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SHOCK ABSORBER
A PROJECT REPORT
Submitted by

M. CHIRANJEEVI AJAY GOPINATH. K MOHAMMED ALTAF PATEL VIJAY K MAR B. BALA BHASKAR RAO AKHILESH K MAR NAGARAJ in partial fulfillment for the award of

THE DIPLOMA
IN

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

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JA!AHARLAL NEHR GOVT. POLYTECHNIC" RAMANTHAP R" HYDERABAD.

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project work titled SHOCK ABSORBER# is a bonafide work carried out by _________________________ bearing pin number _____________________ under my supervision and submitted in partial fulfillment for the award of Diploma in echanical !ngineering" by #tate $oard of Technical !ducation and Training" %ndhra &radesh during the academic year '(1()'(11 in the department of echanical !ngineering*
#I+N%T,-! .!%D /0 T.! D!&%-T !NT #I+N%T,-! &-IN1I&%2 !3T!-N%2 !3% IN!#I+N%T,-! +,ID!

J$%$&$'($( Ne&'u G)*t. P)(yte+&,i+" R$m$,t&$-u'

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

% summer project is a golden opportunity for learning and self development* 4e consider ourselves very lucky to be honoured to have so many wonderful people lead us through in the completion of this project*

#ir T.S MANIKYA PRABH " .ead of department" monitored our progress and arranged all facilities to make life easier* 4e choose this moment to acknowledge his contribution gratefully*

#ir K. CHANDRA SHEKHAR" whose patience" we have probably tested to the limit* .e was always so involved in the entire process" shared his knowledge" and encouraged us to think* Thank you" Dear sir*

4e are also very thankful to #ir CHAGANTI S BBA RAO" &rincipal" for his timely help during the project work*

2ast but not the least" there were so many who shared valuable information that helped in the successful completion of this project*

LIST OF CHAPTERS

S&)+. $b/)'be'
Description !6planation %pplications 7ehicle #uspension !lectrical generation

Ty-e/ )0 /&)+. $b/)'be'/

%ir shock absorber 1oil over shock absorber Damper shock absorber Dashpots Twin tube shock absorber ono tube shock absorber #hocks with reservoir #port shock absorber #pring shock absorber

Su/-e,/i), /y/tem/ i, $ut)m)bi(e/

ac &herson strut Double wishbone suspension Torsion bar suspension agnetic semi)active suspension

LIST OF FIG RES

Re$' /&)+. $b/)'be' $,d /-'i,1 )0 $ BM! R2343 m)t)'+y+(e Ai' /&)+. $b/)'be' C)i(5)*e' /&)+. $b/)'be' D$m-e' /&)+. $b/)'be' ono tube damper Twin tube damper 2ow pressure gas filled twin tube damper .igh pressure gas filled mono tube damper D$/&-)t 2inear dashpot T%i, tube /&)+. $b/)'be' M),) tube /&)+. $b/)'be' S&)+./ %it& 'e/e'*)i' S-)'t /&)+. $b/)'be' S-'i,1 /&)+. $b/)'be' M$+ -&e'/), /t'ut D)ub(e %i/&b),e /u/-e,/i),

T)'/i), b$' /u/-e,/i), M$1,eti+ /emi $+ti*e /u/-e,/i), /y/tem

SHOCK ABSORBER

Shock absorber
Shock absorber is a mechanical device designed to smooth out or damp shock impulse, and dissipate kinetic energy. It is a type of dashpot.

Descrip io!
Pneumatic and hydraulic shock absorbers commonly take the form of a cylinder with a sliding piston inside. The cylinder is filled with a fluid (such as hydraulic fluid) or air. This fluid-filled piston cylinder combination is a dashpot. !hock absorbers include cushions and springs.

E"p#a!a io!

< The shock absorber"s function is to absorb or dissipate energy. #ne design consideration, when designing or choosing a shock absorber, is where that energy will go. In most dashpots, energy is converted to heat inside the viscous fluid. In hydraulic cylinders, the hydraulic fluid heats up, while in air cylinders, the hot air is usually e$hausted to the atmosphere. In other types of dashpots, such as electromagnetic types, the dissipated energy can be stored and used later. In general terms, shock absorbers help cushion vehicles on uneven roads.

App#ica io!s
!hock absorbers are an important part of automobile and motorcycle suspensions, aircraft landing gear, and the supports for many industrial machines. %arge shock absorbers have also been used in structural engineering to reduce the susceptibility of structures to earth&uake damage and resonance. ' transverse mounted shock absorber, called a yaw damper, helps keep railcars from swaying e$cessively from side to side and are important in passenger railroads, commuter rail and rapid transit systems because they prevent railcars from damaging station platforms. The success of passive damping technologies in suppressing vibration is demonstrated by its market si(e)around *!+,.billion.

