote learning transfer. However, if the APA was perceived unfavorably, based on appearance and voice, there was a negative effect on learning. Heidig and Clarebout (2011) suggested that ultimately determining whether APAs are beneficial to the learning process is a question that must be considered by a systematic comparison of the conditions in which the APA is used, such as Domagks (2008), Pedagogical Agents-Conditions of Use (PACU). The PACU includes: (a) the environment in which the agent is deployed, (b) the learners level of prior knowledge and other characteristics, (c) the type of support the agent provides, and (d) the agents physical design. There is a growing body of evidence that learners perceive, interact with, and are influenced by lifelike APAs (Baylor, 2005, 2009; Baylor, Rosenberg-Kima & Plant, 2005; Baylor & Kim, 2004; Ergl & Ko, 2013; Kim & Baylor, 2008; Kim & Baylor, 2006;Kim et al., 2007; Rosenberg-Kima et al. 2008 Ryu & Baylor, 2005). Social agency theory is thought to explain why learners interact socially with computerized agents. Social Agency Theory When students interact with an APA, they humanize the experience to some degree, creating what students perceive as a bond between the APA and the student, which has been attributed to a strong positive perception of the learning experience (Lester et al., 1997). Further, students perceive the interaction between the APA and themselves to be a social interaction with the same implied social rules (Kim & Baylor,

56 2006; Reeves & Nass, 1996), a phenomenon that is purported to promote interest, increase engagement, and facilitate deeper learning (Atkinson, Mayer, & Merrill, 2005; Moreno et al., 2001). Dunsworth and Atkinson (2007) used an agent named Dr. Bob in a lesson about the cardiovascular system. Dr. Bob moved around the screen, pointing to gain student attention and gesturing and gazing to engage the student. In this study the researchers concluded that the APA fostered learning by creating an environment that the student perceives to be social, which serves to stimulate more engagement. Further, students seem to have higher levels of satisfaction with the learning experience when working with an animated agent versus text only or a static image of an agent that is narrated by a human voice (Hershey-Dirkin, Mishra, & Altermatt, 2005). This study used a PowerPoint condition (text only), compared to a voice only, static image plus voice, and a socially interactive (animated) agent. The social agent out performed image-only and voice-only conditions on measures of perceived social presence; however, students in the text-only condition, perceived greater social presence as well. Hershey-Dirken et al. (2005) suggested that the text-only condition could be influenced by Topffers Law (Mishra et. al., 2001) that states there is some level of personality applied to all types of computerized interfaces. Therefore, even email activity or cellphone text messages are in some way thought to consist of social interactions and perceived as having some degree of social presence. In contrast, the voice-only and the static image of the agent may have caused a distraction, such as the split-attention effect (Mayer, 2010).

57 Additionally, the APA can have an influential effect with the learner. For instance, the APA can take part in changing attitudes of young women regarding plausible career fields. Rosenberg et al. (2008) extended the work of Baylor and Plant (2005) using APAs as social models to influence the attitudes of young women regarding the field of engineering. When the APA was more similar to the participants (peer like) it was most effective at increasing participant self-efficacy and interest in engineering. In a set of two experiments, Rosenberg et. al., (2008) explored the influence of an APA compared to a voice-only condition on young womens perceptions regarding a career in engineering. Then they explored the effect of the agents appearance on the womens attitudes and self-efficacy about engineering, as well as the agents effect on interest and engagement. The results suggested that a visual presence of the APA contributes to its ability to influence participants (young women in this case) over the voice only condition. Additionally, a female agent representing an engineer was able to break perceptions of the stereotypical engineer (usually thought of as male) enough to affect the interest and self-efficacy of the participants. Physical Attributes of the Animated Pedagogical Agent As mentioned earlier, another area of research has focused on discriminating which particular aspects of the APA influence the social agency effect. In an effort to better understand how APAs are perceived by students, several physical characteristics of APAs have been evaluated in recent years, such as gender and ethnicity (Baylor, 2005; Moreno & Flowerday, 2006), voice (Domagk, 2010; Kim & Baylor, 2008), attractiveness (Baylor, 2005; Domagk, 2010), movement (Baylor & Kim, 2009; Dunsworth &

58 Atkinson, 2007; Frechette & Moreno, 2010; Moreno, Reislein, & Ozogul, 2010), and level of realism (Baylor 2005; Lusk & Atkinson, 2007; Strfling, Fleischer, Polzer, Leutner, & Krmer, 2010). Haake and Gulz (2008) suggested the appearance of the APA could have a social impact that is important to consider when developing the APA. Avatars with large pupils and slow eye blink frequency were perceived as more attractive and sociable in one study (Weibel, Stricker, Wissmath, & Mast, 2010). Further, the level of realism depicted by the agent, whether it is cartoonlike or rendered in highly realistic form has been considered (Baylor, 2005; Sahimi et al., 2010). Baylor found that female students performed better than male students when using a cartoon agent. Male students in Baylors study performed better using a realistic APA. However, Sahimi et al. (2010) found no significant difference between student sex regarding student achievement due to APA realism. It is noteworthy however, that in cases where the agent is embedded within the learning area, rather than set aside as a remote talking head the effect seems to be more positive (Atkinson, 2002). Using agents designed as an expert (facilitated by an image of a professor in his forties) and a motivator (peer-like image of casually dressed student), Baylor (2005) found a main effect for the agent ethnicity, when the agent was African-American. Students rated the African-American APA as more pleasant to work with and motivational than the Caucasian APA. Additionally, male agents in a motivator role were perceived as more intelligent and knowledgeable than female motivating agents. However, the expert agent as a female seemed to promote student self-efficacy. Further, students learned more when viewing the African American expert agent.

59 Another area of great interest in research has been concerned with how the agents role is perceived and affects the learning experience. Krmer (2010) suggested that due to the mixed effects in many studies, systems may not currently be designed well enough to effect motivation and learning. However, there have been a few studies in which the agent had significant positive effects on learning (Atkinson, 2002; Baylor & Kim, 2005; Moreno et. al., 2001) and positive effects on motivation (Baylor, 2005; Baylor et al., 2003; Baylor & Ryu, 2003; Moundridou & Virvou, 2002). Agent Role The role the agent plays seems to be an important factor that influences the motivational impact and the ability of the agent to promote learning. APAs have served as experts, tutors, facilitators, social role models, companions, and change agents to learners. Ryu and Baylor (2005) identified four aspects of the APAs persona that influence student perception: credible, facilitating learning, engaging, and human-like. Ryu and Baylor discovered that the agent must be perceived as knowledgeable to facilitate learning and the more human-like the agent the better it is able to create a social presence, which in turn, is thought to facilitate learner engagement. Effect on Motivation In the review of over 70 studies using APAs, Heidig and Clarebout (2011) found only 4 of 15 studies that included control groups and measured motivation as a dependent variable. Three of those four found no difference between APA and control conditions (Baylor and Ryu, 2003; Domagk, 2010, Plant et al., 2009). Baylor and Ryu, (2003) found higher engagement ratings in the APA group compared to the static and control groups.

60 Heidig and Clarebout (20011) suggested that the ability of APAs to influence motivation has not had enough research to draw conclusions regarding motivation. However, 24 studies sought to answer the question of how pedagogical agents should be designed rather than whether it is worth implementing a pedagogical agent, according to Heidig and Clarebout (2011, p. 52). Nevertheless, learner motivation is thought to be facilitated through better engagement when APAs are present due to the perceived social interaction (Atkinson, Mayer & Merril, 2005; Mayer, 2005; Moreno et al., 2001). Additionally, Baylor (2009) suggested a key factor to motivational support is the appearance of the APA as a social model. Typically, the agent should represent a person from the same social and cultural group as the learner. Kim and Baylor (2006) suggested that similarity in ethnicity between APA in a peer tutor role and student are perceived by college students as more credible, engaging, and pleasant. Baylor (2005) suggested that African-American students seem to prefer APAs of the same ethnicity and benefit by the similarity, while Caucasian students may prefer agents who appear Caucasian, but tend to learn more from African-American APAs. Further the use of non-stereotypical agents, such as a female agent playing the role of an engineer can increase learner confidence or self-efficacy. Moreno and Flowerday (2006) found that choosing to learn from an APA of same ethnicity reduced the problem-solving transfer and resulted in lower retention, which the researchers attribute to the interference hypothesis. This result suggests that by allowing the student to select the APA the experimenter focuses the learners attention to the APA, rather than to the content of the lesson.

