Journal of Medicinal Plants Research Vol. 5(3), pp. 344-348, 4 February, 2011 Available online at http://www.academicjournals.

org/JMPR ISSN 1996-0875 2011 Academic Journals

Full Length Research Paper

Zingiber officinale Roscoe (pharmacological activity)

Riazur Rehman1, M. Akram2*, Naveed Akhtar1, Qaiser Jabeen1, Tariq saeed3, S. M. Ali Shah1, Khalil Ahmed1, Ghazala Shaheen1 and H. M. Asif1
1

Faculty of Pharmacy and Alternative Medicine, The Islamia University, Karachi, Pakistan. 2 Shifa Ul Mulk Memorial Hospital, Hamdard University, Karachi, Pakistan. 3 University College of Pharmacy, Punjab University, Lahore.
Accepted 10 December, 2010

Ginger is a tuber that is consumed whole as a delicacy, medicine, or herb. It is the rhizome of the plant Zingiber officinale. It lends its name to its genus and family (Zingiberaceae). Other notable members of this plant family are turmeric, cardamom, and galangal. Ginger cultivation began in South Asia and has since then spread to East Africa and the Caribbean. It is sometimes called root ginger to distinguish it from other things that share the name ginger. Zingiber officinale (Zingiberaceae) and Pentadiplan-dra brazzeana (Pentadiplandraceae) are highly reputed in African folk medical practices for many purposes. Z. officinale is used for the treatment of flatulence, colic, diarrhoea, spasm, cold and influenza. Zingiber officinale is used as an appetite stimulant, a narcotic antagonist and an anti-inflammatory agent. Recent study showed that it has antioxidant, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic, anti-hyperglycemic, anti-hyperlipidemic and anti-emetic actions. Main constituents are sesquiterpenoids, with (-)zingiberene. Sesquiterpene Lactones (SLs) are natural products responsible for its anti-inflammatory activity. Key words: Sesquiterpenoids, anti-inflammatory activity, zingiberene. INTRODUCTION The characteristic odor and flavor of ginger is caused by a mixture of zingerone, shogaols and gingerols, volatile oils that compose one to three percent of the weight of fresh ginger. In laboratory animals, the gingerrols increase the motility of the gastrointestinal tract and have analgesic, sedative, antipyretic and antibacterial properties. Ginger oil has been proven to prevent skin cancer in mice and a study at the University of Michigan demonstrated that gingerols can kill ovarian cancer cells. Ginger contains up to three percent of a fragrant essential oil whose main constituents are sesquiterpenoids, with (-)-zingiberene as the main component. Smaller amounts of other sesquiterpenoids ( -sesquiphellandrene, bisabolene and farnesene) and a small monoterpenoid fraction ( -phelladrene, cineol, and citral) have also been identified. The pungent taste of ginger is due to nonvolatile phenylpropanoid-derived compounds, particularly gingerols and shogaols, which form from gingerols when ginger is dried or cooked. Zingerone is also produced from gingerols during this process; this compound is less pungent and has a spicysweet aroma. Ginger is also a minor chemical irritant, and because of this was used as a horse suppository by pre-World War I mounted regiments for feaguing. Ginger has a sialagogue action, stimulating the production of saliva, which makes swallowing easier. Sesquiterpene lactones (SLs) are natural products responsible for the anti-inflammatory activity (Ernst et al., 2000). Botanical description Ginger is herbaceous rhizomatous perennial, reaching up to 90 cm in height under cultivation. Rhizomes are aromatic, thick lobed, pale yellowish, bearing simple alternate distichous narrow oblong lanceolate leaves. The herb develops several lateral shoots in clumps, which begin to dry when the plant matures. Leaves are long and 2 - 3 cm broad with sheathing bases, the blade gradually tapering to a point. Inflorescence solitary, lateral radical pedunculate oblongcylindrical spikes. Flowers are rare, rather small, calyx superior, gamosepalous, three

*Corresponding author. E-mail: makram_0451@hotmail.com. Tel: 92-021-6440083. Fax: 92-021-6440079.

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Figure 1. Structure of Sesquiterpene.

Figure 2. Chemical structure of zingiberene.

toothed, open splitting on one side, corolla of three subequal oblong to lanceolate connate greenish segments (Kawai, 1994). Active constituents The active ingredients in Zingiber officinale are in volatile oil which comprising approximately 1 - 3% of its weight. The concentrations of active ingredients vary with growing conditions. The active ingredients in ginger are thought to reside in its volatile oils, which comprise approximately 1 - 3% of its weight. The major active ingredients in ginger oil are the sesquiterpenes: bisapolene, zingiberene, and zingiberol (Connel D). Gingers active ingredients have a variety of physiologic effects. For example, the gingerols have analgesic, sedative, antipyretic and antibacterial effects in vitro and in animals (Mascolo, 1989). In rats, an intravenous (i.v.) bolus of gingerol had a half life of 7.23 min. 15; however its relation with pharmacokinetics is not clear after oral administration (Figures 1 and 2). Medicinal uses Ginger is found to possess aromatic, carminative, stimulant to GIT, antispasmodic, digestive, stomachic, vasodilator, appetizer, expectorant, bronchodilator, topical and local stimulant, analgesic, antiflatulent, aphrodisiac, digestive, antitussive, antiflatulent and laxative. The pungent compounds in ginger have analgesic effects. It has been detected that Zingiber officinale has active influence on the digestive enzymes

of intestinal mucosa and it enhanced intestinal lipase, disaccharidases, sucrase and maltase activity. The other potential uses include relief from the pain and inflammation of rheumatoid arthritis. In Ayurvedic system of medicine, adrak is use to treat stiffness, swelling, and pains that result from rheumatic conditions due to the entrance of cold and dampness in the body, an observation concurrent with those who suffer from rheumatic symptoms that are intensified by inclement weather. It is also an excellent ingredient in arthritic formulas to counter stomach problems resulting from the overuse of prescriptive drugs (Kiuchi et al., 1992). Zingiber officinale Roscoe Tibbi Name: English Name: Botanical Name: Family: Parts Used: Adrak, Zanjbeel Ginger Zingiber officinale Roscoe Zingiberaceae Rhizome