.ear shock absorber and spring of a /01 .2- - motorcycle

$ehic#e s%spe!sio!
In a vehicle, shock absorbers reduce the effect of traveling over rough ground, leading to improved ride &uality and increase in comfort. 1hile shock absorbers serve the purpose of limiting e$cessive suspension movement, their intended sole purpose is to dampen spring oscillations. !hock absorbers use valving of oil and gasses to absorb e$cess energy from the springs. !pring rates are chosen by the manufacturer based on the weight of the vehicle, loaded and unloaded. !ome people use shocks to modify spring rates but this is not the correct use. 'long with hysteresis in the tire itself, they dampen the energy stored in the motion of the unsprung weight up and down. 3ffective wheel bounce damping may re&uire tuning shocks to an optimal resistance. !pring-based shock absorbers commonly use coil springs or leaf springs, though torsion bars are used in torsional shocks as well. Ideal springs alone, however, are not shock absorbers, as springs only store and do not dissipate or absorb

1( energy. 4ehicles typically employ both hydraulic shock absorbers and springs or torsion bars. In this combination, 5shock absorber5 refers specifically to the hydraulic piston that absorbs and dissipates vibration.

E#ec rica# Ge!era io!

0odern hybrid cars may eventually be able to generate useful energy from the displacement of the fluid in a shock absorber.

T&pes o' Shock Absorber

There are different types of shock absorbers which are classified according to their configuration and usage. 6ollowing are some of the important varieties of shock absorbers7

Air Shock Absorber Coil-Over Shock Absorber Damper Shock Absorber Dashpots Twin Tube Shock Absorber

Mono Tube Shock Absorber Shocks with Reservoirs Sport Shock Absorber Spring Shock Absorber

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Air Shock Absorber

'ir shock absorber makes the use of compressed air for the spring which is an integral part of the shock. The addition of air in the shock make the shock absorber stiffer. 'ir is added by using standard schrader valve to add air. This shock absorber provides normal dampening action and on placing the heavy load on the rear of the vehicles, the rubber air cylinder can be put under pressure to aid the suspension springs. 8ue to this reason, the air shock absorber is also called as load-ad9ustable shock absorbers. 'ir shocks or air shock absorber consist of separate, sealed air chamber inside. :owever this chamber is sealed therefore it is not sub9ect to aeration. This results in better and smoother ride than gas shocks. 'ir shock absorbers can also be used for load leveling. Working Principle The air shock absorber consists of air chamber which contains valve coming off it. 8epending on the situation, the air chamber can be both inflated or deflated. 6illing the air to the rear shocker gives better steering control to the boat. In some navigator, the system makes an ad9ustment and inflates or deflates the air shocks accordingly. eatures 'ir shock absorber consists of following general features7

'll 1eather 6luid of the air shock absorber reduces friction and ensure smooth rod reaction.

6or smooth and controlled ride there is better valving range available on both the compression and e$tension cycles of the unit.

'ir shock absorber also contains sintered Iron Piston which enhances the durability for long service life.

'ir sleeves of the shock absorber are generally lubricated that reduces friction for longer service life.

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The air fittings of the shock absorber prevents air leakage. The volume of the air chamber is &uite large that can well inflate with loaded vehicle and deflates for normal driving.

Coi#(O)er Shock Absorber

!afe vehicle is one that has smooth and responsive suspension system. ;oilover shocks are simple designed shock absorber that gives effective control and smooth riding to the vehicle. It comes in various heights depending on the re&uirements of the vehicle. The coil over shock absorber is engineered in such a way that it reduces chassis fle$ when your vehicle is cornering. The shock absorber is capable of giving good absorption and dampening levels. !imply speaking coil spring is ad9usted over and around the shock body. Through this an additional spring rate is added to the shock absorber.

In this type of shock absorber both the spring and shock absorber is assembled as a single unit and if there is any problem in the spring the shock absorber, it is replaced as a unit. ;oil over shock

15 absorber is known for its effective damping without torsional loads. It can be also ad9usted to different ride height and hardness. 8epending on the vehicle"s suspension design there are different types of spring. ;oil spring, however is the most common types of spring used in suspension system. ' coil spring stores energy and releases when re&uired. It is also capable of handling shocks and maintaining the force between two contacting surfaces. 's a unit, coil spring and shock absorber is of great value. ;oil spring compresses and stretches, thereby giving one safe drive, whereas, the shock absorber keeps the road noise, bumps, and vibrations away. A!vantages ;oil over shock absorber has certain advantages which are as follows7

It gives optimal damping. <ood handling and braking. ;omfortable ride. ;omes in different heights. It is available for different types of vehicles. 8urable and lasts longer. !uitable for different road conditions.

Da*per Shock Absorber

8amper shock absorber or simply damper is device that is designed for providing absorption of shock and smooth deceleration in linear motion applications. The dampers can be either mechanical or rely on a fluid. 8ampers like other shock absorber absorbs shock by controlling the flow of the fluid from outer to inner chamber of a cylinder during piston actuation. The damper shock absorbers can be ad9usted to different road conditions and provides good balance to the vehicles.

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Fea %res o' Da*per Shock Absorbers !ome of the important features of the damper shock absorbers are7

They have good ad9ustable configuration. The force capacity can be reduced by letting out the gas. The position of the dampers can be locked easily either at the ends or at the middle of the stroke.

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In case of fluid dampers, valve is used for increasing or decreasing fluid volume or pressure.

T"pes o# Damper Shock Absorbers

Mono Tube Damper 0ono tube damper consists of two valves. #ne of the valves get opened when the damper compresses the other when it e$tends. #ver small low speed bumps, larger orifices allow greater oil output. In multiple making high the speed orifice bumps the components in the valving is actuated for smaller thereby reducing the oil output which not only gives better control but also keeps the tyre in contact with the ground.