61 In a series of studies one research team sought to better understand the social interaction used by the APA by varying degree of politeness exhibited by the agent (Wang, Johnson, Mayer, Rizzo, et al., 2008). The APA was either polite (Group 1) in the suggestions offered to students or direct (Group 2). Students in the polite condition learned better overall than the direct group; however, no effect was found regarding selfefficacy. Visual agents are purported to be more motivational than voice alone (Baylor, 2009; Rosenberg-Kima et al., 2007). Further, Baylor (2009) suggested that separating the APA into distinct roles, such as companion, motivational coach, and expert may be more motivational than one agent performing multiple duties. One recent study found mixed results based on sex of the student, using a female peer agent as motivational support (van der Meij, van der Meij & Harmsen, 2012). The agent made conversational encouragement in a course about Motion. In this study, two aspects of Kellers ARCS model (1987, 2010) were assessed; task-relevance and confidence (self-efficacy). The researchers found that self-efficacy increased for girls in the agent and voice only conditions but decreased for boys. Further, boys increased in self-efficacy during the control condition, while girls remained equal during the control. There was no effect found for relevancy motivation. In this study, the researchers suggested the effect found for self-efficacy (girls increased while boys decreased in experimental condition) may have been due to the level of initial self-efficacy. Girls had a lower starting self-efficacy, which might be more apt to increase. The effect found with boys coincided with more

62 errors made during the learning task; therefore initial self-efficacy would drop as boys made mistakes. Choi and Clark (2006) found no effect for motivation using pedagogical agents and suggested that it is as effective to use an electronic arrow with voice rather than implement a pedagogical agent. In this experiment the agent was a genie, designed as an animated male cartoon character, who used some facial expressions and pointing gestures. The second group viewed an arrow in place of the genie that pointed to relevant information. Motivation was measured by perception (including interest, usefulness, and helpfulness) of the lesson, the system, and of the agent. Choi and Clark (2006) found no significant difference between the agent and the arrow in motivation or learning. Clark and Choi (2005) suggested that designers should consider the cost-effectiveness of the use of animated pedagogical agents, as well as the cognitive load that the agent might add to the learning material. It is possible that animated agents could cause a split attention effect, in which the student is forced to split his / her limited attention resources between the action of the animated character and other information such as graphics or text (Chandler & Sweller 1991; Sweller & Chandler 1994; Sweller, Chandler, Tierney, & Cooper 1990). In response to Choi and Clark (2006), Veletsianos (2007) suggested two aspects of the APAs design are important considerations: (a) contextual relevance, and (b) aesthetic properties. Veletsianos (2007) argued that using a genie to each English as a second language (as in Choi and Clark, 2006) is a problematic choice as the genie is

63 not appropriate to the situation. Further, Veletsianos (2007) suggested that the look of the APA may have an influence on learner perceptions and influence learning outcomes. Effect on Learning As mentioned earlier, the APAs effect on learning in studies that include a control group have been limited. Of the studies reviewed by Heidig and Clarebout (2011) 15 studies measuring learning used a control group, with five studies indicating mixed results (Clarebout & Elen, 2006; Domagk, 2010; Holmes, 2007; Lusk & Atkinson, 2007; Plant, Baylor, Doerr & Rosenberg-Kima, 2009). Only one of the studies reviewed indicated significantly higher learning in the agent group compared to the text or voice only conditions (Atkinson, 2002). Social agency theory suggests that the mere presence of an agent may prime the social interaction schema resulting in increased learner motivation and deeper processing of learning material. In a design a plant experiment, Moreno et al. (2001) found support for the social agency theory in that students learned more deeply when presented by an APA as compared to text and graphics. In contrast, Domagk (2010) did not find an effect of motivation or learning produced by the mere presence of an agents image or voice, but did find an effect when the agent was perceived to be appealing. Lester et al. (1997) suggested APAs have a strong effect on students perception of the learning experience and showed an increase in learning performance. Graesser, Jackson, and McDaniel (2007) conducted over a dozen experiments with AutoTutor concluding that learning improved by nearly one grade letter with AutoTutor as compared to reading a textbook alone. Moreno (2004) however, suggested the agent is

64 not as influential to learning as the instructional method embedded with the agent. In a set of two studies, Moreno (2004) tested the type of feedback given by the APA to students. Students with low prior-knowledge learned best from explanatory feedback (EF) as EF eases the cognitive load novice learners experience when trying to learn in certain learning conditions, in this case a discovery environment. Moreno suggested that EF helps learners with low prior-knowledge by reducing extraneous cognitive load, and thus freeing limited resources of working memory for schema acquisition. Moreno and Flowerday (2006) gave students the choice of learning with an APA or without, and a choice in gender and ethnicity of the APA. When given the choice, students preferred to learn from an APA. Additionally, non-European American students preferred to learn from an APA of similar ethnicity. However, knowledge transfer scores where lower when students chose to learn from the same ethnicity APA, than those who chose to learn from a different ethnicity. Visual appearance also affected learning outcomes in a study using four conditions based on agent appearance and tutorial content (Veletsianos, 2010). Learning outcomes increased in relation to learners expectation of the agent, based on appearance. Veletsianos stressed that the agents appearance must be consistent with the context of the learning material. Further, researchers have learned that the agent must be perceived as competent to best promote learning (Kim et al., 2006). Students who worked with a companion APA that was designed as high competency, achieved higher transfer scores. Additionally, there was an effect with low-competency agents on self-efficacy regarding the learned skills. That is, those who worked with low competency agents had an increase in self-

65 efficacy beliefs regarding the task. Further, agents designed to be proactive had an impact on student recall. The researchers conclude that design of agent should be considered based on the learning and motivation goals of the course. Baylor and Kim (2008) explored the effect of the APAs facial expressions and gestures on learning. Both facial expression and gestures had a main effect on learning. When gestures were present without facial expression the APA was more effective for procedural instruction, such as navigating within a computer software program. However, when the agent expressed facial expressions without gesturing it was more effective for attitudinal instruction, such as scenarios about copyright law and sharing music on the Internet. Baylor and Kim (2008) suggested that instructional designers could possibly select the type of nonverbal communication based on the type of message in the material. As a social entity, the APA presents another method by which the APA may affect learning, that is, through imitation or modeling. Modeling. One method by which individuals learn is observation. By watching experts perform a task, learners form a cognitive representation of the behavior, then they imitate that behavior (Bandura, 1976; Sweller & Sweller, 2006). Recent advances in neuroscience might help to explain how humans learn from modeling. Humans possess an ability to imitate others through what is called the mirror neuron system (Rizzolatti & Craighero, 2004). The mirror neuron system is thought to be activated by observing motor actions made by others. When humans observe others executing a task, the same cortical circuits involved when executing the task are activated. Further, researchers have observed through functional magnetic resonance imaging that when an individual listened

66 to another person explain an action they were about to take, the neurons in the listeners brain activated in the fronto-parietal motor circuits, which are the regions responsible for those types of movements (Tettamanti et al., 2005). Not only were humans able to imitate the action, but they could also understand the intent of the action and how it was achieved (van Gog et al., 2009). When learning from APAs, students could perceive the agent as an expert (Baylor, 2009 ) and were able to model behaviors, skills, and attitudes from the agent (Rosenberg-Kima et al., 2008). Additionally, a meta-analysis of animation suggested that animations that included human movement and realism facilitated better learning outcomes than static graphics (Hffler & Leutner, 2007). However, the human movements previously studied are simple gestures, rather than fully submersing the APA in animations in which the APA participates in a memorable scene designed to produce learning. It is possible that using the APA in fully animated scenes, involving gesture, action, and facial expression in a rich imagery context designed as a mnemonic device could create a cognitive overload such as split attention effect or extraneous processing. If however, the APA could provoke learning and motivation through involvement in memorable animated scenes, APAs and animation technology could become more useful as a pedagogical tool to motivate and promote learning in online courses. Summary APAs have been studied in numerous instantiations. Some evidence suggests that APAs may promote learning and motivation. Other evidence suggests APAs may be an unnecessary distraction that may hinder cognitive processes or may be an unnecessary

67 expense to development of learning materials (Clark & Choi, 2005). Few studies measuring learning and/or motivation used a control group, but rather compared different aspects of APAs in order to determine the best possible choices. Further, selecting the specific qualities of the APA may be more difficult than the technology involved in creating the animation. Items to be considered include: age, gender, ethnicity, degree of realism, facial expression, gestures, degree of animation, and role of the agent. Researchers suggest the agent should be paired with the desired outcome, for instance, to teach a procedural course, such as computer software instruction, the best choice might be using gestures to signal important information. To promote student self-efficacy, the best choice seems to be a female APA. African-American students seem to learn best from an African-American agent. Realistic and attractive APAs seem to be the best choice to promote learning. Learning is best promoted when the agent is perceived to be competent and knowledgeable. Novice learners may benefit most from the use of an APA. These aspects of the APA have been considered when designing the proposed study. Further, this study explored a new concept in the field of APAs that is the use of a MAPA. As mentioned above, APAs have been used in many different capacities, however to date none of the studies have used the APA as a mnemonic device designed to help learners remember the information. In this study the APA is not simply a talking head, but the actor in scenes that implore bizarre imagery to imprint memories of the information in the learners mind. For example, one scene in the lesson about growing dendrites in the brain shows the MAPA watering a brain in a flowerpot. In another scene

68 teaching the learner ways to possibly build new neural pathways in the brain, the MAPA rides a horse down a city street, rather than driving a car to work. This study was the first to explore using the APA in such a capacity. Chapter 3 describes the research methodology, including measures to be used in the study.

