2/16/2014 CAE 334/502 - Week 2 1

CAE 334/502 Lecture 2a

Phasors, Acoustic Velocity, Impedance,
Power, Intensity and Sound Levels
Objectives
Understand the basic concept of a phasor
Understand the difference between acoustic
velocity and speed of sound
Understand the concept of acoustic
impedance
Understand the concepts of acoustic power
and intensity
Understand basics of sound levels
2/16/2014 CAE 334/502 - Week 2 2
The course so far
Last time in CAE 334/502

Sound is a wave characterized by
Frequency f, wavelength , and speed of sound c
c = f
Also characterized by e=2t f and k= 2t/

A pure tone, plane wave can be written as
2/16/2014 CAE 334/502 - Week 2 3
( ) ( ) ( )
( , ) sin 2 / sin p x t A f x c t A kx t t | e | = + = +

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Phasors
The text introduces and briefly discusses the
concept of phasors to describe waves and
simple harmonic motion
Phasors are indeed quite powerful and a standard
method of math notation used throughout physics
and engineering. They are used extensively for
describing waves or really any quantity that
undergoes time harmonic variation
You may have seen this in Phys 221 or 224 and
will have seen it in CAE 383 if you have taken it.
Luckily, if your math skills are a bit lacking in
complex numbers, we dont use them much and
full understanding is not essential
2/16/2014 CAE 334/502 - Week 2 6
Phasor Basics
Idea: Represent sinusoidal motion as a
component of circular motion and circular motion
as a rotating vector described by a complex
number
Key math relation: Eulers Equation


Then we could write a complex pressure




( ) ( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
where -1 cos sin

= so

cos Re{ }

sin Im{ }
j
j t kx j j t kx
j e j
p Ae Ae e
A t kx p
A t kx p
u
e u u e
u u
e u
e u
+
= = +
=
+ =
+ =
Phasors as Projections
A cosine wave is a horizontal projection of a
rotating phasor (i.e. the real part)
A sine wave is the vertical projection (i.e. the
imaginary part, as seen below)
2/16/2014 CAE 334/502 - Week 2 7
Leading and Lagging
We may use the terms leading and lagging to
describe a phase shift.
In the animation, the blue vector is leading the red
vector (+|) (or, alternately, the red vector is lagging
the blue vector)
Notice the fixed angle between the red and blue
vectors that angle is the phase difference
2/16/2014 CAE 334/502 - Week 2 8
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Why Phasors?
So why would I want to take nice simple real
numbers and make them complex? Because it
can actually simplifiy the math
Consider Integration and Differentiation



multiplying by jk and dividing by je are much
easier than converting sines to cosines and
vice-versa and trying to remember your +/-s
which is what you need to do with trig functions
( ) ( )

d 1

j t kx j t kx
p
jkAe pdt Ae
dx j
e u e u
e
+ +
= =
}
Acoustic Particle Velocity: u
The speed of sound c tells us how fast the
wave propagates
c is a medium property that depends on density
and pressure

There is another velocity, u, which is the
acoustic particle velocity
u is the speed of the air molecules moving back
and forth
u varies sinusoidally at the same frequency as
pressure (amplitude and phase differ)
The amplitude of u is related to amplitude of p
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Why u is important
u is important because u is continuous at the
interface at the interface between materials
If a fluid is in contact with a moving surface, the
fluid molecules must be at the same velocity as
the moving surface or a vacuum is created
Recall that frequency of wave is the frequency of the
generating vibration, i.e. frequency of surface velocity

What this means is that a velocity is imposed on
the gas by a moving boundary.

Luckily, there is a simple relation between pressure and
particle velocity for pure tones the impedance
2/16/2014 CAE 334/502 - Week 2 12
Specific Acoustic Impedance
Another important property of a medium is the idea of
impedance. Impedance is a measure of resistance to
motion of the medium.
The specific acoustic impedance, z, is the ratio of
sound pressure, p, to particle velocity, u,



For a plane wave in a fluid, z=
0
c where
0
is density.
This is a medium dependent constant and called the
characteristic impedance


3
[Pa s/m=N s/m =mks rayls]
p
z
u
=
0
412 = rayls for air at room temp
p
z c
u
= ~
Example 2.1
The RMS sound pressure at the surface of a
panel of large tractor in the middle of a field is
measured as 10 Pa.

What is the RMS surface velocity of the
tractor?

Assume plane waves are leaving tractor
panel and T = 20 C.

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Example 2.1
The RMS sound pressure at the surface of a panel of
tractor in the middle of a field is measured as 10 Pa.
What is the RMS surface velocity of the tractor?