Twin Tube Damper Twin tube damper work effectively where there is limited working space. The tubes are designed with smaller diameter. The damper makes the use of two valves which increases the effectiveness of the damper. #ne of the valve is fitted with piston rod whereas the other valve is built into the

1: inner tube bas. The valve fitted with the piston rod deals with the rebound control and the inner tube valve deals with bump control. The oil is forced in the outer reservoir in bump mode whereas in the rebound mode, it is pushed through the piston-mounted valve.

$ow Pressure %as ille! Twin Tube Damper

In low pressure gas filled twin tube damper, the air is replaced by the gas usually with =itrogen gas. The air in the damper mi$es with the oil and results in the aeration of the oil and hence foaming thereby reducing the overall performance of the damper. The nitrogen gas prevents this aeration and foaming and improves the performance of the damper.

&igh Pressure %as ille! Mono Tube Damper

:igh-pressure gas-filled mono-tube damper not only eliminates the bump but also gives rebound control. 8ue to this the damper is designed with &uality components. Th nitrogen is used in place of air. The nitrogen is inserted under high pressure at the base of the damper. #il and the gas is separated by the floating piston. The design is capable of improving the performance by eliminating the aeration and foaming. *sing superior valve and better

1; design, "self ad9usting" damper can be produced. The sleek design with mono tube also eliminates the problem of tyre rubbing.

$inear Damper %inear damper is used as a secondary suspension element for different types of vehicles. This damper is used mostly in place of passive dampers that are used in seat suspensions. The diameter of the damper vary according to the re&uirement and applications. The valve of the linear damper is magnetically controlled. The valve is located in the internal piston and regulates the flow of 0. fluid within the damper. %inear damper like shock absorbers can be hydraulic, air, gas spring, or elastomeric. The linear damper too works in both the compression and the e$tension cycle. /efore purchasing linear damper, one should test it on the following parameters like absorber stroke, e$tended length, ma$imum force (P>), compressed length, and ma$imum cycles per minute.

Dashpo s
8ashpots utili(es viscous friction for resisting motion. 8ashpots consist of piston which moves through a viscous fluid in con9unction with a spring, in shock absorbers. The damping force is proportional to the velocity of the movement. 8uring motion this damping force reacts in the opposite direction. This movement in the opposite direction the damping force so created counteracts the motion and absorbs energy. There are two specifications that characteri(ed dashpots.

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Dashpots Speci#ications These specifications are7

The stroke and the damping coefficient. %inear displacement of the dashpot is measured by the stroke whereas damping force per velocity is measured by the damping coefficient.

8ash pot is commonly used as shock absorber in various vehicles. It is also used in door closer device.

In a dashpot, velocity produced is always linearly proportional to the force applied. !ymbolically it can be represented as7

'+ ,- .)+ , ?@ dashpot impedance f(t)@ is the applied force at time t v@ the velocity Purpose Serve! b" Dashpots Purposes served by the dashpots are7

It keeps the piston steady by preventing the piston following air fluctuations at low engine speed.

Prevents the piston rising in unison with the opening of the throttle.

T"pes o# Dashpots There are two types of dashpots that are used commonly.

1= Rotar" Dashpots .otary dashpots consist of damping coefficient(force per velocity) in tor&ue per angular velocity. $inear Dashpots !pecifications of the linear dashpots consist of stroke and damping coefficient where stroke measures the amount of linear displacement and damping coefficient is the measure of force per velocity.

T/i! T%be Shock Absorber

' twin tube shock or the Twin tube shock absorber is a low pressure shock having tube inside the outer shock body which contains the piston assembly. In order to create damping force, different coil springs inside the shock body are used. The inner tube is known as pressure tube whereas the outer tube is known as the reserve tube. The reserve

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tube is used for storing different types of hydraulic fluid. The mounts used for the shock absorber are many but the most popularly used rubber mount is rubber bushings between the shock absorber and the suspension for minimi(ing suspension vibration.

The piston rod passes to the upper end of the pressure tube through rod guide and the seal. The rod guide assist the piston to move freely inside whereas the oil is kept inside by the seal. The movement of the fluid is controlled by the base valve which is located at the bottom of the pressure tube.

Working o# a Twin Tube Shock Absorber The pushing of the piston results in the flow of the oil without resistance from below the piston through different outlets to the area above the piston. The oil

'1 displaced the rod flows into the reservoir tube filled with air. The oil encounters the resistance while passing through the foot valve thereby generating the bump damping. The oil above the piston is pressuri(ed when the piston rod is pulled out which the flows through the piston. The oil when encounters an resistance while passing through the piston, generates the rebound damping.