69 Chapter 3: Method Introduction Finding ways to motivate individuals and encourage persistence in online courses, while facilitating learning, could impact students lives in many ways. Research has shown that APAs may be able to increase motivation; however, no research to date has explored the use of APAs as a mnemonic device. This chapter discusses the methodology used in this study, which explored the use of an APA as a mnemonic device designed to facilitate motivation and promote learning for adult online learners and includes information regarding the measures, lesson design, population, sampling method, data collection and analysis, means used to protect the participants and possible distribution of findings. Research Questions This study was based on two research questions, each of which generated related hypotheses. Does the use of an APA as a mnemonic device in an online mental fitness training program enhance learner motivation in comparison to a control group? Does the use of an APA as a mnemonic device in an online mental fitness training program improve learning in comparison to a control group? Research Design and Approach This study used a true experimental quantitative design that included both between-subjects and within-subjects factors. The between-subject factor compared two levels of group MAPA and a control group. The within-subjects factor was two levels of

70 time (pretest and posttest) of learning. The independent variable was the pedagogical agent program (MAPA or Control). The dependent variables were motivation, as measured by nine confidence questions from the Instructional Materials Motivation Survey (IMMS, Appendix A) developed by Keller (2010) administered post lesson and learning as measured by the Cobb (2012) learning measure (Appendix B). A convenience sample was used, randomly assigned to two conditions: MAPA and control. The degree of learning facilitated by the lesson was measured by pretest-posttest questions (see Appendix B). Setting, Sample and Size The target sample group included adults, over the age of 18, who were interested in, or had taken, online courses in the past. The study was open to any ethnicity, gender, or educational level. Participants were required to be able to read English at a 7.5 grade level and to operate a computer. The Walden University Participant Pool was used for recruiting participants. Participants were also recruited via social networking, such as LinkedIn, Yahoo groups, and Facebook. In order to avoid coercion, recruiting messages stated that the research was anonymous and that the researcher would not know who participated. The home page of the studys website presented the following information about the study: (a) eligibility to participate, (b) reason for the study, (c) the time commitment involved (d) participants rights and (e) informed consent. An individual chose to participate by clicking a link on the home page that directed the participant to one of two pages randomly: either the MAPA condition or the control condition. Candidates were

71 asked to create a profile by entering the following demographic information: age, gender, education level, ethnicity, and past experience with online courses (see Appendix C). There are no known studies using a MAPA; however, based on a meta-analysis of animation compared with static images (Hffler & Leutner, 2007) a small effect size of .37 was used to establish sample size. The population is large based on the number of individuals who have previously or might be interested in taking an online course in the future. In case of participants discontinuing or data that was not usable, each condition was allocated five additional participants. Therefore, it was estimated that in order to yield a power of .80, = .05, and effect size of .37 approximately 60 participants (30 in each group) were required. An additional 10 participants (five in each group) were sought in case of outliers and other reasons to eliminate a participant (a total of 70 participants). However, the study required a participant to complete both the pretest and the posttest in order to have useable data, which proved to be problematic. In this study many participants took only one of the measures, thus requiring additional data to be collected. A total of 138 (N = 138) individuals participated in the study. Of the 138, 97 took one of the pretests, while 82 individuals completed a posttest. However, only 63 participants of the total 138 completed both the required pre- and posttests. Lesson Design As discussed in Chapter 2, several factors are important considerations to the design of the lesson material. In an attempt to produce a lesson that was inherently interesting and perceived by the learners as relevant, the topic of Mental Fitness was chosen. The 14-minute lesson teaches participants about currently reported research

72 regarding the best way to maintain mental agility and a healthy mind. The lesson was designed within the principles of cognitive load theory and cognitive theory of multimedia learning in order to best facilitate learning. Additionally, bizarre imagery was incorporated in the animated MAPA condition to create memorable scenes hypothesized to facilitate learning. When possible, static pictures of the bizarre imagery were incorporated in the control condition as well. The control group lesson used the same script as the MAPA group lesson, without the APA (see Appendix C). The control group had static images of the scene, while the MAPA group saw the APA physically participating in an activity. Therefore, the background images, background music, and voice narration, were the same in the control group as in the MAPA condition. Additionally, the control group saw some animations that did not contain the MAPA. For instance, the representation of a dendrite growing longer branches was a brief animation that was viewed in both lessons (see Appendix D for example). Animated Character. Research suggested the appearance, gender, and voice of the APA is also an important consideration when designing the course (Baylor, 2005). Domagk (2010) posited that APAs, who are considered attractive to the learner and which use human voice narration, aid learning better than unattractive APAs with computer generated narration. Further, APAs who were more similar to the participants (peer like), were most effective at increasing participant self-efficacy and interest (Rosenberg et al., 2008). Student confidence in her own ability to learn the material may also increase when learning from an APA whose role is nonstereo typical, for example, female character as an Expert (Baylor, 2005). Further, APAs that represent an ethnic

73 minority seem to promote learning through enhanced concentration and focus (Baylor and Kim, 2004). Baylor and Kim (2004) suggested that students seem to engage more in lessons with APAs of non-traditional roles, such as African American females in Expert roles. Due to the above mentioned findings in previous research, this study used a female APA designed with darker skin and hair coloring to represent an ethnic minority. Animation Software iClone 5 and CrazyTalk 6 software (Reallusion, 2011) were used to design animated scenes for the MAPA condition. iClone 5 allows novice users to create animated movies with predesigned avatars, motions, and background environments. Avatar actors can be customized as desired. CrazyTalk 6 allows for realistic facial movement and articulation of speech. Course Design Software Adobe Captivate (2011) software was used to create the learning environment and merge animation or still images into the curriculum. Captivate is an elearning program that allows for branching scenarios and quizzes that were used in pre and post testing to measure learning. Background Music Band-In-A-Box (PGMusic, 2011) was used to create background music for the lesson. Among other functionality, this software allows the user to select style and instrumentation of a song and allow the system to automatically generate the melody.

74 Moodle The server hosting the lessons was running Moodle 2.3 (Dougiamas, 2012) an open-source learning management system (LMS). The system used a SQL-encrypted database for security and data storage. Figure 1 shows the LMS interface. Instrumentation and Materials Learning Pretest and Posttest Learning was measured by pretest and posttest administered through the elearning system. A knowledge test comprised of eight multiple choice questions and eight matching format items measured the students level of expertise prior to training. The learning measure required a reading grade level of 7.5 as measured by the Flesch-Kincaid readability test (Kincaid, Fishburne, Rogers & Chissom, 1975). The same questions were used as a posttest after taking the lesson. In both phases, answers were shuffled by the system, so that the answers were presented in a different order upon second administration. Construct validity was determined by review of the lesson script and learning measure by three licensed psychologists (see Appendix B.) It is estimated that the pretest / posttest would take approximately 4 minutes to complete (totaling 8 minutes).

75
Learning Management Interface

Figure 1. Image showing the learning management system, with the three steps participants were asked to take. Instructional Materials Motivation Survey (IMMS) Nine self-report, 5-point scale questions adapted from the IMMS were used to measure motivation (See Appendix A). The nine questions measure the confidence component of the ARCS model (Keller, 2010). The IMMS is a 36-item, self-report survey, which used a 5-point Likert-scale designed to measure the four primary components of the ARCS model: attention, relevance, confidence, and satisfaction

76 (Keller, 2010). Scores are determined by summing responses for each element of the ARCS model and summing the total scale, then averaging the sums. There were no norms for the survey, as Keller (2010) suggested the measure is a situation-specific survey. Therefore it has no expected normal distribution. The internal consistency of the IMMS, based on Cronbachs alpha were .89 (Attention), .81 (Relevance), .90 (Confidence), .92 (Satisfaction), and .96 (Total scale) (Keller 2009). Empirical validity was established by an experiment in which a course was manipulated in the experimental condition to promote the principles of attention, relevance, confidence and satisfaction with the course (the ARCS model; Keller 1987, 2010). It was estimated that participant time commitment for the nine questions measuring the confidence subscale was approximately 4 minutes. Data Collection and Analysis Data Collection Process The Walden University Research Pool was approached to participate in the study. Additionally, in order to diversify the sample, the study was offered via social networking sites such as LinkedIn, Yahoo Groups, and Facebook with a link to the study website. After agreeing to the informed consent participants were randomly assigned to either the experiment group (MAPA) or control group, and then demographic information was gathered. Each group took the same pretest, viewed the appropriate lesson depending on condition, and then took the posttest and motivation survey questions at the end of the lesson. The total time commitment was approximately 26 minutes.