Pharmacological activity Ginger inhibits the production of immune-system components called cytokines (Peng et al., 1995). These chemicals are believed to create a long-term tendency toward inflammation (Ojewole et al., 2006). Ginger also stimulates blood circulation (Shoji et al., 1982). Ginger contains very potent anti-inflammatory compounds called gingerols (Kwang et al., 1998). Study demonstrates that daily consumption of raw and heat-treated ginger resulted in moderate-to-large reductions in muscle pain following

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Figure 3. Zingiber officinale Plant.

Figure 4. Zingiber officinale rhizome.

exercise-induced muscle injury. Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe, Zingiberacae) is a medicinal plant that has been widely used in Chinese, Ayurvedic and Tibb-Unani herbal medicines all over the world, since antiquity, for a wide array of unrelated ailments that include arthritis, rheumatism, sprains, muscular aches, pains (Srivastava, 1989). An ethanolic extract of the rhizomes of Zingiber officinale (Figures 3 and 4) was investigated for anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antipyretic, antimicrobial and hypoglycaemic activities. The growth of both gram-positive and gramne-ngative bacteria was significantly inhibited. A dose-dependent inhibition of prostaglandin release effect was observed using rat peritoneal leucocytes (Mascolo et al., 1989). Currently, there is a revival of interest in ginger, and

several scientific investigations are aimed at isolation and identification of active constituents of ginger, scientific verification of its pharmacological actions and of its constituents, and verification of the basis of the use of ginger in some of several diseases and conditions in which it has been used traditionally. The main pharmacological actions of ginger and its isolated compounds include immuno-modulatory, antitumorigenic, anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic, antihyperglycemic, anti-hyperlipidemic and anti-emetic actions. Ginger is a strong anti-oxidant substance and may either mitigate or prevent generation of free radicals. It is considered a safe herbal medicine with only few and insignificant adverse/side effects. More studies are required in animals and humans on the kinetics of ginger

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and its constituents and on the effects of their consumption over a long period of time (Amin et al., 2006) Cardiovascular health Including in Ayurvedic science, ginger has been described as great heart tonic. It helps in preventing various heart diseases by reducing blood clotting that can lead to plaque formation or thrombosis. It can also open the blockage in the blood vessels thus decreasing peripheral vascular resistance and hence blood pressure. Ginger also may help to lower high cholesterol making the heart healthy (Akoachere et al., 2002). Antiplatelet activity Srivastava (1984) found that aqueous extract of ginger inhibited platelet aggregation induced by ADP, epinephrine, collagen and arachidonic acid in vitro. Ginger acted by inhibiting thromboxane synthesis. It also inhibited prostacyclin synthesis in rat aorta. The antiplatelet action of 6-gingerol was also mainly due to the inhibition of thromboxane formation (Guh et al., 1995). Powerful antioxidant Antioxidant helps to prevent all kind of disease and it also slower downs the aging process. There was a study of more than 120 plant foods, published in the Journal of Nutrition. In the report ginger was ranked number one among the five richest food sources of antioxidants, including berries, walnuts, sunflower seeds, and pomegranates. Test-tube and animal researches have shown that ginger inhibits the production of free radicals. Ginger also enhances the body's internal production of antioxidants (Srivastava and Mustafa, 1992). Help for cancer patients The only therapy available for cancer is chemotherapy. The side effects of any chemotherapy include nausea and hair fall. Ginger can reduce nausea that is occurring as a major side effect from chemotherapy treatment. In addition, test-tube studies have shown that some favorable qualities found in ginger can even offer some protection against cancer cells (Platel et al., 1995). Inflammation Ginger constituents inhibit arachadonic acid metabolism and thus prostaglandin synthesis. This may account for

some of its anti-inflammatory properties. One constituent specifically, (6)-Shogaol, (found in semi-dry, but rarely fresh ginger), appears to interfere with the arachadonic / inflammatory cascade. It is found to inhibits cyclooxygenases and prevents specific prostaglandin release in rabbits and rats. Ginger may be a stronger inhibitor of prostaglandin synthesis than indomethacin. It can be used either for rheumatoid or osteoarthritis. Ginger extract is antiinflammatory on osteoarthrotic sow cartilage in vitro (Shen et al., 2003). Toxicity The toxicity of ginger is generally considered to be negligible. Oral LD 50 values in various animals of ginger oil exceed 5 gm/Kg. In vitro microbial assays have shown both mutagenicity and antimutagenicity for compounds isolated from ginger. The adverse reaction profile of ginger is benign, consonant with its use as a common spice and food (Chen et al., 2007). Contraindications The German Commission E states contraindication of Ginger in Pregnancy. There are no reports of adverse effects due to ginger use during pregnancy, and clinical trials have demonstrated the efficacy of ginger extracts in relieving the nausea and emesis of pregnancy. Conclusion The pharmacological activities as anti-inflammatory and for the treatment of rheumatoid and osteoarthritis has been documented. Although it exerts effects on cardiovascular parameters, exhibits anti-oxidant activities and involved in cancer chemotherapy. All these are due to the synergistic effects of zingiberene and related types of components bring about the pharmacological impact. In conclusion ginger has wide range of medicinal uses and can be used either as single drug or compound drugs to treat different ailments. It can be used as preventive medicine due to its potential against oxidative stress.
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