In the middle of a field there are no walls so
there are only waves leaving the tractor.
The waves are traveling in air at 20 C so

2/16/2014 CAE 334/502 - Week 2 14
0 0
1.2 , 343 412
10
0.24 24
412
rms
rms
c z c
p
u
z

= = = =
= = = =
3
kg
Pa s m
s m
m
m mm
s s
Pa s
m

Pa
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So, why do we care about z?
1. It is a relation between u and p
If we find one we can find the other
2. Acousic energy is always reflected at a
change in z
We can cause sound reflection with changes in z
which means
We can significantly reduce sound transmission
either with very large changes in z (high mass
walls) or by constructing a partition with many
layers since each layer reflects some energy
(multi-layered walls)
2/16/2014 CAE 334/502 - Week 2 16
Acoustic Power
Acoustic Power (W) [watts=W]
It is the time rate of acoustic energy flow i.e. the
power required to get medium moving
It is a property of vibrating object has nothing to
do with room or observers distance from object
Think of it is analagous to the power rating of a 60W
lightbulb. It draws 60W regardless of the room but light
level depends upon the location and room reflectance
Typical sound powers of objects ranges from nW
(pin drop) to MW (rocket launch)
A typical voice in conversation has W~ 10 W
A loud stereo has W~ 100 mW
A loud car horn has W~ 1 W

2/16/2014 CAE 334/502 - Week 2 17
Acoustic Intensity
Acoustic Intensity (I) [W/m
2
]
Acoustic intensity is the acoustic power flow through a unit
area and is found from the average product of p and u





Acoustic intensity is dependent upon the source
directivity, source location, and room properties

Typical sound intensities range from nW/m
2
(pin drop @
1m) to MW/m
2
(rocket launch near platform)
For a plane wave we would find that

{ }
*
0
1 1

Re
2
means complex conjugate
T
I pu dt pu
T

-
= =
}
2
2
0
0
rms
rms rms rms
p
I p u cu
c

= = =
2/16/2014 CAE 334/502 - Week 2 18
Power Intensity relation
Since intensity is a power per unit area, we can find
the sound power of an object by integrating the
intensity on any surface surrounding the object



If we can measure average I
i
on each patch of a
surface of N patches surrounding a source we can
estimate W as
( )
S
W I S dS =
}}
1
N
i i
i
W I S
=
~

Powers and Intensities Add

For incoherent sources, powers and
intensities add (RMS pressures do NOT)

W
tot
= W
1
+ W
2
I
tot
= I
1
+ I
2

2/16/2014 CAE 334/502 - Week 2 19
W = 0.1 W
W = 30.1=0.3 W
Example 2.2
The tractor panel of Example 2.1 is 2 m x 1 m
in size. How much acoustic power is radiated
by the panel?


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Example 2.2
The tractor of Example 2.1 has a panel that is
2 m x 1 m in size. How much acoustic power
is radiated by the panel?


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10 0.024 0.24
(2 1) 0.24 0.48
2
W
m
W
rms rms
I u p
W S I
= = =
= = =

2/16/2014 CAE 334/502 - Week 2 22
Range of Sound Pressures

Sound
Pressure
(Pa)
Threshold of Hearing 0.00002
Quiet Studio 0.0002
Quiet Classroom 0.002
Conversation 0.02
Raised Voice 0.2
Jackhammer 2.0
Threshold of Pain 20
Instant Damage 200
Notice the huge
range of magnitudes
of sound pressures

Notice how the
gradation level
follows a power of
10 increase
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Linear vs Log Plots
Notice how the
linear scale is too
scrunched for useful
analysis of levels

The logarithmic
scale naturally
separates orders of
magnitude
2/16/2014 CAE 334/502 - Week 2 24
Instant Damage
Threshold of Pain
Jackhammer
Raised Voice
Conversation
Quiet Classroom
Quiet Studio
Threshold of Hearing
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
p
a
s
c
a
l
s

(
P
a
)
0.00001
0.0001
0.001
0.01
0.1
1
10
100
1000
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Decibels or dB
Because of the huge range of p, I, and W and the fact
that our ear is non-linear we need a different way to
represent p, I, and W
The decibel scale can compare powers of vastly
different orders of magnitude using logarithms
difference in dB of two powers= 10*log
10
(W
1
/ W
2
)
Or
Power Level in dB = 10*log
10
(W/W
reference
)

Note: the dB has no units (units cancel in the ratio)
you must pay attention to what you are dividing
Note for dB the log is base 10
When working with sound levels and decibels
(or dB) you often have to work with logs and
anti-logs.