77 Data Analysis Data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) 21 software (IBM, 2012). The demographic information was analyzed and described; however there were no assumptions made regarding particular demographic data. Thus no effect due to demographics was hypothesized. Hypothesis 1: Motivation Motivation was assessed using a single subscale of the Instructional Materials Motivation Survey (IMMS) representing the confidence element of the ARCS model. The data used in this experiment were derived from 9 questions in a 5-level, Likert format, not true to very true. Some participants did not answer all the motivation questions, therefore the average score of the answered questions was used to analyze motivation. Normality was checked by use of the Shapiro-Wilk and found to be normally distributed. The means were then analyzed using a one-tailed t test. Finally, the assumption of equal variances was checked using the Levene test. Hypothesis 2: Learning Learning was assessed by method of pretest and posttest scores on the Cobb (2012) learning quiz with the highest possible score being 16. A t test of independent samples was run to compare the pretest scores of the two groups for equality. An analysis of the posttest scores using the Shapiro-Wilk test determined that the MAPA group was not normally distributed. Posttest scores for both groups were analyzed for outliers and none were found. Transformations were attempted, yet failed to bring about normality.

78 Since the normality assumption could not be met, the Mann-Whitney U and Wilcoxon Rank Sum tests were used to analyze learning. Protection of Participants The study was administered in accordance to the Walden Universitys IRB approval, 03-29-13-0094932 and did not include minors or members of any vulnerable groups as defined by Sieber (2012). Adult participants were solicited via the Walden University research participant pool and social networking sites. Participants confirmed they are over 18 before entering the study website. Solicitation documents had a hyperlink directing the participant to the home page of the study website. A statement indicating the purpose of the study and the time commitment required was shown on the initial web page so that the participants understood how the study might affect them (Creswell, 2003). Participation was strictly voluntary. There were no incentives offered for participation. Next, participants read the informed consent prior to participation. Data were collected anonymously. Each participant completed a demographics form (see Appendix E). Data from the form were collected in an encrypted SQL database. The data have been downloaded and saved on a password-protected DVD that is only accessible by the researcher. The DVD will be stored indefinitely in the researchers files. The server data have been deleted. Participants in the MAPA group were exposed to the agent for one 14 minute lesson. The control group was exposed to the same learning material, without the fully animated scenes that contain the APA. It was anticipated that the interaction with the APA would create minimal risk to the participants; however, a list of low-cost and free

79 counseling resources was made available as a link from the website welcome page in case there was an adverse reaction (See Appendix F). Contact information for the researcher and IRB contacts was provided in the informed consent. After collection of the data, the website was edited to allow viewing of both lessons by all participants. Chapter 4 will present the results of the study, including descriptive statistics and findings.

80 Chapter 4: Results The purpose of this study was to determine if a MAPA had an effect on the motivation and learning of students in an online lesson about mental fitness when compared to a control condition with no MAPA. The research questions asked whether the APA as a mnemonic device enhanced learner motivation and/or improved learning when compared to a control group. A true experimental research design was selected; data were collected from an online website that hosted the lessons for each condition. This chapter presents the results of the data collected during a 10-week period between April 1, 2013 and June 10, 2013. This chapter includes descriptive statistics for the participants, such as age, gender, ethnicity, education level, online experience, and university name. It also includes the results of statistical analyses described in Chapter 3. Description of Participants and Data Collection Of the 138 participants, 97 took one of the pretests (MAPA or control), while 82 participants completed a posttest (MAPA or control). However, only 63 (45.7%). participants of the 138 completed both the required pre- and posttests Given the large number of individuals who dropped out of the study, demographic data from completers and dropouts were compared (see Table 1) to determine whether there were any differences between groups. T tests and chi-square analysis demonstrated no significant differences between the groups (p values were all > .27).

81 Table1 Participant Demographics Dropped out Sex Male Female Ethnicity European American African American Latino-Hispanic Other Online Experience None 1 to 3 courses 4 or more courses Did not answer Education Did not graduate HS HS graduate Bachelor degree Master or PhD level Current School Walden University Other online school Not attending Age Median 49 15 3 8 19 8 47 42 14 3 4 20 11 31 1 0 11 28 24 27 4 32 48 9 66 10 53 Completed study

1 19 16 39 40 2 33 49

The combined dataset of those who completed the study contained 63 samples, 30 in the control group and 33 in the experimental group. Demographic data were analyzed to determine if there were any differences between the MAPA group and the control group. T test and chi-square analysis demonstrated no significant differences in demographic data between the MAPA and control groups (p values all > .12). Table 2 shows the demographic data for participants who completed the study by group.

82 Table 2 Completer Demographics by Group Control Sex Male Female Ethnicity European American African American Hispanic Other Education High school graduate Bachelor degree Graduate school Experience None 1 to 3 courses 4 or more courses Did not answer School Affiliation Did not attend Walden University Other school Age Median 7 23 17 10 1 2 7 11 12 12 4 14 0 15 15 0 48 Findings Hypothesis I: Motivation Motivation was assessed using the confidence subscale of the Instructional Materials Motivation Survey (IMMS). The data consisted of nine questions in a 5-point Likert scale ranging from Not true to Very true. Some participants did not answer all the questions, therefore the motivation scores could not be simply summed for analysis and 3 30 25 4 2 2 4 17 12 8 7 17 1 17 12 4 48 MAPA

83 only the mean score of the answered questions was analyzed. Approximately 9.17% of the motivation questions were unanswered (52 of the total 567 possible questions). All 63 participants completed some or all of the questions on the survey, 2 (22.22%) being the fewest questions answered. However, most participants answered most or all of the questions. Scores ranged from 2.5 to 4.0. An independent samples t test was conducted to compare motivation in MAPA and control conditions. There was not a significant difference in the scores for motivation with the MAPA (M = 3.38, SD = .32) and control (M = 3.34, SD = .26) conditions; t(61) = -.48, p = .32. Hypothesis II: Learning Hypothesis II asked whether the MAPA and control groups would have a significant difference in learning as measured by pre and post knowledge assessment of the course material. The data used to test this hypothesis were pre-test and post-test scores from the same learning measure (Cobb, 2012) for the 63 participants who completed the study. Participants in the control (n = 30) and MAPA (n = 33) groups learned the same information with the same voice narration, music, and similar images. The difference between groups was that the MAPA group had an animated agent, an entity involved in memorable scenes designed to promote learning. The control condition did have some animated images, although without the MAPA. The two group pretest scores were analyzed using an independent samples t test indicating that there was no significant difference between the MAPA pretest scores (M=8.42, SD=3.68) and the control group pretest scores (M=8.23, SD=3.30); t(61)=-.22,

84 p=.83. The Shapiro-Wilk test however, indicated that the pretest scores for both groups were negatively skewed. The statistical test of hypothesis II would have been an ANOVA, however, one of the assumptions of an ANOVA is that the test groups are normally distributed. Based on the Shapiro-Wilk test, the two group posttest scores were negatively skewed and not normally distributed. Figure 2 shows the distribution for Pretest and Posttest for both groups. Figure 2. Bar graph showing the negatively skewed distribution of participants.
14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Pretest Control Pretest MAPA Posttest Control Posttest MAPA

Distribution of Learning Test Scores Outliers Examined The data for each of these data sets were examined for outliers; however, neither the control groups pretest scores nor the experimental groups pretest scores had any values outside the 3 limits. The experimental groups post-test scores likewise had no values outside the 3 limits. One outlier having a value of 0 and at -3.51 from the mean

85 was found in the control group's post-test scores. Omitting this outlier altered the control groups post-test mean from 11.96 to 12.2. However, this result still failed to render the data normally distributed at the .05 significance level using the Shapiro-Wilks test (W = 0.94, p = .08). Rank Transformation Given that the data were not normally distributed in both pretest and posttest scores for both groups the data for posttest were normalized using a rank transformation (Conover & Iman, 1981). Table 3 shows the posttest rank scores for both groups, indicating that the MAPA group scored higher than the control group. An analysis of variance showed that the effect of the MAPA on the transformed variable was significant, F(1, 61) = 7.28, p = .005. Table 4 shows the Levenes Test of Equality indicating that the assumption of equality was met. Table 3 Posttest Rank Scores Group Control Posttest MAPA Total Table 4 Levenes Test for Rank of Posttest Scores Dependent Variable: Rank of Posttest F df1 df2 .364 1 61 Sig. .549 N 30 33 63 Mean rank 25.90 37.55 Sum of ranks 777.00 1239.00

86 Non-Parametric The Mann-Whitney U test was also run as a non-parametric test of Hypothesis II. The results of this analysis indicated that the posttest scores were significant between groups, U= 31, Z= -2.57, p =.005 (one tailed). Summary Sixty-three individuals participated in this study by completing a pretest, watching a lesson about mental fitness, and taking a posttest with additional motivation survey questions measuring confidence level with the material. There were two experimental conditions: the MAPA group, who viewed a lesson with an animated agent involved in scenes designed to be memorable; and the control group, who saw a lesson without the animated agent. There was no significant difference regarding motivation between the two groups. This result suggests that the MAPA had no effect on motivation as measured by confidence questions from the IMMS (Keller, 2009), thus the null hypothesis for Hypothesis I (motivation) was not rejected. There was a significant difference found between the MAPA condition and the control condition on posttest learning scores, and therefore the null hypothesis for Hypothesis II (Learning) was rejected. Chapter 5 discusses the implications of the studys findings as well as limitations and suggestions for future research.