T"pes o# Twin Tube Shock Absorber Twin tube shock absorber can be of different types depending on the mechanism used. !ome of the popular types are as follows7 %as Charge! Twin Tube Shock Absorber <as charged shock absorber solved many problems associated with driving. The design uses low pressure charge of nitrogen gas in the reserve tube. The pressure of the gas may vary and depends upon the amount of fluid in the reserve tube. The gas helps in minimi(ing the aeration of the hydraulic fluid. The creation of foam is prevented because the gas compresses air bubbles in the hydraulic fluid. .eduction of aeration enhances the working capacity of the shocks. This shock absorber gives more fle$ibility to the engineers to design valve. The additional advantage of the shock absorber is that it creates a mild boost in spring rate to the vehicle. 'ene#its o# %as Charge! Twin Shock Absorber

The handling is improved through roll reduction and the reduction of sway and dive.

It reduces aeration and give smooth control in different types of road conditions.

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The heat may lead to the reduction of damping capability in the shock absorber however in gas charged shocks this is reduced to a considerable e$tent.

Position Sensitive Damping (PSD) Twin Tube Shock Absorber Twin tube shock P!8 design is a new technology in the field of shock absorber. In this twin shock absorber, the position of the valve within the pressure tube is taken into account. The pressure tube contains the tapered grooves which enables optimal ride comfort and added control. The grooves in effect creates two (ones within the pressure tube. In the first (one, the tapered grooves allow hydraulic fluid to pass freely around and through the piston thereby reducing the resistance on the piston and ensuring a smooth, comfortable ride. The first (one is utili(ed in case of normal ride. In case of demanding situations, second (one called as control (one is utili(ed. The fluid flow towards the piston valving for more control of the vehicle"s suspension which gives better control. A!vantages

<ive fine and smooth ride. It can adapt itself &uickly to different road and weight conditions. It has two shocks in itself that is-comfort and control

Acceleration Sensitive Damping (ASD) Twin Tube Shocker Twin tube '!8 shocker brings the benefits of both the comfort and the control. Twin tube '!8 design shocker uses the compression valve which provides a bypass to fluid flow around the compression valve. The compression valve is designed in such a way that it senses a bump in the road and ad9ust the shock automatically to absorb the impact thereby giving greater control to the shock.

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Mo!o T%be Shock Absorber

0ono tube shock absorber or monotube shock regulates the flow of the oil between the compression and compensation chambers by using mechanically fi$ed base valve. The shock also utili(es compressible bladder in the compensation chamber for allowing volume compensation. The use of base valve and the compressible bladder together eliminate the need for pressuri(ed gas and a floating piston which were the important features of the traditional monotube dampers. &ow *t Works In mono tube design, the damping force is created by deflective discs which are heat treated stainless spring steel. The discs are generally stacked in a pyramid pattern. The shim with the largest diameter faces the piston. The disc which is in close pro$imity to piston open first and allows the flow of the oil. The rate of the shock both on compression and rebound can be changed by increasing thickness and sometimes diameters. 0onotube shock absorber consists of two chambers which are stacked on each other and are separated by a 5floating piston5. /oth the piston are filled with oil and gas respectively. In the oil filled chamber damping forces are created. The gas chamber is separated by a floating piston. The compression of shock results in the compression of the air chamber by the floating piston which displaces the volume of the shaft. This type of pressure creates the rod-pressure.

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The pushing of piston rod also forces the floating piston towards downwards thereby increasing pressure in both gas and oil section. This also results in the flow of the oil through the piston. This type of resistance generates the bump damping.

.ebound damping is produced when the oil between piston and guide is forced to flow through the piston. This happens when the piston is pulled out

'9 'ene#its

<ives good control and smooth ride. 0onotube !hocks ;an be mounted at any angle. It is lighter as compared to e&uivalent twin tube designs. :as high severity life. 'd9usts to road conditions automatically.

eatures The features of the mono tube shock absorber include7

It has distinctive mono disc design. The vehicle can be assembled easily. 1eight is light. 3lement of lag and fade is absent. .eliable and durable. It also comes in controlled ride application.

Shocks /i h Reser)oirs
.eservoir shocks or shocks with reservoir are mainly designed for serious offroad use in the most complicated and difficult applications. It is effective in variable road conditions and provides comfort and hassle free ride. In this type of shocks, e$ternal reservoir is used for housing e$tra needed air space during a shocks compression cycle. /ut this is not air but nitrogen.

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The reservoir also holds some e$tra fluid. :owever the design of reservoir shocks or shocks with reservoir is different from the traditional shock absorber. The complete body of the reservoir shock is completely submerged in the shock oil. 3very shock absorber in order to work properly, uses little space for proper working. !ome shocks have dead air at the top of the valve body whereas some other use twin-tube model for the re&uired e$pansion. The e$ternal reservoir in this type of shock absorber is utili(ed for storing the e$tra needed dead air space. *sing metal tube or the fle$ible hose the reservoir is connected to the main shock body. 1hen the shock is compressed the e$tra oil is forced into the reservoir body through the connecting tube. 0odern reservoir shock absorber are designed in such a way that oil and air is not allowed to mi$. This reduces the incidence of foaming thereby giving the shock absorber more consistency.

%eneral Characteristics !hocks with reservoir or reservoir shocks have some general ;haracteristics which are as follows7

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The capacity of e$ternal reservoir is good. .eservoir hose is made of !tainless steel. 8issipates heat more effectively. !uperior handling and performance due to large piston diameter. 4alves are reacts &uickly to changing surface conditions giving ma$imum comfort and control.

4alving of the shock absorber is engineered in such a way that it performs well in all type of road conditions.