Make sure you are working in base 10 and not
base e (i.e. natural log or ln). This is particularly
important when working with things like MATLAB
or Mathematica

Were going to drop the 10 in the log notation.
If we need natural log Ill use ln instead of log


2/16/2014 CAE 334/502 - Week 2 26
Some Simple Log Math
2/16/2014 CAE 334/502 - Week 2 27
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
20
10
10
log 10
20log 10
log log log
log / log log
y
y
y x x
y x x
y ax y a x
y a x y a x
= =
= =
= = +
= =
If then
If then
If then
If then
Sound Power Level, L
W
For sound power we choose a reference level that
is a nice power of 10 and is about the power
required for an object placed near outer ear to just
be audible, 1 pW


We we will use 1 pW=10
-12
W for W
ref
so then


Sound Power Level, L
W
(called PWL some books)

L
W
= 10 log
10
(W/10
-12
) [dB]
L
W
= 10 log
10
(W) + 120 [dB]


2/16/2014 CAE 334/502 - Week 2 28
Sound Intensity Level, L
I
Since 1 pW is the reference for sound power and
intensity is power for per unit area, well set the
intensity reference to I
ref
= 1 pW/m
2


Sound Intensity Level, L
I
(called IL in some books)

L
I
= 10 log
10
(I/10
-12
) [dB]
L
I
= 10 log
10
(I) + 120 [dB]

2/16/2014 CAE 334/502 - Week 2 29
Sound Pressure Level, L
p
Sound power is proportional to p
2
rms
not p
rms

so we compute the sound pressure level as
10log
10
(p
2
rms
/p
2
ref
)= 20log
10
(p
rms
/p
ref
)

We choose the reference level as 2x10
-5
Pa
since that is the about threshold of hearing.

2/16/2014 CAE 334/502 - Week 2 30
( )
( )
2
10
2
5
10 10
5
10log
2 10
20log 20log 94
2 10
rms
p
rms
p rms
p
L
p
L p

| |
|
=
|

\ .
| |
= = +
|

\ .
[dB]
Decibel vs Log vs Linear Scales
Notice how the
decibel scale
spreads levels
nicely like logs
but also gives
us values that
are easier to
remember
2/16/2014 CAE 334/502 - Week 2 31
Instant Damage
Threshold of Pain
Jackhammer
Raised Voice
Conversation
Quiet Classroom
Quiet Studio
Threshold of Hearing
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
p
a
s
c
a
l
s

(
P
a
)
0.00001
0.0001
0.001
0.01
0.1
1
10
100
1000
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
Decibels (dB)
Linear Log Decibel
Sound Pressure Level Notation
Notice that I have been writing L
p
, L
I
, L
W
for
sound pressure, intensity and power level.
Your textbook uses this notation as well.
This is the proper notation as defined by ASTM
E634-09 and ANSI S1.1 and ANSI S1.13

Note: Many, many, many older textbooks use
the terms SPL, PWL, IL instead.
These are not the proper notation according to the
standards so I discourage you from using them.

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Typical Sound Levels
Sound Pressure Level
dB
Sound Power Level
Rocket Launch at Pad
Head trauma
180
Saturn V Rocket
Jet Engine on Runway
Nearly instant deafness
140
Jet Engine
Rock Concert Peak
Threshold of Pain
130
Orchestra at Peak
Jack Hammer @ 2m
100
Typical Home Stereo
Vacuum Cleaner @ 1 m
80
Raised Voice
Conversation @ 1 m
60
Typical Voice
Background a Library
40
Ticking Watch
Background Level of
Recording Studio
20
Pin Drop
Threshold of Hearing
0
Power at outer ear for
Lp=0 dB at eardrum
Converting Back
We often need to convert back from levels to
rms pressures, intensities, or powers.
2/16/2014 CAE 334/502 - Week 2 34
( )
( )
( )
0.1 120
12
10
0.1 120
12
10
0.05 94
5
20
10 10 10
10 10 10
2 10 10 10
W
W
I
I
p
p
L
L
L
L
L
L
rms
W
I
p

= =
= =
= =
2/16/2014 CAE 334/502 - Week 2 35
Relations between Sound Levels

Since I=p
2
/
0
c we can relate L
p
and L
I
in a
plane wave as
L
p
= L
I
+ 10log(
0
c / 400)
and, since
0
c ~ 400, L
p
~ L
I


If L
I
is constant on a surface of area S that
surrounds an object then I is constant and
since I=W/S and L
I
and L
W
are related as
L
I
= L
W
-10log(S)

Sound Level Units
All sound levels have the units of decibels
(dB) so you must be careful about checking
what kind of level is being presented.

Sound power levels are occasionally reported
in bels (B). If you see a sound level listed as
5.2 B then you have 52 dB and its probably a
sound power level.
2/16/2014 CAE 334/502 - Week 2 36
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Accuracy of Sound Levels
Since you need to use your calculators or computer in
evaluating and working with sound levels, you may be
lazy with significant figures and accuracy

Most inexpensive sound level meters are accurate to no more than
1.5 dB, Expensive sound level meters are only accurate to 0.5 dB

Humans cannot notice differences of much less than about 1 dB at
most frequencies

As a result, you should NEVER report a level to an
accuracy of more than 0.1 dB (i.e. you can write 95 dB or
95.2 dB but never 95.21 dB)
I will take points off on your homework or exam if you give results with
too many significant digits. Really.