87 Chapter 5: Discussion The purpose of this study was to explore whether a relatively new tool, APA, could be used in a novel capacity, as a mnemonic device, to increase motivation and learning in online education. The goal was to offer an alternative instructional design method that might improve persistence in online education. Key findings of this study are discussed, as well as limitations and conclusions of the results. Finally, the recommendations for future research and the implications for social change are given. Research Questions and Hypothesis While the number of students taking online courses is rising (Allen & Seaman, 2008). The dropout rate is disproportionate in online courses when compared to face-toface traditional courses. Therefore, most universities have sought ways to retain students in online courses (Carr, 2000; Patterson & McFadden, 2009). Several researchers have posited that changes in the design and implementation of coursework in the online environment could lower dropout rates by creating a more motivating experience (Keller, 2010; Park & Choi, 2009; Taylor, 2011) and by improving the success of the learner through an optimized cognitive load (Kalyuga 2010; Mayer & Moreno, 2010; Sweller, 2010; van Merrinboer & Sweller, 2010). One method proposed that might increase motivation and learning is the use of an APA. But research on the effect of an APA on motivation and learning is inconsistent. Some evidence suggests that APAs do improve student motivation and engagement (Baylor, 2009; Rosenberg-Kima et al., 2008). Others have found no difference in motivation when using an APA (Choi & Clark, 2006). Still

88 others have also found mixed results (Clarebout & Elen, 2006; Domagk, 2010; Holmes, 2007; Lusk & Atkinson, 2007; Plant, Baylor, Doerr & Rosenberg-Kima, 2009). CLT and the CMML suggest that learners can become overloaded by stimuli in course material, such as animation, distracting graphics, and background music, if these stimuli are not implemented with care. Further, it has been suggested that the use of APAs in particular can be distracting from the original learning material (Clark, 2005). This study offered a new approach to the use of an APA in that the agent was involved in scenes, rather than implemented as a talking head with a few gestures. Further, based on the research on bizarre imagery (Burns, 1996; Mercer, 1996) and mnemonic devices (Hwang & Levin, 2002), the scenes were designed using unusual images, such as the agent riding to work on horseback in city traffic, to promote memorability of the information. This is the first known study in which an APA was used as a mnemonic device (MAPA). Interpretation of Results While cognitive load was not measured in this study, it appears that the use of a MAPA did not cause a cognitive overload or distract from the ability to learn the material. To the contrary, it appears that using the MAPA in scenes full of interesting, even bizarre imagery may have enhanced learning, given the significant difference between groups in the posttest scores. It is uncertain; however, if there was any motivation benefit to using the MAPA. There was no significant difference between groups regarding the confidence questions of the IMMS that were used to measure motivation. However there are other aspects of motivation that were not measured, such

89 as the participants ability to pay attention to the material, perceived relevance of the material, satisfaction with the learning material, and volition, or the ability to maintain effort in the face of distractions (Deimann & Keller, 2006; Keller, 2010). One or more of these motivation components could have contributed to the significant gain between pretest and posttest learning in the MAPA condition. Attention and volition seem particularly applicable in that the MAPA was more likely able to keep ones attention than the control lesson. Additionally, lack of volition could have contributed to the dropout rate observed during this study. Individuals may have found the tasks required of them by the study to be too demanding and other more pressing needs could have persuaded them to discontinue participation. Because this is the first study to use an APA as a mnemonic device, the results need to be replicated to help determine the full effect of a MAPA. The initial results seem to indicate that a new method of using an APA may be as a device designed to promote learning rather than mere facilitation of information. Future studies might also include a third condition using an APA as a facilitator of information (talking head) in order to compare the MAPA in scenes designed to promote learning with the APA as facilitator and a Control group with no APA or MAPA. Such a comparison, along with measures of attention and volition, would help determine if the MAPA is a motivating factor. Limitations Study Dropouts In this study there were a large number of participants who did not complete both a pretest and a posttest. Interestingly this problem of participant dropouts mirrors the

90 significant dropout rate found in online education. Several factors have been suggested to influence attrition in online learning, such as the learners perception of locus of control (Martinez, 2003), the learners readiness, which includes computer skills and personal organizational skills (Bernard, Brauer, Abrami, & Sturkes, 2004), as well as the interaction with instructors and other students. As mentioned earlier, the students volition, or willingness to persevere in the face of obstacles or distractions may have been a factor in this study. If the task was perceived to be too hard or too long, some individuals may have given up prematurely. Tyler-Smith (2006) proposed that learners may have difficulty negotiating navigation of courseware and working within the learning management system (LMS). It is possible that navigation of the LMS was a problem in this study as well. In the LMS the participant was asked to click each element of the study separately, rather than one click that automatically offered the three elements (pretest, lesson, and posttest) in one package. Further, the small font size when indicating where to click for the pretest may have been confusing to some participants. It is possible that a bias was introduced due to the difficulty of following directions. However, if such a bias was introduced, it could have affected both groups as the instructions and interface were the same for both groups. Future studies might measure the reason for dropouts by including an opt-out button. By clicking the button the participant would be given the opportunity to say why they are leaving the study. This could be implemented either as a list of possible reasons from which to choose, or an open-ended text field so the participant could leave a comment.

91 Learning Measure While the Cobb (2012) learning measure was reviewed for content and accuracy of the information by three subject matter experts, the test construction seemed to be too narrow. It is possible that there were either not enough questions offered, or the questions were too easy. Either of these possibilities could have resulted in the skewed data that were found. The test was constructed of eight multichoice questions and two questions that matched four items each. Therefore, the total possible correct was 16. In the entire dataset (both pre and posttests) there was only one individual who correctly answered all 16 questions. There were 13 participants who received a score of 15 and 18 participants who received a score of 14 on the posttest. If the test had more questions or was more difficult perhaps the distribution would have been more normal, instead, it seems that participants were mostly maximizing their possible gain of correct answers on the test without maximizing their potential to demonstrate learning. APA versus MAPA This study compared the MAPA learning condition to a control group. Future studies would provide additional information and a better understanding of the effect of the MAPA by comparing the difference between an APA used in a more conventional manner, as a facilitator, compared to the MAPA and control groups. Since there was not a third group (APA as a facilitator), it is inconclusive as to whether the APA was the variable that affected learning or whether it was the manner in which the MAPA was applied. It can be inferred from the results, however, that using the MAPA in scenes with bizarre imagery did not seem to interfere with learning. Therefore, the MAPA is a viable

92 method to research as a method to enhance learning with the idea that it may help retain students in online courses. One School This study used the Walden University Participant Pool as well as social networking media to solicit participants. The majority of participants (50.8%) did not endorse affiliation with an online school, although education level demographics indicated that most participants attended college at the bachelor or graduate level (82.5% combined). The majority of participants who were affiliated with an online school indicated that they attended Walden University. Therefore, the data may not be representative of the effect a MAPA might have in a lesson presented to students from other online universities as other universities may have unique demographics, such as younger students. Future studies might actively solicit participants from multiple universities in order to determine if the effect noted in this study is representative of other online universities. Limited Material This study was only implemented during one lesson. A full term course would require weeks of lessons and possibly more than one per week. Therefore, it is difficult to determine what kind of effect the MAPA would have over a longer course without implementing a longitudinal study. Including a MAPA in several lessons throughout a course term may have a different result regarding learner motivation than this study observed. Additionally, determining the long-term effect of learning gained during the

93 lessons that might involve a MAPA would require a longitudinal study that measured learning retained weeks, or months after the lesson. Additionally, the scope of the learning material was limited; as the topic was narrow, mental fitness. It is unknown if the same type of effect would be found in more or less difficult material based on different subject matter. Other Narrow Demographics The participants who completed this study were mostly European American women with a median age of 48. Therefore, it is uncertain whether the effect observed in this study could be applied to younger students, men, or students of other ethnicities. Future studies might compare the use of a MAPA in populations of different age brackets to determine if there is a generational determinant. Additionally, studies with populations of various ethnicities could be used to observe any possible trends associated with ethnic differences. This study had only 15.87% male participants. Future studies might consider the effect of a MAPA based on gender of the participant as well as the gender of the animated agent involved in the lesson. Importance of the Study This is the first study to investigate the use of a MAPA in learning and motivation. Since an animated character has no boundaries and can go anywhere and do anything one can imagine, it may seem intuitive that an animated agent be implemented in online learning using all the possible functionality of the technology to promote memorability of the lesson. However, APAs have been used in a more conventional sense in the past. Even the few cases of cartoon type characters implemented in studies of

94 online learning, have been used as a talking facilitator or substitute teacher, and researchers have not yet tapped into this capability of animated agents to act in scenes designed to promote the learning until now. MAPAs could be a new tool that may enhance the enjoyment of learning the material, and may offer learners a method to more fully engage them in the learning process. Using the MAPA may help particular types of learners better than others. For instance, learners with attention deficits may learn more when there is more information to use in the encoding process. Future research with larger sample sizes might be able to determine which groups may benefit more from the use of a MAPA. The importance of this study is that there is what appears to be a significant difference in learning with this type of agent. The implementation of MAPAs by universities may increase retention of students. Social Implications On a grander scale, if the MAPA can be used as a tool to increase student retention in online courses, the use of MAPAs could potentially lead to several benefits for students. These benefits may include, but are not limited to, higher grades, increased level of learning, greater likelihood of completing a degree program, raised self-esteem, and higher income. Additionally higher education has been found to increase the likelihood of volunteerism (Baum & Payea, 2005). With knowledge comes power. Therefore, by furthering an individuals education, future investigation and use of the MAPA could help present more opportunities and potentially life-changing events could unfold for future students.