#il foaming, shock fade and performance loss is minimi(ed due to the pressure of =itrogen.

A!vantages o# Reservoir Shocks The advantages of reservoir shocks are7

3asy to mount in a convenient place. ;onsist of :igh %ow speed compression that can be easily ad9usted. 0any reservoir shock can easily ad9ust the preload. The cooling property is e$cellent thereby providing constant shock absorption and longer life. It these shock absorbers are generally of light weight and use of high &uality materials.

%ength is ad9ustable.

Spor Shock Absorber

!ports !hock 'bsorber is an ideal replacement for the standard dampers of your car. It is slightly shorter and is designed to match the sport spring. It also firm up the cars suspension and improves the cars handling. !port shock

'< absorbers and lowering springs provide the car superb road-holding &ualities and gives look and the feel of the real sports car. !port shock absorber along with the lowering springs results in the lowering of the the center of gravity of the car. These combined with good suspension system, results in better steering &ualities and reduced body movement. *sing sports shock absorbers you can uprate your cars handling and driving feel. <enerally these shock absorber are used along with lowering springs for good results. !ports shock absorbers are also compatible with your standard springs which once fitted, helps in handling and holding the car than what it did as standard. !ports shock absorber used in the car worked are of two types - gas charged sport shock absorber and oil based shock absorber. The oil shock absorber functions against hydraulic fluid in the pressure tube whereas gas based shock absorber contains nitrogen gas at its one end that reduces foaming and hence the better performance. The shortened bodies of the sports shock absorbers are generally compatible with all lowered and uprated suspension systems.

Spri!0 Shock Absorber

!pring shock absorber as the name suggests is used to absorb the 9erks or bumps by using coil spring. The spring shock absorber is given stiffer character by tightening the spring. The center of the spring shock absorber usually contains

'= rebound dampening unit. 's the shock absorber changes the length the flow fluid inside the shock absorber starts.

!prings length is usually controlled by turning the disc at the bottom of the spring on the threads. The shorter spring length increases the preload, making the rear wheel more resistant to upward motion. The dampening is both controlled and ad9usted in the spring shock absorber by controlling the fluid reservoir. If the dampening is increased the motion of the shock is slowed down.

The spring type of shock absorbers are usually utili(ed for protecting the delicate mechanisms, like instruments, from direct impact or or loads that are applied instantaneously. These types of springs are often made of rubber or similar elastic material.

The springs that are used in different spring based shock absorbers are coil springs or leaf springs. In torsional shocks, torsion bars can be used. In most of the vehicles, springs or torsion bars as well as hydraulic shock absorbers are used.

'ene#its !pring !hock absorbers have certain benefits which are as follows7

The damping effect is good. !mooth ride due to fine handling and braking. 6or different purposes, springs of different height are used. *sed in various types of vehicles. *sually manufactured from the durable materials. 6unctions e$cellently in all road conditions.

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S%spe!sio! s&s e*s i! A% o*obi#es

MacPherso! s r%
The MacPherso! s r% is a type of car suspension system which uses the a$is of a telescopic damper as the upper steering pivot. It is widely used in modern vehicles and named after 3arle !. 0acPherson, who developed the design.

&istor" 3arle !. 0acPherson developed the design of the strut in >A,A partially based on designs created by <uido 6ornaca of 6I'T in the mid->ABCs. It is possible the 0acPherson was inspired by the suspension on the 6rench ;ottin-8esgouttes that used the same design, but with leaf springs. ;ottin-8esgouttes front suspension was in turn inspired by D. 1alter ;hristie"s >AC, design and he was inspired by plants. The first car to feature 0acPherson struts was the >A,A 6ord 4edette, and it was also adopted in the >A-> 6ord ;onsul and later Eephyr. 0acPherson originally created the design for use at all four wheels (0itsubishi !tarion, for e$ample), but production applications used it only for the front suspension, where it provides a

51 steering pivot (kingpin) as well as a suspension mounting for the wheel. In >A-2 ;olin ;hapman of %otus applied the design to the rear suspension of the %otus 3lite. 's a result, strut suspension at the rear of an automobile are now commonly called ;hapman struts.

Design 0acPherson struts consist of a wishbone or a substantial compression link stabili(ed by a secondary link which provides a bottom mounting point for the hub or a$le of the wheel. This lower arm system provides both lateral and longitudinal location of the wheel. The upper part of the hub is rigidly fi$ed to the inner part of the strut proper, the outer part of which e$tends upwards directly to a mounting in the body shell of the vehicle.

To be really successful, the 0acPherson strut re&uired the introduction of unibody (or monoco&ue) construction, because it needs a substantial vertical space and a strong top mount, which unibodies can provide, while benefiting them by distributing stresses. The strut will usually carry both the coil spring on which the body is suspended and the shock absorber, which is usually in the form of a cartridge mounted within the strut (see coilover). The strut also usually has a steering arm built into the lower inner portion. The whole assembly is very simple and can be preassembled into a unitF also by eliminating the upper control arm, it allows for more width in the engine bay, which is useful for smaller cars, particularly with transverse-mounted engines such as most front wheel drive vehicles have. It can be further simplified, if needed, by substituting an anti-roll bar (torsion bar) for the radius arm. 6or those reasons, it has become almost ubi&uitous with low cost manufacturers. 6urthermore, it offers an easy method to set suspension geometry.