Sound Level Apps
There are a number of sound level apps out
for the Iphone, Ipod touch, Ipad and android
phones.
These work surprisingly well but the accuracy
is usually much worse than 1.5 dB
Most are probably more like 4dB
The most complete are probably these
SPL Meter from Studio Six Digital $8.99
SoundMeter from Faber Acoustical $19.99
2/16/2014 CAE 334/502 - Week 2 38
Sound Level Summary
Sound Pressure Level
Reference value is p
ref
=20 Pa
L
p
= 20 log(p
rms
) + 94 dB
Sound Intensity Level
Reference value is I
ref
=1 pW/m
2
L
I
= 10 log(I
rms
) + 120 dB
Sound Power Level
Reference value is W
ref
=1 pW

L
W
= 10 log(W
rms
) + 120 dB

2/16/2014 CAE 334/502 - Week 2 39
Example 2.3
What is the sound pressure level if the
measured RMS pressure is p
rms
= 10 Pa?
2/16/2014 CAE 334/502 - Week 2 40
Example 2.3
What is the sound pressure level if the
measured RMS pressure is p
rms
= 10 Pa?
2/16/2014 CAE 334/502 - Week 2 41
( ) ( )
2 12
10 10 10
2 2 2
5 5
12
10
10 10
100 10
10log 10log 10log
2
2 10 2 10
10log 0.25 10 114
20log 94 20log 10 94 20 1 94 114
Pa
Pa Pa
dB
Alternatively
dB
rms
p
p rms
p
L
L p

= = =

= =
= + = + = + =
Example 2.3
What is the RMS pressure if the measured
sound pressure level is L
p
=100 dB?
2/16/2014 CAE 334/502 - Week 2 42
Example 2.2
What is the RMS pressure if the measured
sound pressure level is L
p
=100 dB?
2/16/2014 CAE 334/502 - Week 2 43
10
10
10
0.3
100 20log 94
20log 6
log 0.3
10 1.995 2
dB

Pa Pa
p rms
rms
rms
rms
L p
p
p
p
= = +
=
=
= = ~
2/16/2014 CAE 334/502 - Week 2 44
Combining Sound Levels
Recall that for incoherent sources acoustic
powers and intensities (and hence p
2
) add
pressures and sound levels do not add
In general, for N different sources



For N identical sources






( )
1
0.1
1
0.1
1
10log 10
10log 10 10log( )
i
N
L
Total
i
L
Total
L
L N L N
=
| |
=
|
\ .
= = +

Decibel Addition
The chart at right
can be used for
adding two sources
quickly
Here is how you can remember that dB of
sources do not add directly: Two people
talking at 70 dB is not as loud as being 50 ft
away from jet takeoff (140 dB), so we cannot
just add the two 70 dBs

2/16/2014 CAE 334/502 - Week 2 45
Amplification and Attenuation
While we never add the L
p
of two sources
directly, we may need to add a change in
sound level, AL
p
to and from sources.
A positive AL
p
indicates an increase or
amplification of sound pressure
A negative AL
p
indicates a decrease or attenuation
of sound pressure.
Later this class we will spend much time
learning about how to estimate AL
p
to account
for various attenuations to sound waves
L
p2
= L
p1
+AL
p



2/16/2014 CAE 334/502 - Week 2 46
Example 2.4
The sound pressure level at the wall of a
mechanical room is 75 dB. If the wall
provides 20 dB of attenuation, what is the
sound level in the office on the other side of
the wall?
2/16/2014 CAE 334/502 - Week 2 47
Example 2.4
The sound pressure level at the wall of a
mechanical room is 75 dB. If the wall
provides 20 dB of attenuation, what is the
sound level in the office on the other side of
the wall?

L
p2
= 75 20 = 55 dB

2/16/2014 CAE 334/502 - Week 2 48
Example 2.5
A factory has five machines all equidistant
from a worker. By themselves they produce
sound levels of 78, 82, 85, 82, and 83 dB.
What sound level will they produce if all are
turned on at once?
2/16/2014 CAE 334/502 - Week 2 49
Example 2.5
A factory has five machines all equidistant
from a worker. By themselves they produce
Lp of 78, 82, 85, 82, and 83 dB at the worker.
What Lp will they produce at the worker if all
are turned on at once?
2/16/2014 CAE 334/502 - Week 2 50
( )
0.1
,
1
7.8 8.2 8.5 8.2 8.3
6
10log 10
10log 10 10 10 10 10
10log(8.958 10 ) 89.5
i
N
L
I I Total
i
Lp L L
Lp
Lp
=
| |
~ =
|
\ .
~ + + + +
~ =

and
dB