95 Secondly, there are benefits to instructors and universities that might implement MAPAs into their coursework. Students who learn with the aid of MAPAs may have a better understanding of the material and thus may successfully complete the program. By reducing student attrition, universities would have better success rates for student graduation, thereby increasing the universitys ability to gain funding, such as grants and endowments as well as other accolades. Successful students who represent the university in their chosen fields will continue to promote the university through research, and achievement within that domain. Additionally, there is an economic growth benefit to the community in which an individual resides due to the increased education (Breton, 2013). As a nations average level of academic achievement rises, so does the nations income; this phenomenon may either be attributed to the demand for education increasing with wealth or because education stimulates economic growth (Breton, 2013). There are both direct and indirect effects of education on a nations output. Workers have a direct effect on the nations income by raising their productivity contribution. Workers have an indirect effect on national income by increasing physical capital due to higher attainment of education. Recommendations Future studies should compare the MAPA to both a control group and an APA as a facilitator in order to better understand how the MAPA affects learning. Additionally, other aspects of student learning should be investigated. There are several elements of motivation, for example, that were not considered in this study, such as attention and volition. Future studies might use the whole IMMS (Keller, 2010) as a more complete

96 measure of motivational determinants. Future studies might also offer an opt-out button with an exit question that helps the researcher understand why the participant is leaving. Students from various online universities should be solicited in order to determine if the effect found in this study is transferable to online schools other than Walden University. Further, using a MAPA at different levels of education might provide additional insight into the effect found in this study. Would a MAPA have an effect in a population of high school seniors or in a group of elementary students? Further, a measure of cognitive load during a lesson using a MAPA would help researchers better understand how the MAPA affected learning. There did not seem to be an overload effect of the MAPA, even though the agent was involved in scenes that included some bizarre imagery. Why did the MAPA not cause a distraction in this study? Additionally, future research may want to narrow the population studied to certain ethnicities or age groups to better understand the use of MAPAs as a tool in online learning. In this study the MAPA was designed to resemble an attractive female African American. Would the MAPA have the same effect if it were designed as a European American man? Additionally, most of the participants were European American women; therefore, a study that compared the effect with groups of various ethnicities might have different results. Future studies may also want to implement multiple lessons within a full term in an online course rather than only one lesson to see if there is a motivational impact of the MAPA as well as a continued effect on learning. Another option for future research might be to explore the use of MAPAs in a variety of course material with different

97 subject matter and of differing level of required skills (prerequisites). Finally, whether the MAPA has an effect on long-term retention of learning gained should be explored empirically. A study implemented over time, for instance over eight or more lessons, could also offer the opportunity to explore persistence. Summary The purpose of this quantitative true experimental study was to extend research in the cognitive theory of multimedia learning (CTML, Mayer, 2009) and the ARCS model (Keller, 1987, 2010) that relates the design of multimedia courses, to motivation and learning. Participants were randomly assigned to one of two conditions with APA as a mnemonic device (experimental condition, MAPA) and no APA (control), for adults who had an interested in or have previously participated in online training. The goal of the study was to better understand the use of APAs in order to improve learner motivation and at the same time promote learning. The study found no significant effect for motivation and a significant effect for the MAPA condition on learning. This knowledge has enhanced the literature in multimedia course design, and theories of cognitive load and cognitive theory of multimedia learning. Somewhat surprisingly, there did not seem to be a cognitive distraction brought about by the MAPA. To the contrary, students learned significantly more in the MAPA condition. This study offers a new tool that could impact the retention of online learners by creating a more rewarding and engaging experience that promotes learning. By increasing the online students learning, use of an MAPA might bring about higher grades, increased

98 personal empowerment, satisfaction with the course, and higher achievement levels in online education. Higher levels of education could impact the individual by increasing self-efficacy, creating more opportunities in ones chosen field, and ultimately increased personal financial gain. This study benefits the universities that embrace MAPAs as a new learning tool in that increased success in schooling could reduce attrition rates and increase the ability to gain funding in the form of grants, endowments, and alumnae donations. Further, this study is the first to use an MAPA, which might lead the way to research in other fields such as treatment programs for Alzheimer and other dementia patients, or for individuals who are mentally retarded, or those with traumatic brain injuries. Finally, this study benefits society in general as it provides a new method for improving learning. Increased education correlates with increased national economic growth by indirectly and directly improving worker output (McClenney, 2011).

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Appendix A: Motivation Measure Adapted questions from the Instructional Materials Motivation Survey Instrument (Keller, 2010) Use the following values to indicate your response to each item: 1 = Not True 2 = Slightly true 3 = Moderately true 4 = Mostly true 5 = Very true 1. When I first looked at this lesson, I had the impression that it would be easy for me. 2. This material was more difficult to understand than I would like for it to be. 3. After reading the introductory information, I felt confident that I knew what I was supposed to learn from this lesson. 4. Many of the pages had so much information that it was hard to pick out and remember the important points. 5. As I worked on this lesson, I was confident that I could learn the content. 6. The exercises in this lesson were too difficult. 7. After working on this lesson for a while, I was confident that I would be able to pass a test on it. 8. I could not really understand quite a bit of the material in this lesson. 9. The good organization of the content helped me be confident that I would learn this material.

137 Appendix B:Learning Quiz (Cobb, 2012) 1. Remembering a phone number without writing it down is an example of : A. Cognitive load B. Digit sequencing C. Mental acuity D. Working memory 2. Old neurons in the brain can grow longer branches of nerve cells called: A. Dendrites B. Neurotrophins C. Neurobic links D. Spindles 3. We can encourage the production of the nerve system that is used to transmit information in the brain through: A. Non-routine activity B. Electroshock therapy C. Neurosynthesis D. Improving the attentional blink 4. What is the time commitment required for a working memory training program to result in long-lasting effects? A. 3 times a week B. 30 40 min a day for 5 days a week C. Every other day D. 5 minutes a day for 7 days a week 5. Why do scientists now believe we can take action to slow cognitive decline? A. B. C. D. Neurobic pruning Neural plasticity Neurotrophin decline Neural propagation

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6. Using your non-dominant hand to eat lunch is an example of: A. B. C. D. Mnemonic exercise Aerobic exercise Cerebral exercise Neurobic exercise

7. Which of the following is an action video game? A. Hearts B. SimCity C. Tetris D. Medal of Honor 8. Which of the following will most likely NOT help promote the growth of new dendrites? A. A concert pianist practicing the piano B. An electrician beginning kickboxing classes C. A computer programmer taking a new route to work D. A student searching their bag for a cellphone with their eyes closed Match the following: 1 Receive neurotransmitters from other neurons 2 The brain changes throughout life 3 Requires a time commitment 4 Action video games 1 Inactive synapses wither away 2 Peripheral vision 3 Mental stimulation 4 Can last up to 5 years A Might help maintain skills needed for driving B Neural plasticity C Formal brain training D Dendrites A Could improve by playing action video games B Working memory training C Engage in activities using all of the senses D Neuronal pruning

139 Answers 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. D A A B B D D A

Matching Answers 1. 2. 3. 4. 1. 2. 3. 4. D B C A D A C B

140 Appendix C: Mental Fitness Lesson Hello, my name is Monique. Thank you for participating in this study. We appreciate your time and hope you will enjoy learning about mental fitness. With the number of baby boomers reaching or nearing retirement age, there is a growing concern regarding ways to slow down the aging process. Intuitively we might look to avenues of promoting physical health as a way of maintaining mental health, and rightfully so. Studies show that diet (Gomez-Pinilla, 2008) and aerobic exercise (Colcombe & Kramer, 2003; Pereira et al., 2007) do promote mental wellness. Additionally, research in cognitive training suggests there are several things we can do to maintain and possibly increase our mental capabilities (Achtman, Green, & Bavelier, 2008; Buschkuehl et al., 2008; Green & Bavelier, 2008; Mahncke et al., 2006; Smith et al., 2009). This lesson will discuss actions you can take toward mental fitness. Scientists once thought that as we get older, the nerve cells in the brain that directly receive and process information began to die off and our memory inevitably declined (Katz & Rubin, 1999). However, since 1998 when a team of American and Swedish scientists first discovered that new brain cells can actually be generated in people and could be created throughout life (Erikson et al, 1998), neuroscientists have been dispelling many myths about aging brains. We now know that old neurons in the brain can grow longer branches of nerve cells called dendrites to compensate for dying cells (Katz & Rubin, 1999). These dendrites are important elements in brain functioning, as they receive neurotransmitters from other neurons (Hanson & Mendius, 2009). By keeping our brains active, and stimulating the brain, we encourage the growth of