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A!vantages an! Disa!vantages 'lthough it is a popular choice due to its simplicity and low manufacturing cost, the design has a few disadvantages, with regards to the &uality of ride it provides and how it affects the handling of the car. <eometric analysis shows it cannot allow vertical movement of the wheel without some degree of either camber angle change, sideways movement, or both. It is not generally considered to give as good handling as a double wishbone suspension, because it allows the engineers less freedom to choose camber change and roll center. 'nother drawback is that it tends to transmit noise and vibration from the road directly into the body shell, giving higher noise levels and a 5harsh5 feeling to the ride compared with double wishbones, re&uiring manufacturers to add e$tra noise reduction or cancellation and isolation mechanisms. 'lso, because of its greater si(e and robustness and greater degree of attachment to the vehicle structure, when the internal seals of the shock absorber portion wear out replacement is e$pensive compared to replacing a simple shock absorber. 8espite these drawbacks, the 0acPherson strut setup is still used on high performance cars such as the Porsche A>>, all current /01s (including the new 0ini) e$cept the BCC2 G-, BCCA 2-series, BC>C --series and --series <T, the 'lfa .omeo 0ito and BC>C <iulietta, and several 0ercedes-/en( models.

Do%b#e /ishbo!e s%spe!sio!

In automobiles, a 1o%b#e /ishbo!e (or %pper a!1 #o/er A(ar*) s%spe!sio! is an independent suspension design using two (occasionally parallel) wishboneshaped arms to locate the wheel. 3ach wishbone or arm has two mounting points to the chassis and one 9oint at the knuckle. The shock absorber and coil spring

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mount to the wishbones to control vertical movement. 8ouble wishbone designs allow the engineer to carefully control the motion of the wheel throughout suspension travel, controlling such parameters as camber angle, caster angle, toe pattern, roll center height, scrub radius, scuff and more.

*mplementation

58 The double wishbone suspension can also be referred to as double "'" arms, and short long arm (!%') suspension if the upper and lower arms are of une&ual length. ' single wishbone or '-arm can also be used in various other suspension types, such as 0acPherson strut and ;hapman strut. The upper arm is usually shorter to induce negative camber as the suspension 9ounces (rises). 1hen the vehicle is in a turn, body roll results in positive camber gain on the inside wheel. The outside wheel also 9ounces and gains negative camber due to the shorter upper arm. The suspension designer attempts to balance these two effects to cancel out and keep the tire perpendicular to the ground. This is especially important for the outer tire because of the weight transfer to this tire during a turn. /etween the outboard end of the arms is a knuckle with a spindle (the kingpin), hub, or upright which carries the wheel bearing and wheel. Hnuckles with an integral spindle usually do not allow the wheel to be driven. ' bolt on hub design is commonly used if the wheel is to be driven. In order to resist fore-aft loads such as acceleration and braking, the arms need two bushings or ball 9oints at the body. 't the knuckle end, single ball 9oints are typically used, in which case the steering loads have to be taken via a steering arm, and the wishbones look '- or %shaped. 'n %-shaped arm is generally preferred on passenger vehicles because it allows a better compromise of handling and comfort to be tuned in. The bushing in line with the wheel can be kept relatively stiff to effectively handle cornering loads while the off-line 9oint can be softer to allow the wheel to recess under fore aft impact loads. 6or a rear suspension, a pair of 9oints can be used at both ends of the arm, making them more :-shaped in plan view. 'lternatively, a fi$ed-length driveshaft can perform the function of a wishbone as long as the shape of the other wishbone provides control of the upright. This arrangement has been successfully used in the Daguar I.!. In elevation view, the suspension is a ,-bar link, and it is easy to work out the camber gain (see camber angle) and other parameters for a given set of bushing or ball 9oint locations. The various bushings or ball 9oints do not have to be on hori(ontal a$es, parallel to the vehicle

59 centre line. If they are set at an angle, then antidive and antis&uat can be dialed in. A!vantages + Disa!vantages The advantage of a double wishbone suspension is that it is fairly easy to work out the effect of moving each 9oint, so you can tune the kinematics of the suspension easily and optimi(e wheel motion. It is also easy to work out the loads that different parts will be sub9ected to which allows more optimi(ed lightweight parts to be designed. They also provide increasing negative camber gain all the way to full 9ounce travel unlike the 0acPherson strut which provides negative camber gain only at the beginning of 9ounce travel and then reverses into positive camber gain at high 9ounce amounts. The disadvantage is that it is slightly more comple$ than other systems like a 0acPherson strut. 8ue to the increased number of components within the suspension setup it takes much longer to service and is heavier than an e&uivalent 0acPherson design. ,ses The double wishbone suspension was introduced in >AI- by Packard 0otor ;ar ;ompany of 8etroit, 0ichigan on the Packard #ne-Twenty, and advertised as a safety feature. Prior to the dominance of front wheel drive in the >AJCs, many everyday cars used double wishbone front-suspension systems, or a variation on it. !ince that time, the 0acPherson strut has become almost ubi&uitous, as it is simpler and cheaper to manufacture. In most cases, a 0acPherson strut re&uires less space to engineer into a chassis design, and in front-wheel-drive layouts, can allow for more room in the engine bay. ' good e$ample of this is observed in the :onda ;ivic, which changed its front-suspension design from a double wishbone design to a 0acPherson strut design after the year BCCC model. 8ouble wishbones are usually considered to have superior dynamic

characteristics as well as load-handling capabilities, and are still found on higher performance vehicles. 3$amples of makes in which double wishbones can be