141 dendrites, while inactive synapses, on the other hand, wither in a process called neuronal pruning (Spear, 2000). Neuroscience refers to this ability of our brains to create new pathways for transmitting information as neural plasticity (Begley, 2007). Instead of being static or set for life, the brain is more flexible or plastic. We also know that specific molecules in the brain, called neurotrophins promote nerve cell functioning. These neurotrophins are very important to the development of the nerve pathways through which information flows in our brains. Neurotrophins can be generated by firing multiple neurons together, which strengthens the growth patterns (Tanaka et al., 2008). Engagement in non-routine stimulus involving multiple senses helps neurons fire together (Katz & Rubin, 1999). So, what does that mean to you and me? It means that by stimulating our brains we can encourage the production of the nerve system that the brain uses to transmit information. It is much like a highway system; more roads enable the traffic to flow on multiple pathways. Dr. Lawrence Katz (Katz & Rubin, 1999) suggests we can exercise our brain by creating fresh experiences that stimulate all of our senses. For instance, simply by changing the hand with which you normally use to brush your teeth, and by fully engaging in the experience, you can create a whole new experience that sends unique signals to the brain, which in return creates brain stimulation. Dr. Katz calls this type of brain activity neurobic exercise. As we stimulate our brain through fully engaging our attention and senses, we can help the brain develop more neurotrophins, which will create a better developed neural network. Think of it as building a safety net that helps you problem solve through life.

142 The key to neurobics seems to be breaking the routine. For instance, by paying particular attention to the experience you are having helps involve all of your senses and promote brain activity. Some refer to this type of activity as mindfulness (Hanson, 2011). Take a new route to work, pay attention to the new sounds, smells, and sights along the way. You might also use your sense of touch more by closing your eyes when doing routine tasks. For instance, when trying to find your cell phone in your bag, try it with your eyes closed, feel each object as you come into contact with it. Notice the smells you encounter, maybe some leather, chewing gum, who knows what you have in that bag. These types of activities may seem simple, but they could have a great impact on your mental functioning by keeping your brain active and developing the ability to focus attention. Now, you may say, Im mentally active, every day I watch interesting shows or movies that stimulate all my senses. Every day, I connect with my friends on Facebook, or by email. I have a rich and fulfilling life. This may be true. If however, you do an activity on a daily basis, it is probably routine. Routine activities become automated, which means we are not exercising the brain. Take a few minutes to try the following exercise. Exercise 1 Think about what you did yesterday. Can you remember what you ate? How about two or three days ago? Chances are you will have a hard time remembering such information, because it is routine. Consider what it would be like to eat your next meal with your non-dominant hand. That would be a more memorable experience, especially when most of the food missed your mouth. The point is, in order to wake up our brain we

143 need to do things that create new experiences. We can do that with simple daily activities if we choose to do so. Bottom line, we need to break the routine, and pay attention to all of our senses in order to make the activity neurobic (Katz & Rubin, 1999). Researchers have found that doing activities you know how to do well, things you are very good at, do not provide the type of stimulus that novel activities provide (Katz & Rubin, 1999). Learning something that uses many different cognitive systems, such as visual attention, motor skills, quick thinking speed, and problem solving seem to be the best types of activities for creating mind training experiences (Green & Bavelier, 2008). Even playing certain types of video games can be mental exercise (Achtman, Green, & Bavelier, 2008). For instance, fast paced action video games, such as Unreal Tournament or Medal of Honor, that require the use of multiple senses have been found to be good training experiences for promoting visual skills. Think about it, in an action video game, you have to do things like accurately firing a weapon at an intruder, pay attention to many different images on the screen, and decide what to do next. Other types of video games are not as productive as brain training experiences. For instance, card games, such as Solitaire or Hearts do not offer unexpected events to which the player must react. Strategy games such as SimCity or Civilization are not fast-paced and dont require the speed to make the game visually demanding as a visual training task. Even games that require fast visuo-motor control, such as Tetris, do not involve complex visual discrimination, such as identifying an intruding enemy within a highly complex scene. Therefore, when compared to action game players, Tetris players for instance did not improve as much in areas such as the

144 ability to track several objects at once (called attentional tracking). Additionally, action video game players are able to notice fine detail better than those playing other types of games (Achtman, Green, & Bavelier, 2008). Other areas that action video games seem to improve are: hand-eye coordination (Griffith et al., 1983), mental rotation of images (Sims & Mayer, 2002), reaction time (Castel et al., 2005), and peripheral vision (Green & Bavelier, 2006). Researchers suggest action video game training may be particularly useful to help maintain skills required for driving, such as reaction time, hand-eye coordination and visual tracking. So, if you want to apply this knowledge to your daily life, you could begin playing an action oriented video game; or take a class in something youve always wanted to do, maybe pottery, dancing, glass blowing, or learn a new sport, like golfing, kickboxing, even barrel racing. Its a big world out there, learn something new, explore a different culture, branch out and as you do, you will be creating brain stimulating experiences. Exercise 2 Take a few seconds to think about what kind of neurobic exercise you might be able to begin. So far we have talked about activities you can add to your life, or slightly alter within your day to create a more engaged lifestyle that will help promote mental fitness. Another approach is more along the lines of going to the gym to promote physical fitness. That is, brain training so to speak. One area in which purposefully training the brain has shown to benefit mental fitness is training working memory. Working memory is the

145 ability to hold and manipulate information in your mind for a short period of time (Sderqvist, et al., 2012). For instance, if you work a math problem such as 6 + 3 4, you have to hold the result of 6 + 3= 9 in your mind for a brief period in order to perform the next task which is 9 4 in order to get the result of 5. Working memory is important in reasoning and in academic endeavor (Alloway, Gathercole, Kirkwood, & Elliott, 2009; Dehn, 2008). Typically, working memory is one of the cognitive functions that declines with age (Craik & Bialystok, 2006). However, from functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scientists have discovered that adaptively training the working memory in adults can increase the brain activity in areas associated with abstract reasoning, social behavior, and higher cognitive functioning (Behrmann, Geng, & Shomstein, 2004; Olesen, Westerberg, Klingberg, 2004). Similarly, research with computerized training of working memory has been helpful in children with attention deficit / hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) (Klingberg et al, 2005) and with patients who have had a stroke (Westerberg et al, 2007). Because of research such as this, there are several programs on the market designed to help us train our working memory and fight back cognitive decline. There are programs available that function much like computer games, such as Brain Metrics, Luminosity and Posit Science. Some programs focus on specific types of skills, like auditory and visual skills, or ways to sharpen your ability to process information quickly and react appropriately, such as when driving (Posit Science, 2012). Some software programs are available directly to the public and may not necessarily be evidenced based. That is, there may not be clinical studies that support the

146 claims made by the manufacturers. Other programs are evidence based and supported by clinical trials. Some of these programs are available through mental health care practitioners and are specifically recommended for particular groups, such as individuals with ADHD or traumatic brain injury. Just as with physical fitness, programs to train our working memory usually requires a time commitment and dedication, such as 30 40 minutes a day, five days a week, over a period of at least 5 weeks (Cogmed, 2011). Further, in order to retain long-lasting effects from such brain training we must keep the cognitive system active (Mahncke et al., 2006). However, maintenance of the skills gained in working memory training, for instance, has been found to last up to 5 years (Willis et al., 2006). In this lesson we have discussed several actions you can take to promote metal fitness. Please take a few minutes to complete the following survey and post-test in order to finalize your participation in this study. Once again, thank you for your participation. You will help further scientific research by taking part in this lesson today.

147 References Achtman, R.L., Green, C.S., & Bavelier, D. (2008). Video games as a tool to train visual skills. Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience, 26, 435-446. Retrieved from http://www.bcs.rochester.edu/people/daphne/VisionPDF/AchtmanGreen2008.pdf Alloway, T.P., Gathercole, S.E., Kirkwood, H., & Elliott, J. (2009). The cognitive and behavioral characteristics of children with low working memory. Child Development, 80, 606-621. Doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01282.x Begley, S. (2007). Train your mind, change your brain: how a new science reveals our extraordinary potential to transform ourselves. New York, NY: Ballantine Books. Behrmann, M., Geng, J.J., Shomstein, S. (2004). Parietal cortex and attention. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 14(2), 212-217. Buschkuehl, M., Jaeggi, S.M., Hutchison, S., Perrig-Chiello, P., Dapp, C., Perrig, W.J. (2008). Impact of working memory training on memory performance in old-old adults. Psychology and Aging, 23(4), 743-753. Doi: 10.1037/a0014342 Castel, A.D., Pratt, J., & Drummond, E. (2005). The effects of action video game experience on the time course of inhibition of return and the efficiency of visual search. Acta Psychologica, 119(2), 217-230. doi: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2005.02.004 Cogmed (2012). Cogmed working memory training. http://www.cogmed.com/ Colcombe, S.J., & Kramer, A. F. (2003). Fitness effects on the cognitive function of older adults: A meta-analytic study. Psychological Science, 14(2), 125-130. doi: 10.1111/1467-9280.t01-1-01430

148 Craik, F.I., & Bialystok, E. (2006). Cognition through the lifespan: Mechanisms of change. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 10, 131-138. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2006.01.007 Dehn, M.J. (2008). Working memory and academic learning: assessment and intervention. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Eriksson, P.S., Perfilieva, E., Bjork-Eriksson, T., Alborn, A, Nordborg, C Gage, F.H. (1998). Neurogenesis in the adult human hippocampus. Nature Medicine, 4(11), 1313-1317. Gomez-Pinilla, F. (2008). Brain foods: The effects of nutrients on brain function. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 9, 568-578. doi:10.1038/nrn2421 Green, C.S., & Bavelier, D. (2006). Effect of action video games on the spatial distribution of visuospatial attention. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 32(6), 1465-1478. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/xhp/index.aspx Green, C.S., & Bavelier, D. (2008). Exercising your brain: a review of human brain plasticity and training-induced learning. Psychology and Aging, 23(4), 692-701. doi: 10.1037/a0014345 Griffith, J.L., Voloschin, P., Gibb, G.D., & Bailey, J.R. (1983). Differences in eye-hand motor coordination of video-game users and non-users. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 57(1), 155-158. Hanson, R. (2011). Just one thing: developing a Buddha brain one simple practice at a time. Oakland, CA: New Harbinger Publications, Inc.

149 Hanson, R., & Mendius, R., (2009). Buddhas brain: the practical neuroscience of happiness, love & wisdom. Oakland, CA: New Harbinger Publications, Inc. Katz, L.C., & Rubin, M., (1999). Keep your brain alive: 83 neurobic exercises to help prevent memory loss and increase mental fitness. New York, NY: Workman Publishing Company. Klingberg, T., Fernell, E., Olesen, P.J., Johnson, M., Gustafsson, P., Dahlstrom, K., Westerberg, H. (2005). Computerized training of working memory in children with ADHD: a randomized, controlled trial. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 44, 177-186. doi: 10.1097/00004583200502000-00010 Mahncke, H.W., Connor B.B., Appelman, J., Ahsanuddin, O.N., Hardy, J.L., Wood, R.A.Merzenich, M.M. (2006). Memory enhancement in healthy older adults using a brain plasticity-based training program: a randomized controlled study. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 103, 12523-12528. doi:10.1073/pnas.0605194103 Olesen, P.J., Westerberg, H., & Klingberg, T. (2004). Increased prefrontal and parietal activity after training of working memory. Nature Neuroscience, 7, 75-79. Retrieved from http://dionysus.psych.wisc.edu/lit/articles/OlesenP2004a.pdf Pereira, A.C., Huddleston, D.E., Brickman, A.M., Sosunov, A.A., Hen, R., & McKhann, G.M. (2007). An in vivo correlate of exercise-induced neurogenesis in the adult dentate gyrus. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 104, 5638-5643. Posit Science (2012). [Brain training software.] http://www.positscience.com/

150 Sims, V.K., & Mayer, R.E. (2002). Domain specificity of spatial expertise: the case of video game players. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 16(1), 97-115. Smith, G.E., Housen, P., Yaffe, K., Ruff, R., Kennison, R.F., Mahncke, H.W., & Zelinski, E.M., (2009). A cognitive training program based on principles of brain plasticity: results from the improvement in memory with plasticity-based adaptive cognitive training (IMPACT) study. Journal of American Geriatrics Society, 57(4), 594-603. doi: 10.1111/j.1532-5415.2008.02167.x Sderqvist, S., Nutley, S., Peyrard-Janvid, M., Matsson, H., Humphreys, K, Kere, J., & Klingberg, T. (2012). Dopamine, working memory, and training induced plasticity: implications for developmental research. Developmental Psychology, 48(3), 836-843. doi: 10.1037/a0026179 Spear, L.P., (2000). The adolescent brain and age-related behavioral manifestations. Neuroscience Biobehavior Review, 24, 417-463. Tanaka J., Horiike Y., Matsuzaki M., Miyazaki T., Ellis-Davies G.C.R. & Kasai H. (2008). Protein-synthesis and neurotrophin dependent structural plasticity of single dendritic spines. Science, 319, 1683-1687. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18309046 Westerberg, H., Jacobaeus, J., Hirvikoski, T., Clevberger, P., Ostensson, M-L., Bartfai, A., & Klingberg, T. (2007). Computerized working memory training after stroke: a pilot study. Brain Injury, 21(1), 21-29. doi: 10.1080/02699050601148726 Willis, S.L., Tennstedt, S.L., Marsiske, M., Ball, K., Elias, J., & Koepke, K.M. (2006). Long-term effects of cognitive training on everyday functional outcomes in older

151 adults. Journal of the American Medical Association, 296(23), 2805-2814. Retrieved from http://www.youthfulaging.net/science-of-brainfitness.php#science07

152 Appendix D: Example Images

Figure E1 Image from the MAPA lesson

MAPA

Figure E2 Image from the control lesson

\Control

153 Appendix E: Demographic Fields Table F1. Demographic Fields Item Age Education Gender Ethnicity Online Courses Current School Data type number Number of years Male / Female African American, Asian, Caucasian, Hispanic / Latino, Native American, Other 0, 1 2, 3 5, more Open field

154 Appendix F: Counseling Resources Befrienders Worldwide with Samaritans: http://www.befrienders.org/ Locate help internationally Mental Health America: http://www.mentalhealthamerica.net/go/searchMHA Affiliate Search locate by state Mental Health Hot Lines: http://smhp.psych.ucla.edu/hotline.htm Hotlines for various concerns National Alliance on Mental Illness (NAMI): http://www.nami.org/Template.cfm?Section=Your_Local_NAMI&Template=/CustomSo urce/AffiliateFinder.cfm Affiliate Search by state StressGroup.com: http://www.stressgroup.com/home.html Free self-help for stress, depression, anxiety, anger, counseling, CBT, REBT, and more.

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Curriculum Vitae Carolynn Cobb Academic Experience: 12/08 Present Clinical Psychology PhD student Walden University, Minneapolis, Minnesota Dissertation working title: The use of animated pedagogical agents as mnemonic devices to promote learning and motivation in online education 12/06 11/08 Master of Science in Psychology Walden University, Minneapolis, Minnesota Thesis: The effectiveness of neurofeedback therapy with posttraumatic stress disorder 8/80 5/84 The University of Texas, Austin, Texas Bachelor of Science: Radio, TV, Film Production Relevant Professional Experience: 9/12 9/13- Psychological A.R.T.S, Austin, TX Doctoral Intern Administer standardized psychological assessments Perform clinical interviews Provide biofeedback therapy Provide cognitive behavioral therapy Write clinical reports Develop marketing materials 9/11 6/12 New Life Institute, Austin, TX Practicum Student Clinical psychological practicum site. Performed therapeutic and assessment services. 1/11 Academic Residency Miami, FL - Teaching Assistant Walden University Clinical Assessment Workshops 6/ 02 9/10 Consultant, Professional Services, Autonomy Corporation, PLC Provide training and implementation consulting to global business customers regarding quality assurance, performance management and process improvement.

156 3/ 01 6/ 02 Training Specialist, Gentiva Health Services Provide technical, customer service, personal development training to call center representatives and management personnel. Lead instructional design team for companywide project developing role specific training for all positions across 5 Financial Service Units supporting $160 million Accounts Receivable. 05/ 95 11/00 Program Manager, Software Spectrum, Inc. Partner with executive management to develop policies, performance improvement initiatives, corporate culture and competency profiles. Developed and managed $12 million business unit encompassing over 100 employees. Motivated and coached team to achieve customer satisfaction ratings over 90% satisfactions. Maintained attrition rates below 15% (industry standards 125 200%) Licenses & Certifications: Licensed Psychological Associate AchieveGlobal Certified Facilitator Certified Lominger Leadership Architect Organizations: American Psychological Association Psi Chi, The National Honor Society in Psychology Texas Psychological Association International Society for Neurofeedback & Research Additional Training Received: Introduction to Neurofeedback 2008 University of North Texas, Neurotherapy Lab, Denton, TX Conferences Attended: International Society for Neurofeedback & Research - 2008 Southwestern Psychological Association - 2010 American Psychological Association - 2010