5: found include 'lfa .omeo, :onda and 0ercedes-/en(. !hort long arms suspension, a type of double wishbone suspension, is very common on front suspensions for medium-to-large cars such as the :onda 'ccord, Peugeot ,C2, or 0a(da K 'ten(a, and is very common on sports cars and racing cars.

Torsio! bar s%spe!sio!

' orsio! bar s%spe!sio!, also known as a torsion spring suspension and incorrectly as a orsio! bea*, is a general term for any vehicle suspension that uses a torsion bar as its main weight bearing spring. #ne end of a long metal bar is attached firmly to the vehicle chassisF the opposite end terminates in a lever, mounted perpendicular to the bar, that is attached to a suspension arm, spindle or the a$le. 4ertical motion of the wheel causes the bar to twist around its a$is and is resisted by the bar"s torsion resistance. The effective spring rate of the bar is determined by its length, cross section, shape and material.

,sage

5; Torsion bar suspensions are currently used on armoured fighting vehicles or tanks like the T-2B (0any tanks later in 1orld 1ar II used this suspension), trucks and !*4s from 6ord, 8odge, <0, 0itsubishi, 0a(da, =issan and Toyota. 0anufacturers change the torsion bar or key to ad9ust the ride height, usually to compensate for heavier or lighter engine packages. 1hile the ride height may be ad9usted by turning the ad9uster bolts on the stock torsion key, rotating the stock keys too far can bend the ad9usting bolt and (more importantly) place the shock piston outside the standard travel. #ver-rotating the torsion bars can also cause the suspension to hit the bump stop prematurely, causing a harsh ride. 'ftermarket forged torsion key kits use reclocked ad9uster keys to prevent overrotation, as well as shock brackets that keep the piston travel in the stock position.

A!vantages an! !isa!vantages The main advantages of torsion bar suspension are durability, easy ad9ustability of ride height, and small profile along the width of the vehicle. It takes up less of the vehicle"s interior volume compared to coil springs. ' disadvantage is that torsion bars, unlike coil springs, usually cannot provide a progressive

5<

!pring rate. In most torsion bar systems, ride height (and therefore many handling features) may be changed by simply ad9usting bolts that connect the torsion bars to the steering knuckles. In most cars with this type of suspension, swapping torsion bars for a different spring rate is usually an easy task. $eveling !ome vehicles use torsion bars to provide automatic levelling, using a motor to tighten the bars to provide greater resistance to load and, in some cases (depending on the speed with which the motors can act), to respond to changes in road conditions. :eight ad9ustable suspension has been used to implement a wheel-change mode where the vehicle is raised on three wheels and the remaining wheel is lifted off the ground without the aid of a 9ack. &istor" /efore 1orld 1ar II, the front wheel drive ;itroen Traction 'vant (>AI,) had independent front torsion bar suspension and a fle$ible trailing dead a$le, also sprung by torsion bars. The fle$ibility of the a$le beam providing wheel location features like a twist beam a$le. The ;(echoslovakian Tatra cars designed by Professor :ans %edwinka in the mid->AICs used all round independent torsion bar suspension, along with air cooled rear engines. 'lso in the >AICs, prototypes of the first 4olkswagen /eetle incorporated torsion bars)especially its transverse mounting style. %edwinka"s concept had been copied by 6erdinand

5= Porsche, whose successors later had to acknowledge the influence of %edwinka"s sophisticated Tatra models on the Porsche-designed Hdf-1agen of >AIJ (later renamed the 41 /eetle), a post-war lawsuit resulting in a 80I,CCC,CCC settlement paid by 4olkswagen to .inghoffer-Tatra in >AK>. The system was applied to many new armored fighting vehicle designs during the !econd 1orld 1ar. It was used e$tensively in 3uropean cars .enault, ;itroLn and 4olkswagen, as well as by Packard in the >A-Cs. The Packard used torsion bars at both front and rear, and interconnected the front and rear systems to improve ride &uality. The then revolutionary Daguar 3-Type introduced in >AK> had a uni&ue torsion bar front suspension and an independent coil spring rear suspension using four shock absorbers with concentric springs. The most famous 'merican passenger car application was the ;hrysler system used beginning with the >A-2 model year, although ;hrysler"s 5Torsion-'ire5 suspension was only for the frontF the same basic system (longitudinal mounting) was maintained until the >AJ> introduction of the H-car. ' reengineered torsion bar suspension, introduced with the >A2K 8odge 'spen, introduced transversemounted torsion bars (possibly based on the 4olkswagen Type I passenger car) until production ended in >AJA (with ;hrysler"s 0 platform). %ight duty 8odge trucks however continue to use torsion bars on their front suspension. <eneral 0otors has used torsion bars since >AKK, starting with the 3-platform vehicles (#ldsmobile Toronado, ;adillac 3ldorado), , wheel drive !->C pickups M 'stro vans, and since >AJJ, full si(e trucks (<0T,CC, <0TJCC, and <0TACC series). Porsche used torsion bar suspension for their A>> series from >AKI until >AJA with the introduction of the AK,. -ariations !ome front-wheel drive automobiles use a related type of torsion beam suspension, usually called a twist beam rear suspension, in which the rear wheels are carried on trailing arms connected by a laterally mounted torsion

8( beam. The torsion beam functions both as wheel locating arm and as an anti-roll bar to resist lateral motion of the wheels as the body leans in turns. Its advantages are that it is ine$pensive to manufacture and install, and engages a minimum amount of interior volume, leaving more space for the carriage of passengers, cargo, and other components. /ecause the torsion beam acts in the lateral plane, not vertically, the twist beam a$le cannot provide ride height ad9ustment, and it suffers, to some e$tent, similar car handling limitations as other beam a$le suspensions. :owever these limitations may not be apparent on the road, because of the trend towards firmer, more sporty suspension setups with more limited wheel travel. Twist-beam rear suspensions were pioneered on the 4olkswagen <olf in the early >A2Cs, and remain common on compact cars and minivans. Other uses Torsion bars were sometimes used instead of conventional coil valve springs in some older motorcycles, such as the :onda ;/,-C. They were also used in the door mechanism of the 8e%orean 80;->B automobile.

Ma0!e ic Se*i ac i)e S%spe!sio! s&s e*

81 It adapts the damping characteristic to the profile of the road and the driver"s gear-shifting habits within 9ust a few milliseconds. This is used in 'udi TT. The shock absorber pistons on the 'udi TT do not contain conventional oil, but a magneto-rheological fluid N a synthetic hydrocarbon oil in which microscopically small magnetic particles measuring between three and ten microns are enclosed. 1hen a voltage is applied to a coil N by means of a pulse delivered by a control unit N a magnetic field is created in which the alignment of the particles changes. They position themselves transversely to the direction of flow of the oil, and so inhibit its flow through the piston channels. This alters the characteristic of the damping characteristic much faster than is the case in conventional adaptive dampers.

This magnetic ride provides the right degree of damping force at each individual wheel in every situation. The control unit, supplied by comple$ sensing technology, constantly analyses the situation. !tarting from the 5=ormal5 setting, the driver can also activate the 5!port5 mode via a button on the center console. These two programs establish clearly distinctive characteristics. In the basic mode N when the oil is more viscous and the degree of damping less pronounced N the TT rolls surprisingly smoothlyF this is ideal for long-distance driving or uneven road surfaces. In the !port mode, by contrast N when the oil is less viscous N it reveals an e$tremely dynamic character that is manifested by a resolutely firm grip of the road surface. .olling movements are suppressed from the very moment the steering is turned even more effectively than in the basic suspension setting, and the steering response is further improved. The selfsteering behaviour is further optimised by the specific stabilisation provided for each individual wheel, resulting in a driving feel reminiscent of a go-kart. This 0agnetic .ide is based on a magneto-rheological principle. 1hen in a magnetic field, small iron particles in the suspension fluid align themselves in the direction of the magnetic flu$. The electromagnetic coil is integrated into the damper piston in such a way that when it is energi(ed the magnetic flu$ runs

8' e$actly transversely to the admission ports in the damper piston. If the piston moves, the aligned iron particles create flow resistance in the flowing suspension fluid. The greater the energy applied and the stronger the magnetic field, the greater the resistance and damping power. The energy is controlled in relation to driving dynamics and impulses from the road. This means for every road situation optimal damping power is available. This damping power produces N according to #30 desire N a more comfortable feel or sportier vehicle handling. 'udi uses the magneto-rheological dampers for both N comfort and sport. In its basic mode, the suspension allows for a more comfortable vehicle feel. In sports mode, the vehicle offers a sportier ride, thanks to a push of a button. /ecause of the lower level of damping force in basic mode, the total path of the springs is fully utili(ed. This assures top comfort over long distances and when driving over uneven surfaces. The greater damping of the sports mode results in tighter, sportier handling along with better control in the threshold. It also optimally suppresses the rolling tendency of the carOs body in corners. !ince no mechanical parts must be moved, this technology responds e$tremely spontaneously. The damping force is only dependent on the power applied to the magneto-rheological fluid and can be ad9usted up to >,CCC times a second. Thanks to the variable control of the power, the damping force can also be set infinitely. This means the magneto-rheological dampers respond almost in real time with great sensitivity to impulses from the road. The control system loop with !kyhook algorithms ensures the greatest possible road-to-wheel contact in the case of uneven road surfaces with the least impulses to the car body. This means the 'udi TT with 0agnetic .ide has the greatest possible driving dynamics and allows for comfort. 0agneto-rheological monotube damper re&uires roughly the same space re&uirements as conventional dampers or struts. If re&uired, it supplies the

85 complete semi-active system with dampers and struts including the sensors and the control unit. 6or 'udi, the low energy re&uirements of the system are another benefit. #n average, a damper re&uires 9ust - watts of electrical capacity (B- watts at a ma$imum).